Basic Operating System Concepts

A Review

Main Goals of OS
1. Resource Management: Dis ! C"# cycles! etc. must $e manage% efficiently to ma&imi'e overall system performance (. Resource A$straction: Software interface to simplify use of )ar%ware resources *. +irtuali'ation: Supports resource s)aring , gives eac) process t)e appearance of an uns)are% resource

System Call
- An entry point to OS co%e - Allows users to re.uest OS services - A"/0s1li$rary functions usually provi%e an interface to system calls
, e.g! language2level /1O functions map user parameters into system2call format

- 3)us! t)e run2time support system of a prog. language acts as an interface $etween programmer an% OS interface

Some #4/5 System Calls

- System calls for low level file /1O
, , , , , , creat6name! permissions7 open6name! mo%e7 close6f%7 unlin 6f%7 rea%6f%! $uffer! n8to8rea%7 write6f%! $uffer! n8to8write7 , lsee 6f%! offest! w)ence7

- System Calls for process control

, for 67 , wait67 , e&ecl67! e&eclp67! e&ecv67! e&ecvp67 , e&it67 , signal6sig! )an%ler7 , ill6sig! pi%7

- System Calls for /"C

, pipe6fil%es7 , %up6f%7

9&ecution Mo%es 6Dual Mo%e 9&ecution7

- #ser mo%e vs. ernel 6or supervisor7 mo%e - "rotection mec)anism: critical operations 6e.g. %irect %evice access! %isa$ling interrupts7 can only $e performe% $y t)e OS w)ile e&ecuting in ernel mo%e - Mo%e $it - "rivilege% instructions

Mo%e Switc)ing
- System calls allow $oun%ary to $e crosse%
, System call initiates mode switch from user to ernel mo%e , Special instruction , :software interrupt; , calls t)e ernel function
- transfers control to a location in t)e interrupt vector

, OS e&ecutes ernel co%e! mo%e switc) occurs again w)en control returns to user process

"rocessing a System Call<

- Switc)ing $etween ernel an% user mo%e is time consuming - =ernel must
, Save registers so process can resume e&ecution
- Ot)er over)ea% is involve%> e.g. cac)e misses! ? prefetc)

, +erify system call name an% parameters , Call t)e ernel function to perform t)e service , On completion! restore registers an% return to caller

Review 3opics
"rocesses ?3)rea%s Sc)e%uling Sync)roni'ation Memory Management @ile an% /1O Management

Review of "rocesses
- "rocesses
, process image , states an% state transitions , process switc) 6conte&t switc)7

- 3)rea%s - Concurrency

"rocess Definition
- A process is an instance of a program in e&ecution. - /t encompasses t)e static concept of program an% t)e %ynamic aspect of e&ecution. - As t)e process runs! its conte&t 6state7 c)anges , register contents! memory contents! etc.! are mo%ifie% $y e&ecution

"rocesses: "rocess /mage

- 3)e process image represents t)e current status of t)e process - /t consists of 6among ot)er t)ings7
, , , , 9&ecuta$le co%e Static %ata area Stac ? )eap area "rocess Control Bloc 6"CB7: %ata structure use% to represent e&ecution conte&t! or state , Ot)er information nee%e% to manage process

"rocess 9&ecution States

- @or convenience! we %escri$e a process as $eing in one of several $asic states. - Most $asic:
, Running , Rea%y , Bloc e% 6or sleeping7

"rocess State 3ransition Diagram

preempt rea%y %ispatc) event occurs $loc e% wait for event running

Ot)er States
- 4ew - 9&it - Suspen%e% 6Swappe%7
, Suspen%e% $loc e% , Suspen%e% rea%y

Conte&t Switc)
6sometimes calle% process switc)7

- A conte&t switc) involves two processes:

, One leaves t)e Running state , Anot)er enters t)e Running state

- 3)e status 6conte&t7 of one process is save%> t)e status of t)e secon% process restore%. - Don0t confuse wit) mo%e switc).

Concurrent "rocesses
- 3wo processes are concurrent if t)eir e&ecutions overlap in time. - /n a uniprocessor environment! multiprogramming provi%es concurrency. - /n a multiprocessor! true parallel e&ecution can occur.

@orms of Concurrency
Multi programming: Creates logical parallelism $y running several processes1t)rea%s at a time. 3)e OS eeps several Ao$s in memory simultaneously. /t selects a Ao$ from t)e rea%y state an% starts e&ecuting it. When that job needs to wait for some event the CPU is switched to another job. "rimary o$Aective: eliminate C"# i%le time Time sharing: An e&tension of multiprogramming. After a certain amount of time the CPU is switched to another job regardless of whether the process/thread needs to wait for some operation. Switc)ing $etween Ao$s occurs so fre.uently t)at t)e users can interact wit) eac) program w)ile it is running. Multiprocessing: Multiple processors on a single computer run multiple processes at t)e same time. Creates p)ysical parallelism.

"rotection
- B)en multiple processes 6or t)rea%s7 e&ist at t)e same time! an% e&ecute concurrently! t)e OS must protect t)em from mutual interference. - Memory protection 6memory isolation7 prevents one process from accessing t)e p)ysical a%%ress space of anot)er process. - Base1limit registers! virtual memory are tec)ni.ues to ac)ieve memory protection.

