Radiation Detection

Instrumentation and
Measurement Fundamentals
Introduction
Radiation cannot be perceived by human
senses. There are two basic types of
instruments used for its detection:
Dose measuring instruments
Particle counting instruments
With proper calibration, particle-counting
instruments can be used to measure
radiation. Internal dose can be estimated
from bioassay measurements performed
with particle counting instruments.
Dose measuring instruments
Radiation cannot be perceived by human
senses. There are two basic types of
instruments used for its detection:
Dose measuring instruments
Particle counting instruments
With proper calibration, particle-counting
instruments can be used to measure
radiation. Internal dose can be estimated
from bioassay measurements performed
with particle counting instruments.
Dose measuring instruments
To measure radiation dose, the
instrument's response must be
proportional to the energy absorbed from
radiation.
A "radiation flux" measuring instrument
does not necessarily measure dose.
To effectively measure dose, efficiency for
different types of radiation and energy
must be taken into account.
Dose measuring instruments
Pocket dosimeters, film badges, and
personal thermoluminescent dosimeters
are all used to measure personal dose
They are based on effects of accumulated
irradiation in the material inside the
instrument.
Changes in the detector's material can be
stored for later reading of the results.
Dose measuring instruments;
Personnel Monitoring
We determine the rate of radiation exposure
with units of counts per minute or mR per hour.
For personnel exposure and radiation protection
we are concerned with integrated dose.
What is the total amount to which a person has
been exposed? The measuring devices used are
different from those already discussed. There are
essentially three different types of integrated
dose monitors including
Dose measuring instruments;
Personnel Monitoring
There are essentially three different types of
integrated dose monitors including;
Direct Reading Dosimeters
Film badges
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)


Personnel Monitoring; Film badges
The film badge is a beta/gamma sensitive device
that measures total whole body dose.
The badge itself is a small plastic holder that
contains a photographic film packet.
Inside the packet are two pieces of photographic
film, tightly wrapped in a paper envelope to
prevent light from exposing the film.
One piece of film is sensitive to low radiation
exposure levels and the other is sensitive to high
exposure levels.

Personnel Monitoring; Film badges
When radiation interacts with the film emulsion, it
produces ions that chemically activate silver
molecules in the emulsion.
When the film is put into a developing solution,
the chemically activated silver atoms are
changed into elemental silver, which turns black.
The degree of this blackness or its density is
read on a machine called a densitometer and
the reading is an indication of the beta and
gamma dose.
Personnel Monitoring; Film badges
The film badge is a beta/gamma sensitive device
that measures total whole body dose.
The badge itself is a small plastic holder that
contains a photographic film packet.
Inside the packet are two pieces of photographic
film, tightly wrapped in a paper envelope to
prevent light from exposing the film.
One piece of film is sensitive to low radiation
exposure levels and the other is sensitive to high
exposure levels.

