EFFECT OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES ON DESIGN Factors affecting the behavior of materials in components

Component design :
Function, Material properties Manufacturing processes.

Behavior of component material :

Properties of stock material Geometry & external forces Effect of fabrication method.

FUNCTION & REQUIREMENTS

COMPONENT DESIGN
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Factors that should be consider in component design

PROPERTIES OF STOCK MATERIAL

BEHAVIOR OF MATERIAL IN THE COMPONENT

GEOMETRY & EXTERNAL FORCES

EFFECT OF FABRICATION METHOD

Factors that should be considered in anticipating the behavior of material in the component.

Statistical variation of material properties

In practice, material properties are seldom homogenous, as they are sensitive to variations in parameter such as :
Composition, heat treatment & processing condition.

Others that influence material behavior

Surface roughness, internal stress, sharp corners and stress raiser.

Variation in material properties can be solved by choosing factor of safety.

Factor of safety accommodates unknown influences that affect the life of component under service condition.

Statistical variation of material properties

Material properties can be statistically described by mean value, standard derivation and coefficient of variation.

Experiment data obtained from large number of samples, material properties follow a normal distribution.
It is possible to estimate statistical data from nonstatistical sources that give range or tolerance limits. In this case the standard deviation S is approx. given by : S = (max. value of property min. value)/6 ( 1.1 )

Statistical variation of material properties

Example
If the range of strength of an alloy is given as 800 1200 MPa, and the mean value can be taken as 1000 MPa The standard deviation S can be estimate as S = ( 1200 800 )/6 = 66.67 MPa The coefficient of variation v is then v = 66.67/1000 = 0.0667 If sample is about 25 test eq. 1.1 is to divide by 4

A sample of about 5 to divide by 2

Stress Concentration
In almost engineering components and machine have to incorporate design features which introduce changes in thin cross-section. Changes in cross section causes localized stress concentrations and severity depends on the geometry of the discontinuity and nature of the material. Stress concentration factor,

Kt = Smax/Sav
Smax, maximum stress at discontinuity and Sav, nominal stress. Kt, value depends only on geometry of the part. Applies to brittle & notch sensitive materials. Should consider when using high-strength, low ductility, case-hardened & / or heavily cold work materials.

Stress Concentration
Stress concentration in fatigue. Kf, fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf = endurance limit of notch free endurance limit of notched part Notch sensitivity factor, q = Kf - 1 Kt - 1 Generally , q 1 as material strength increases and sensitive to notches. Kf = Kt q also depend on component size. Stress-raiser, dangerous in larger masses.

Stress Concentration
Guidelines for design.
Abrupt changes in cross-section should be avoided. Fillet radii or stress-relieving groove should be provided. Fig. 11.3(d) Slot and grooves should be provided with generous run-out radii and with fillet radii in all corners. Fig. 11.3(b) Stress relieving grooves or undercut should be provided at the end of threads and splines. Fig. 11.3(c) Sharp internal corners and external edges should be avoided Weakening features like bolt and oil holes, identification marks, and part number should not be located in highly stressed areas. Weakening features should be staggered to avoid the addition of their stress concentration effects, Fig. 11.3(d)

DESIGN ASPECT Loading Condition Static loading load is applied gradually and remains applied throughout parts life. Repeated loading applied and removed several times (repetitive) during life. Fail by fatigue at stress lower than yield strength. Higher design factor is needed. Impact require large design factor. (i) sudden load causes stresses much higher than computed. (ii) require part to absorb energy of the impact. Static loading but at high T consider creep, microstructural changes, oxidation & corrosion & influence of method of fabrication on creep.

Designing For Static Strength Static strength

Ability to resist short-term steady load at moderate T. Measured in terms as yield strength, UTS, compressive strength & hardness. Aimed at avoiding yielding of the component and / or fracture. Component must be strong enough to support the load & may require stiffness to ensure deflections do not exceed certain limits. Stiffness , important to avoid misalignment and maintain dimensional accuracy. Elasticity (Youngs M) important when designing struts, columns & thin-walled cylinders subjected to compressive axial loading where failure can take place by buckling.

Designing for simple axial loading

Component and structure made from ductile material are usually designed, so that no yield take place under static loading condition But, when the component is subjected to uniaxial stress, yielding take place When local stress reaches the yield strength of the material Critical cross-sectional area, A ;

A = KtnsL YS
Kt = stress concentration factor L = applied load ns = factor of safety YS = yield strength

Designing for simple axial loading Factor of safety, ns.

Is applied in designing component to ensure it will satisfactory perform its intended function To get the strength of material at allowable stress.

The definition, strength of material depends on the type of material and loading condition The factor of safety, ns. n s = S / Sa
S = Nominal strength, Sa = Allowable strength / Design strength

It is important to define which type of service condition will the material work on before calculating the ns.
i. Normal working condition ii. Limit working condition

Designing for Static Strength

Brittle material such as gray cast iron do not exhibit yielding, so design based on ultimate strength. General - % of elongation in a 2-in gage length is less than 5% Brittle. e.g Al except for castings, all is ductile. Ductile material large plastic deformation, so unfit for intended use. Design based on yield strength. Design stress guidelines : Ductile material, d = Sy / 2 Brittle material, d = UTS / 6

Determine Dimensions & Shape of Component Given (1) Magnitude & type of loading & (2) material condition. Determine yield & ultimate strength & % elongation of material. Decide ductile or brittle. Specify design factor (factor of safety). Compute design stress. Write equation for expected max stress. For direct normal stress, max = F/A Set max = d & solve for required cross-sectional area. Determine minimum required dimension.