"rocesses an% 3)rea%s

- 3ra%itional processes coul% only %o one t)ing at a time , t)ey were single2t)rea%e%. - Multit)rea%e% processes can 6conceptually7 %o several t)ings at once , t)ey )ave multiple t)rea%s. - A t)rea% is an :e&ecution conte&t; or :separately sc)e%ula$le; entity.

3)rea%s
- Several t)rea%s can s)are t)e a%%ress space of a single process! along wit) resources suc) as files. - 9ac) t)rea% )as its own stac ! "C! an% 3CB 6t)rea% control $loc 7
, 9ac) t)rea% e&ecutes a separate section of t)e co%e an% )as private %ata , All t)rea%s can access glo$al %ata of process

3)rea%s versus "rocesses

- /f two processes want to access s)are% %ata structures! t)e OS must $e involve%.
, Over)ea%: system calls! mo%e switc)es! conte&t switc)es! e&tra e&ecution time.

- 3wo t)rea%s in a single process can s)are glo$al %ata automatically , as easily as two functions in a single process.

Review 3opics
"rocesses ?3)rea%s Sc)e%uling Sync)roni'ation Memory Management @ile an% /1O Management

"rocess 63)rea%7 Sc)e%uling

- "rocess sc)e%uling %eci%es w)ic) process to %ispatc) 6to t)e Run state7 ne&t. - /n a multiprogramme% system several processes compete for a single processor - "reemptive sc)e%uling: a process can $e remove% from t)e Run state $efore it completes or $loc s 6timer e&pires or )ig)er priority process enters Rea%y state7.

Sc)e%uling Algorit)ms:
- @C@S 6first2come! first2serve%7: non2 preemptive: processes run until t)ey complete or $loc t)emselves for event wait - RR 6roun% ro$in7: preemptive @C@S! $ase% on time slice
, 3ime slice C lengt) of time a process can run $efore $eing preempte% , Return to Rea%y state w)en preempte%

Sc)e%uling Goals
- Optimi'e turnaroun% time an%1or response time - Optimi'e t)roug)put - Avoi% starvation 6$e :fair; 7 - Respect priorities
, Static , Dynamic

Review 3opics
"rocesses ?3)rea%s Sc)e%uling Sync)roni'ation Memory Management @ile an% /1O Management

/nterprocess Communication 6/"C7

- "rocesses 6or t)rea%s7 t)at cooperate to solve pro$lems must e&c)ange information. - 3wo approac)es:
, S)are% memory , Message passing 6copying information from one process a%%ress space to anot)er7

- S)are% memory is more efficient 6no copying7! $ut isn0t always possi$le.

"rocess13)rea% Sync)roni'ation
- Concurrent processes are asynchronous: t)e relative or%er of events wit)in t)e two processes cannot $e pre%icte% in a%vance. - /f processes are relate% 6e&c)ange information in some way7 it may $e necessary to sync)roni'e t)eir activity at some points.

/nstruction Streams
"rocess A: A1! A(! A*! AD! AE! AF! AG! AH! I! Am "rocess B: B1! B(! B*! BD! BE! BF! I! Bn Se.uential /: A1! A(! A*! AD! AE! I! Am! B1! B(! B*! BD! BE! BF! I! Bn /nterleave% //: B1! B(! B*! BD! BE! A1! A(! A*! BF! I! Bn! AD! AE! I ///: A1! A(! B1! B(! B*! A*! AD! BD! BE! I! Bn! AE! AF! I! Am

"rocess Sync)roni'ation , ( 3ypes

- Correct sync)roni'ation may mean t)at we want to $e sure t)at event ( in process A )appens $efore event D in process B. - Or! it coul% mean t)at w)en one process is accessing a s)are% resource! no ot)er process s)oul% $e allowe% to access t)e same resource. 3)is is t)e critical section problem! an% re.uires mutual e clusion.

Mutual 9&clusion
- A critical section is t)e co%e t)at accesses s)are% %ata or resources. - A solution to t)e critical section pro$lem must ensure t)at only one process at a time can e ecute its critical section !C"#. - 3wo separate s)are% resources can $e accesse% concurrently.

Sync)roni'ation
- "rocesses an% t)rea%s are responsi$le for t)eir own sync)roni'ation! $ut programming languages an% operating systems may )ave features to )elp. - +irtually all operating systems provi%e some form of semaphore! w)ic) can $e use% for mutual e&clusion an% ot)er forms of sync)roni'ation suc) as event or%ering.