Personnel Monitoring; Film badges
Personnel Monitoring; Film badges
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
(TLDs)
Many stations now use thermoluminescent
dosimeters (TLDs) instead of film badges.
This is because the TLD is not subject to
the interpretation of the densitometer.
It is a more modern device and lends itself
to automated reading and record keeping.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
(TLDs)
Externally, the TLD looks the same as a
film badge but it may be slightly larger or
smaller. Inside, it is quite different. Instead
of film, the TLD contains a piece of
thermoluminescent material.
Thermoluminescent material is material
that will give off
light when heated in proportion to the
amount of radiation it has been exposed
to.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
(TLDs)
This is especially true for a crystalline
material. If radiation imparts enough
energy to one of these electrons, the
electrons prefers to be in the ground state
and will drop back to the ground state and
emit the extra energy in the form of heat,
X-rays, or light.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
(TLDs)
In TLD material, there is an in between
state called a metastable state, which acts
as an electron trap.
As shown in Figure above, when radiation
interacts with the ground state electron, it
jumps up and is trapped in the metastable
state.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
(TLDs)
It remains there until it gets enough energy
to move up to the unstable state. This
energy is supplied when the TLD chip is
heated to a high enough temperature.
Then the electron will drop back down to
the ground state, and, because the TLD
chip is a luminescent material, it will
release its extra energy in the form of light.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
The total quantity of light emitted by electrons
returning to the ground state is proportional to
the number of electrons trapped in the
metastable state.
The number of electrons trapped in the
metastable state is proportional to the amount of
beta and gamma radiation that interacted with
the material.
This means that the amount of light emitted
when the TLD is heated is proportional to the
number of beta and gamma radiation interacting
with the material.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
As shown in Figure before, the TLD reader
consists of a heater and a photomultiplier tube
like the ones used in scintillation detectors.
When the TLD chip is heated, light from the chip
is directed into the photomultiplier tube.
In the photomultiplier tube, electrons are
produced in the photocathode, multiplied across
the dynodes, and finally collected on the anode.
This then produces a pulse in the circuit that is
proportional to the total amount of beta and
gamma radiation absorbed by the TLD material.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
There are several reasons for using TLDs
instead of film badges:
One reason is size TLD chips are so small that
they can be taped to the fingers to measure
exposure to the extremities without interfering
with work.
A second reason is sensitivity. The TLD is
generally more sensitive than a film badge, more
accurate in the low mR range, and able to
provide a better overall indication of the total
beta/ga mma dose received.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
There are several reasons for using TLDs
instead of film badges:
One reason is size TLD chips are so small that
they can be taped to the fingers to measure
exposure to the extremities without interfering
with work.
A second reason is sensitivity. The TLD is
generally more sensitive than a film badge, more
accurate in the low mR range, and able to
provide a better overall indication of the total
beta/ga mma dose received.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)
A third reason is that the TLD chip can be
reused after it is read.
A fourth reason is that the TLD is not as
sensitive to moisture as is the film badge, so
data would not be lost if the TLD became wet.
The only disadvantage to the TLD, is that it is
relatively expensive to use.
DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
Direct reading dosimeters allow you to
determine how much gamma radiation you have
been exposed to.
Direct reading pocket ion chambers use a small
capacitor, charged prior to use that is connected
to glass fiber electroscope.
This detector is mounted in a pen type housing
that can be clipped to a pocket or lab coat.
If the detector is exposed to ionizing radiation, a
loss in charge potential of the chamber results.
DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
This loss of charge is indicated by a
corresponding deflection of the glass fiber. The
deflection can be viewed by means of a
microscope built into the dosimeter.
The amount of deflection and corresponding
dose is indicated on a scale.
The movement on the fiber, then, is a measure
of the amount of gamma radiation absorbed by
the dosimeter.

Dosimeter types and the radiations they
measure
ASSESSMENT OF EXTERNAL
EXPOSURES
Personal dosimeters are designed to measure the
dose in soft tissue at a defined depth below a
specified point on the body.
The quantity personal dose equivalent Hp(d) is
normally determined at two depths, d = 0.07 and 10
mm, as measures of exposure to weakly and
strongly penetrating radiations respectively.
The former is representative of dose to skin and the
latter represents dose to the blood forming organs.
If exposure to the eye is of particular concern, a
depth of 3 mm represents the eye lens.
ASSESSMENT OF EXTERNAL
EXPOSURES
The personal dose equivalent at 10 mm
depth, Hp(10), is used to provide an
estimate of effective dose for comparison
with the appropriate dose limits.
As Hp(0.07) is used to estimate the
equivalent dose to skin, it should be used
for extremity monitoring, where the skin
dose is the limiting quantity.