Contoh
Soalan : Satu struktur penyokong mesin akan dibebankan dengan beban tegangan statik 16kN. Dicadangkan, dihasilkan dalam bentuk rod empat segi daripada keluli gelek panas, AISI 1020. Berikan dimensi yang sesuai untuk keratan rentas rod tersebut.

Analisis : Objektif tentu dimensi keratan rentas rod. Diberi F = 16 kN = 16 000 N beban statik. Bahan AISI 1020 HR, Sy = 331 MPa, 36% elongation

Jawapan : Analisis Biar = d = Sy / 2 bahan mulur. Analisis tegasan = F/A, maka A diperlukan A = F / d Tetapi A = a2 (a = dimensi sisi square) Dimensi minimum yang dibenarkan a = A Maka Tegasan, d = Sy/2 = 331 MPa/2 = 165.5 MPa (N/mm2) Keratan rentas, A = F/ d = (16 000 N) = 96.7mm2 (165.5 N/mm2) Dimensi minimum a = A = 96.7 mm2 = 9.83 mm. Dimensi minimum a = 10 mm.

Designing for Torsional Loading

Torsional loading of a component / part that tends to cause it to rotate or twist. When torque is applied, shearing stress is developed & torsional deformation occurs, resulting in an angle of twist of one end of part relative to the other. Material must have sufficient rigidity for the part to perform properly in service. Torque = T = F x d where F = applied force & d = distance from action of force to axis of the part. Power = torque x rotational speed (n in rad/s). Torsional shear stress, max = Td / 2Ip where T = applied torque, d = diameter & Ip = polar moment of inertia of the cross section.

Designing for Torsional Loading

Critical cross sectional area can be calculated, for circular shaft, 2Ip = KtnsT

max

where Kt = stress concentration factor ns = factor of safety Moment, Ip = d4 / 32 for solid circular shaft & Ip = (d04 di4) / 32 for hollow circular shaft of inner di & outer d0. ASTME code of practice ; allowable value of shear stress of 0.3 yield or 0.18 UTS. For ductile material, design shear stress = yield / 2N (steady torsion, N = 2, so d = yield / 4)

Designing for Torsional Loading Torsional rigidity of component is usually measured by the angle of twist, , per unit length. For circular shaft, is given by, = T / GIp where G = modulus of elasticity in shear. G = E / (2(1 + )) where = Poissons ratio. Usual practice is limit the angular deflection in shafts to about 1 degree, i.e /180 rad, in length of 20 times the diameter. Stiffness of part differ depending on shape of the crosssection circular section has higher rigidity compared to other structural shapes, i.e I-beams,wide-flange beams

Designing for Bending Beam component that carries load transversely, that is, perpendicular to its long axis. Loading normal concentrated load, inclined concentrated load, uniformly distributed load, varying distributed load & concentrated moments. Moment an action that tends to cause rotation of an object. Can be produced by a pair of parallel forces acting in opposite directions, called couple. Beam types ; simple, overhanging, cantilever, compound & continuous. Bending moments internal moments cause bending.

Designing for Bending

Load

Overhanging bend downward, negative bending

M
Cantilever one fixed end, provide support & moment produced by load

Designing for Bending

F

F
Compound two or more parts extending in different directions.

Continuous extra support or both ends fixed, require different approaches to analyze forces & moments.

Designing for Bending

Relation between bending moment, max allowable stress & dimensions given by ;

Z=

n sM YS

where Z = section modulus = I/c c = distance from center of gravity of cross section to the outermost fiber/beam. I = moment of inertia of cross section with respect to neutral axis normal to direction of load. M = bending moment & YS = max allowable stress. ns = factor of safety.

Designing for Bending When load is placed on a beam, the beam is bent and every portion of it is moved in a direction parallel to the direction of the load. The distance that a point on the beam moves/ deflection depends i. Its position in the beam ii. Type of beam iii. Type of support

Example Question : Determine the diameter of a cantilever beam of length 1 m and rectangular cross section of depth-to-width ratio 2:1. The cantilever is expected not to deflect more than 50 mm for every 1000 N increment of load at its tip. The material used in making the beam is steel AISI 4340 with a yield strength of 1420 MPa and UTS 1800 MPa. What is the max permissible load ? Assume a suitable factor of safety.

Example Solution :
The deflection ( y ) is given by relationship : y = ( Ll3 ) / ( 3 EI ) where l = the length of cantilever E = elastic modulus of the cantilever material = 210 Gpa I = the second moment of area of the cross-section From fig 4.3 I = b x ( 2b )3 = 1000 x 1 x 1000 12 50 x 3 x 210 x 109 Where b is the width of the beam; b = 14.77 mm

Example

Taking a factor of safety n = 1.5 and using eq. Z = 2148 mm3 = ( nM ) / YS = ( 1.5 x L x l ) / 1420 The safe value of L = 2033 N