Semap)ores
- Definition: A semap)ore is an integer varia$le 6S7 w)ic) can only $e accesse% in t)e following ways:
, /nitiali'e 6S7 , "6S7 11 Jwait6S7K , +6S7 11 Jsignal6S7K

- 3)e operating system must ensure t)at all operations are in%ivisi$le! an% t)at no ot)er access to t)e semap)ore varia$le is allowe%

Ot)er Mec)anisms for Mutual 9&clusion

- Spinlocks: a busy$waiting solution in w)ic) a process wis)ing to enter a critical section continuously tests some loc varia$le to see if t)e critical section is availa$le. /mplemente% wit) various mac)ine2language instructions - Disable interrupts $efore entering CS! ena$le after leaving

Dea%loc
- A set of processes is %ea%loc e% w)en eac) is in t)e Bloc e% state $ecause it is waiting for a resource t)at is allocate% to one of t)e ot)ers. - Dea%loc s can only $e resolve% $y agents outsi%e of t)e %ea%loc

Dea%loc versus Starvation

- Starvation occurs w)en a process is repeate%ly %enie% access to a resource even t)oug) t)e resource $ecomes availa$le. - Dea%loc e% processes are permanently $loc e% $ut starving processes may eventually get t)e resource $eing re.ueste%. - /n starvation! t)e resource $eing waite% for is continually in use! w)ile in %ea%loc it is not $eing use% $ecause it is assigne% to a $loc e% process.

Causes of Dea%loc
Mutual e&clusion 6e&clusive access7 Bait w)ile )ol% 6)ol% an% wait7 4o preemption Circular wait

Dea%loc Management Strategies

- Prevention: %esign a system in w)ic) at least one of t)e D causes can never )appen - Avoidance: allocate resources carefully! so t)ere will always $e enoug) to allow all processes to complete 6Ban er0s Algorit)m7 - Detection: perio%ically! %etermine if a %ea%loc e&ists. /f t)ere is one! a$ort one or more processes! or ta e some ot)er action.

Analysis of Dea%loc Management

- Most systems %o not use any form of %ea%loc management $ecause it is not cost effective
, 3oo time2consuming , 3oo restrictive

- 9&ceptions: some transaction systems )ave roll2$ac capa$ility or apply or%ering tec)ni.ues to control ac.uiring of loc s.

Review 3opics
"rocesses ?3)rea%s Sc)e%uling Sync)roni'ation Memory Management @ile an% /1O Management

Memory Management
- /ntro%uction - Allocation met)o%s
, One process at a time , Multiple processes! contiguous allocation , Multiple processes! virtual memory

Memory Management 2 /ntro

- "rimary memory must $e s)are% $etween t)e OS an% user processes. - OS must protect itself from users! an% one user from anot)er. - OS must also manage t)e s)aring of p)ysical memory so t)at processes are a$le to e&ecute wit) reasona$le efficiency.

Allocation Met)o%s: Single "rocess

- 9arliest systems use% a simple approac): OS )a% a protecte% set of memory locations! t)e remain%er of memory $elonge% to one process at a time. - "rocess :owne%; all computer resources from t)e time it $egan until it complete%

Allocation Met)o%s:
Multiple "rocesses! Contiguous Allocation - Several processes resi%e% in memory at one time 6multiprogramming7. - 3)e entire process image for eac) process was store% in a contiguous set of locations. - Draw$ac s:
, Limite% num$er of processes at one time , @ragmentation of memory

Allocation Met)o%s:
Multiple "rocesses! +irtual Memory

- Motivation for virtual memory:

, to $etter utili'e memory 6re%uce fragmentation7 , to increase t)e num$er of processes t)at coul% e&ecute concurrently

- Met)o%:
, allow program to $e loa%e% non2contiguously , allow program to e&ecute even if it is not entirely in memory.

+irtual Memory 2 "aging

- 3)e a%%ress space of a program is %ivi%e% into :pages; , a set of contiguous locations. - "age si'e is a power of (> typically at least D=. - Memory is %ivi%e% into page frames of same si'e. - Any :page; in a program can $e loa%e% into any :frame; in memory! so no space is waste%.

"aging 2 continue%
- General i%ea , save space $y loa%ing only t)ose pages t)at a program nee%s now. - Result , more programs can $e in memory at any given time - "ro$lems:
, Mow to tell w)at0s :nee%e%; , Mow to eep trac of w)ere t)e pages are , Mow to translate virtual a%%resses to p)ysical

Solutions to "aging "ro$lems

- Mow to tell w)at0s :nee%e%;
, Deman% paging

- Mow to eep trac of w)ere t)e pages are

, 3)e page ta$le

- Mow to translate virtual a%%resses to p)ysical

, MM# 6memory management unit7 uses logical a%%resses an% page ta$le %ata to form actual p)ysical a%%resses. All %one in )ar%ware.

OS Responsi$ilities in "age% +irtual Memory

- Maintain page ta$les - Manage page replacement

Review 3opics
"rocesses ?3)rea%s Sc)e%uling Sync)roni'ation Memory Management @ile an% /1O Management

@ile Systems
- Maintaining a s)are% file system is a maAor Ao$ for t)e operating system. - Single user systems re.uire protection against loss! efficient loo 2up service! etc. - Multiple user systems also nee% to provi%e access control.

@ile Systems , Dis Management

- 3)e file system is also responsi$le for allocating %is space an% eeping trac of w)ere files are locate%. - Dis storage management )as many of t)e pro$lems main memory management )as! inclu%ing fragmentation issues.

9n% of OS Review