ASSESSMENT OF EXTERNAL
EXPOSURES
DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
In direct reading pocket
dosimeters (Fig.), a scale is
placed so that the hairline
on the scale is the movable
fiber.
As the fiber moves, the
scale indicates the total
amount of gamma radiation
absorbed by the dosimeter.
A microscope inside the
dosimeter enables you to
read the scale and see the
total gamma dose received

DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
: QUARTZ FIBRE ELECTROMETERS (QFE)
C spring-loaded
charging pin;
R repellor;
F quartz fibre;
S reticle;
L lens system.
QFE
When plugged into a charger, electrical charge flows up
the charging pin to the quartz fibre and repellor. A light
illuminates the inside of the QFE so that the position of
the quartz fibre is seen as the repellor and fibre repel
each other.
The amount of charge is adjusted so that the fibres
deflection is set against zero on the scaled reticle.
When ionizing radiation ionizes the air in the chamber,
the charge on the fibre and repellor is reduced allowing
the fibre to move towards the repellor.
If the QFE is held up to light and viewed, the fibre
appears to indicate the dose received on the reticle.

QFE
QFEs with maximum ranges of 2 mSv to 10 Sv are
available. Different types detect thermal or fast neutrons,
betas or low or high energy photons. A tissue equivalent
QFE is also available but it does not respond to all
radiations. Accuracy of measurement is poor.
QFEs are sensitive to shock, vibration, temperature,
environmental contamination and other factors which
can affect the rate at which charge dissipates to produce
erroneous indications of the dose received. However,
they are relatively inexpensive and provide immediate
approximations of dose for emergency workers.

USE OF DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
Direct reading dosimeters have numerous applications
which are complementary to those of passive
dosimeters.
Most importantly, in emergencies and other situations in
which acute exposures are possible, they can confirm
that the doses received do not exceed dose limits.
Alarm dosimeters should be pre-set sufficiently below
the limits to allow time for workers to retreat.
Workers regularly at high risk should use direct reading
dosimeters that cannot be switched off.
USE OF DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
Direct reading dosimeters typically measure doses as
low as 1 mSv, which is at least ten times more sensitive
than many passive devices.
At low dose rates the accuracy of the measurement may
be poor but adequate and frequent readings will permit
work to be analysed to determine which parts of a
procedure contribute most to the overall dose.
Audible indications of dose rate also maintain a workers
awareness of exposure so that procedures can be
refined to optimize the dose received.
Dosimeters issued to monitor personal doses should not
be confused with others which may be used for
environmental measurements.
USE OF DIRECT READING DOSIMETERS
Active (direct reading) dosimeters have many useful
applications. Some dosimeters achieve high sensitivity but
at reduced accuracy.
ALBEDO NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
Albedo dosimeters are designed to record neutron
doses by using the body as a moderator to reduce
intermediate and fast neutrons to thermal energies.
Doses as low as 100 mSv may be measured using
LiF TLDs made with natural or lithium enriched in
6
Li.
For neutrons with energies above 10 keV the
sensitivity is significantly reduced and the
measurement must be multiplied by a correction
factor which is dependent on the neutron spectrum.
ALBEDO NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
The albedo method is only satisfactory if the
spectrum remains nearly constant. It is
unsatisfactory for applications in which a major
fraction of the dose equivalent is due to neutrons
above a few hundred keV.
It is generally inappropriate, for example, for
industrial use of neutron sources (252Cf, AmBe,
etc.) or deuteriumtritium generators which have a
large fraction of neutron energy above 1 MeV.
In these situations, a constantly changing work
geometry is likely to produce highly variable
spectra.
Albedo TLDs measure neutrons that the body has
thermalized
Albedo TLDs measure fast and intermediate energy neutron
doses.
Albedo TLDs must be in close contact with the body.
Albedo TLDs may be unsuitable for general industrial application.
NUCLEAR EMULSION NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
A nuclear emulsion (nuclear track analysis, NTA) dosimeter
comprises a film and holder designed to detect fast and
thermal neutrons of energies above 0.7 MeV.
The film (typically an emulsion of a thickness of between 24
and 33 mm on a base) is prepared in dry nitrogen and
sealed inside a special wrapper.
When it is in the holder, incident fast neutrons interact
(elastic scattering) with hydrogenous material surrounding
the film and produce recoil protons.
Thermal neutrons interact with nitrogen in the emulsion and
thereby produce 0.6 MeV protons.
The protons form ionization tracks in the emulsion. A dose of
50 mSv from AmBe neutrons will produce about one track
per square millimetre.
When the film is processed these can be counted using a
high power ( 1000) microscope.
NUCLEAR EMULSION NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
The difficult task of identifying tracks is aided by a lead filter
in the front of the polypropylene holder which reduces
fogging (film darkening) caused by X and gamma radiations.
A boron loaded plastic filter at the back of the holder absorbs
albedo thermal neutrons.
Track fading is minimized by the moisture proof wrapper but
the latent (undeveloped) images still fade with time, limiting
possible wearing periods to one or two months in ideal
conditions.
The wrapper must not be damaged nor the film subjected to
excessive heat.
An NTA dosimeter and processed film.
An NTA dosimeter comprises a film and holder.
Processed films reveal tracks in the emulsion caused by
neutrons.
CRITICALITY NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
Criticality dosimeters are used in nuclear installations
where the movement of reactor fuel raises the
possibility of a criticality accident.
This includes fuel handling and reprocessing areas
and facilities where 233U, 235U or 239Pu are used
in quantities greater than a few grams.
The activation foils used in such dosimeters become
radioactive when irradiated by the large release of
neutrons associated with a criticality accident.
They are unsuitable for routine neutron dosimetry
because of their poor sensitivity and rapid loss of
information (decay) following exposure.
CRITICALITY NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
A criticality dosimeter (locket or button) is a small box
usually containing several foils to provide information
on the neutron dose and energy spectrum:
gold thermal neutron measurement (G1, G2)
indium thermal and fast neutron measurement (I)
copper intermediate neutron measurement (Cu)
sulphur fast neutron measurement (S).
Cadmium (Cd) is used to shield foils to differentiate
between thermal neutron and intermediate neutron
exposure. Following exposure, the induced
radioactivity is measured by counting the beta or
gamma radiation emitted by the foil. The activity is
proportional to the neutron dose.
CRITICALITY NEUTRON DOSIMETERS
In a different form of criticality dosimeter, fissile
materials are placed between track etch detectors
(see Section 14).
Fission fragments damage the plastic when the
fissile materials are exposed to neutrons of certain
energies.
The materials used in these fission dosimeters are
radioactive even before they have been exposed to
neutrons.
An exploded view of the components of a
criticality locket
Neutrons cause nuclear interactions, activation and fission in foils.
Various activation foils are used in criticality lockets.
General Principles of
Radiation Detection
Outline
Gas-Filled Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Solid State Detectors
Others
Gas-Filled Detectors -
Components
Variable voltage source
Gas-filled counting chamber
Two coaxial electrodes well insulated from each
other
Electron-pairs
produced by radiation in fill gas
move under influence of electric field
produce measurable current on electrodes, or
transformed into pulse
Gas- Filled Detectors - one
example
wall
fill gas
R
Output
A
or
Anode (+)
Cathode (-)
End
window
Or wall
Indirect Ionization Process
wall
Incident gamma photon
Direct Ionization Process
wall
Incident
charged
particle
e
-

e
-

e
-

e
-

e
-

e
-

e
-

e
-

beta (
-
)
Competing Processes -
recombination
R
Output
e
-

e
-

+
+
Voltage versus Ions Collected
Voltage
Number
of Ion
Pairs
collected
Ionization region
Saturation Voltage
100 % of initial
ions are collected
Recom-
bination
region
Saturation Current
The point at which 100% of ions begin to be
collected
All ion chambers operate at a voltage that
produces a saturation current
The region over which the saturation current is
produced is called the ionization region
It levels the voltage range because all charges
are already collected and rate of formation is
constant
Observed Output: Pulse Height
Ions collected
Number of ionizations relate to specific
ionization value of radiation
Gas filled detectors operate in either
current mode
Output is an average value resulting from detection
of many values
pulse mode
One pulse per particle
Pulse Height Variation
Detector Voltage
Pulse
Height
Alpha
Particles
Beta
Particles
Gamma Photons
Ionization Region Recap
Pulse size depends on # ions produced in
detector.
No multiplication of ions due to secondary
ionization (gas amplification is unity)
Voltage produced (V) = Q/C
Where
Q is total charge collected
C is capacitance of the ion chanber
Ionization Chambers, continued
Chambers construction determines is operating
characteristics
Physical size, geometry, and materials define its
ability to maintain a charge
Operates at a specific voltage
When operating, the charge collected due to
ionizing events is
Q = CV
Ionization Chambers, continued
The number of ions (N) collected can
be obtained once the charge is
determined:
N = Q / k
Where k is a conversion factor
(1.6 x 10
-19
C/e)
Other Aspects of Gas-Filled
Detectors
Accuracy of measurement
Detector Walls composed of air equivalent material or
tissue equivalent
Wall thickness
must allow radiation to enter/ cause interactions
alpha radiation requires thin wall (allowed to pass)
gammas require thicker walls (interactions needed)
Sensitivity
Air or Fill gas Pressure
see next graph

Current vs. Voltage for Fill Gases in
a Cylindrical Ion Chamber
Applied Voltage (volts)
Relative
Current
(%)
Helium at low pressure
Air at low pressure
Helium at high pressure
Air at high pressure
0.1
1.0
10
100
Correcting Ion Chambers for T, P
Ion chambers operate in pressurized
mode which varies with ambient conditions
Detector current (I) and exposure rate X
are functions of gas temperature and
pressure as well as physical size of
detector.

Correcting Ion Chambers for T, P
Detector current (I) and exposure rate (X)
related by:



k, conversion factor
detector gas density
V detector volume
STP standard temp and pressure (273K, 760
torr (1 atm)
X
P
P
T
T
V k I
stp
stp

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Operating Regions of Gas-Filled
Detectors
R
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c
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b
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R
e
g
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I
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R
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P
r
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p
o
r
t
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a
l

R
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L
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m
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e
d

P
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p
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l



R
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G
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-
M
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R
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C
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D
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R
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o
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P
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l
s
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H
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Voltage
o
|

Values of k, Conversion Factor
Calculated as

(2.58 x 10
- 4
C/kg-R)(1 h / 3600 s)( 1 A s / C)
Yields 7.17 x 10
- 8
A-h/R-kg
Examples
Proportional Counters
Operates at higher voltage than ionization
chamber
Initial electrons produced by ionization
are accelerated with enough speed to cause
additional ionizations
cause additional free electrons
produces more electrons than initial event
Process is termed: gas amplification
Pulse-Height Versus Voltage
R
e
c
o
m
b
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

R
e
g
i
o
n

Ionization
Region
Proportional Region
P
u
l
s
e

H
e
i
g
h
t

Voltage
o
|
Distinguishing Alpha & Beta
Proportional counters
can distinguish between different radiation types
specifically alpha and beta-gamma
Differential detection capability
due to size of pulses produced by initial ionizing
events
requires voltage setting in range of 900 to 1,300 volts
alpha pulses above discriminator
beta/gamma pulses too small

Alpha & Beta-Gamma Plateau
Detector Voltage
Ionization
Current
Alpha Plateau
Beta-Gamma Plateau
Gas Flow Proportional Counters
Common type of proportional counter
Fixed radiation detection instrument used in
counting rooms
Windowed or windowless
Both employ 2t geometry
essentially all radiation emitted from the surface of the
source enters active volume of detector
Windowless
used for alpha detection

Gas-Flow Proportional Counter
Gas-Flow Proportional Counter
Fill gas
outlet Fill gas
inlet
Detector
sample
Sample planchet
O-ring
(window-
optional)
anode
Gas Flow Proportional,
continued
Fill gas
selected to enhance gas multiplication
no appreciable electron attachment
most common is P-10 (90% Argon and 10%
methane)
Geiger Mueller Detectors
Operate at voltages above proportional
detectors
Each primary ionization
produces a complete avalanche of ions throughout
the detector volume
called a Townsend Avalanche
continues until maximum number of ion pairs are
produced
avalanche may be propagated by photoelectrons
quenching is used to prevent process

No proportional relationship between
energy of incident radiation and number of
ionizations detected
A level pulse height occurs throughout the
entire voltage range

Geiger Mueller Detectors,
continued
Advantages/Disadvantages of Gas-
Filled Detectors
Ion Chamber: simple, accurate, wide range,
sensitivity is function of chamber size, no dead
time

Proportional Counter: discriminate hi/lo LET,
higher sensitivity than ion chamber

GM Tube: cheap, little/no amplification, thin
window for low energy; limited life

Points to Remember for Gas-filled
Detectors
Know operating principles of your detector
Contamination only?
High range?
Alpha / beta detection?
Dose rate?
Alpha/beta shield?
Points to Remember for Gas-filled
Detectors
Power supply requirements
Stable?
Batteries ok?
Temperature, pressure correction
requirements
Calibration
Frequency
Nuclides

Issues with Gas Filled Detectors: Dead
Time
Minimum time at which detector recovers
enough to start another avalanche (pulse)
The dead time may be set by:
limiting processes in the detector, or
associated electronics
Dead time losses
can become severe in high counting rates
corrections must be made to measurements
Term is used loosely - beware!
Issues with Gas Filled Detectors:
Recovery Time

Time interval between dead time and full
recovery
Recovery Time = Resolving time- dead
time
Issues with Gas Filled Detectors:
Resolving Time
Minimum time interval that must elapse
after detection of an ionizing particle
before a second particle can be detected.
Correcting for Dead Time
For some systems (GMs) dead time may be
large.
A correction to the observed count rate can
be calculated as:


Where
T is the resolving time
R
0
is the observed count rate and
R
C
is the corrected count rate

T R 1
R
R
0
o
c

=
Relationship among dead time,
recovery time, and resolving time
Pulse
Height
Time, microseconds
100 200 300 400 500 0
Recovery time
Dead
Time
Resolving time
Geiger Tube as Exposure Meter
Exposure is the parameter measuring
the ionization of air.
Geiger tube measures ionization pulses
per second - a count rate.
The number of ionizations in the Geiger
tube is a constant for a particular energy
but is energy dependent.
COMPENSATED GEIGER DOSE
RATE METERS
GMs have a high sensitivity but are very
dependent upon the energy of photon radiations.
The next graph illustrates the relative response
(R) of a typical GM vs photon energy (E).
At about 60 keV the response reaches a
maximum which may be thirty times higher than
the detectors response at other radiation
energies.

Energy Response of GM Uncompensated
10 100 1000 E, keV
R
20
1.2
1.0
0.8
COMPENSATED GEIGER DOSE RATE
METERS
Detectors poor energy response may be
corrected by adding a compensation sheath
Thin layers of metal are constructed around the GM to
attenuate the lower photon energies, where the
fluence per unit dose rate is high, to a higher degree
than the higher energies.
The modified or compensated response, shown as a
dashed line on the next graph, may be independent of
energy within 20% over the range 50 keV to 1.25
MeV.
Compensation sheaths also influence an instruments
directional (polar) response and prevent beta and
very low energy photon radiations from reaching the
Geiger tube.
Energy Response of GM Uncompensated
and Compensated
10 100 1000 E, keV
R
20
1.2
1.0
0.8
Example Polar Response
Example of Compensated GM
RadEye component
RadEye
Pocket meter
low power components
automatic self checks
essential functions accessed while wearing protective
gloves.
Alarm-LED can be seen while the instrument is worn
in a belt-holster.
Instrument also equipped with a built in vibrator and
an earphone-output for silent alarming or use in very
noisy environment.
Number of optional components
RadEye
Options
RadEye PRD - High Sensitivity Personal
Radiation Detector
The RadEye PRD is 5000 - 100000 times more
sensitive than typical electronic dosimeter.
The RadEye PRD uses Natural Background
Rejection (NBR) technology. It is the only
instrument of its type and size to achieve this.
Probably a plastic scintillator more about this
later
RadEye
Options
RadEye G - Wide Range Gamma Survey Meter for
Personal Radiation Protection
linearity over 6 decades of radiation intensity: from
background level to 5 R/h
overrange indication up to 1000 R/h.
RadEye G incorporates a large energy compensated GM-
tube for dose rate measurement for gamma and x-ray.
NBR = Natural Background Rejection
The NBR measurement technology has been
developed by Thermo Electron for the supression of
alarms caused by variations of the natural
background.
SCINTILLATION
DETECTORS
Scintillators
Emit light when irradiated
promptly (<10
-8
s)
fluorescence
delayed (>10
-8
s)
phosphorescence
Can be
liquid
solid
gas
organic
inorganic

Basis of Scintillation - Energy
Structure in an Atom
Excited state
Ground state, last filled
(outer) orbital
E
n
e
r
g
y

Basis of Scintillation - Energy
Structure in a Molecule
Excited state
Ground state
Interatomic distance
E
n
e
r
g
y

A
o

A
1

B
o

B
1

E
A
0

E
A
1

E
B
1

E
B
0

Scintillator Properties

A large number of different scintillation crystals
exist for a variety of applications.
Some important characteristics of scintillators
are:
Density and atomic number (Z)
Light output (wavelength + intensity)
Decay time (duration of the scintillation light pulse)
Mechanical and optical properties
Cost

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Liquid scintillation counting
Standard laboratory method for measuring radiation from beta-
emitting nuclides.
Samples are dissolved or suspended in a "cocktail" containing an
aromatic solvent (historically benzene or toluene, and small amounts
of other additives known as fluors.
Beta particles transfer energy to the solvent molecules, which in turn
transfer their energy to the fluors;
Excited fluor molecules dissipate the energy by emitting light.
Each beta emission (ideally) results in a pulse of light.
Scintillation cocktails may contain additives to shift the wavelength of
the emitted light to make it more easily detected.
Samples are placed in small transparent or translucent (often glass)
vials that are loaded into an instrument known as a liquid scintillation
counter.
Organic Scintillators
Examples
Differences
Anthracene
CH
3

Excited state
Ground state
Interatomic distance
E
n
e
r
g
y

A
o

A
1

B
o

B
1

E
A
0

E
A
1

E
B
1

E
B
0

Toluene
Inorganic (Crystal) Scintillators
Most are crystals of alkali metals (iodides)
NaI(Tl)
CsI(Tl)
CaI(Na)
LiI(Eu)
CaF
2
(Eu)
Impurity in trace amounts
activator causes luminescence
e.g., (Eu) is 10
-3
of crystal
Organic vs. Inorganic
Scintillators
Inorganic scintillators have greater:
light output
longer delayed light emission
higher atomic numbers
than organic scintillators
Inorganic scintillators also
linear energy response (light output is
energy absorbed)
Solid Scintillators
Solids have
Lattice structure (molecular level)
Quantized energy levels
Valence bands
Conduction bands

Crystal Lattice
Ge
As
+

e
-

Shared
electron pair
Creation of Quantized Bands
Conduction Band
Valence Band
+ + +
- -
-
0
E
o

E
o
+ E
g

E
F

Introduction of Impurities
Conduction Band
Valence Band
~1 eV
Donor
impurity
levels
Acceptor
impurity
levels
~0.01 eV
~ 0.01eV
Detecting Scintillator Output:-
PhotoCathode & Photomultiplier
Tubes
Radiation interaction in scintillator produces
light (may be in visible range)
Quantification of output requires light
amplification and detection device(s)
This is accomplished with the:
Photocathode
Photomultiplier tube
Both components are
placed together as one unit
optically coupled to the scintillator

Cutaway diagram of solid-fluor
scintillation detector
Cutaway diagram of solid-fluor
scintillation detector
Gamma ray
Scintillation
event
Reflector housing
Fluor crystal NaI (Tl)
Photocathode
Photoelectrons
Dynodes
Photomultiplier tube
Major components of PM Tube
Photocathode material
Dynodes
electrodes which eject additional electrons after being
struck by an electron
Multiple dynodes result in 106 or more signal
enhancement
Collector
accumulates all electrons produced from final dynode
Resistor
collected current passed through resistor to generate
voltage pulse
Generalized Detection System
using a Scintillator
Oscilloscope
Scaler
Multi-
Channel
Analyzer
Discriminator
Amplifier
Pre-
Amp
High
Voltage
Detector
(Crystal &
Photomultiplier)
Liquid Scintillation Systems
Used to detect low energy (ie., low range)
radiations
beta
alpha
Sample is immersed in scintillant
Provides 4 t geometry
Quenching can limit output
chemical
color quenching
optical quenching
Chemical Quenching
Dissipation of energy prior to transfer from
organic solvent to scintillator
Reduces total light output
Common chemical quenching agents
Dissolved oxygen is most common
Acids
Excessive concentration of one component (e.g.,
primary fluor)
Too little scintillation media
halogenated hydrocarbons
Color Quenching
Absorption of light photons after they are
emitted from the scintillator
Reduces total light output
Common color quenching agents:
light absorbing contaminants
blood
urine
tissues samples
Optical Quenching
Absorption of light photons after they are
emitted from the scintillator liquid and
before they reach the PMT
Reduces total light output
Common optical quenching agents:
fingerprints
condensation
dirt on the LS vials
Circuitry in LSC systems
Shielded counting well
Two (or more) PMTs optically coupled to
sample well
Coincidence circuitry to compare PMT
pulses
Pulse Summation Circuit
adds signals from PMTs
gates single pulse to amplifier
summation circuit doubles height of signal
Coincidence Circuitry
Used to reduce noise
Limit thermionic emissions
spontaneous emissions from within the PMT
Directly opposing PMT tubes
connected to coincidence circuit
gated outputs from both tubes
only simultaneous signal from both will be accepted
only one signal is not accepted
simultaneous signals are summed
Applied to Liquid Scintillation Systems
Coincidence & Anticoincidence
Circuitry
Sometimes desirable to discard pulses due to
some radiations & accept only those from a
single type of particle.
Examples:
detection of pair-production events (accept only
simultaneous detection of 180 apart photons)
detection of internal conversion electrons
radioisotopes with IC electrons emit gammas & X-rays.
A single detector counts IC and compton electrons.
Use X-rays that are emitted simultaneously with IC & block
Compton events
A simple coincidence circuit
Coincidence
Unit
Scaler
Multi-channel
Analyzer
Detector
Timing
Timing

Amplification
Detector
Source

Amplification
Gate
After Tsoulfanidis, 1995
Basic LSC System
Beckman
LS 6500 Liquid
Scintillation Counting
System.
Single & summed pulse spectra
Counts/
Min
Pulse Height
With pulse summation
Without
pulse summation
Correcting for Quench
Quench correction
any quenching that occurs in sample results in shift of
pulse height spectrum toward lower values
Techniques
purge sample with N
2
, CO
2
, or Ar (removes O
2

chemical quench
bleach or decolorize sample (reduces color quench)
handle LSC vials by top/bottom & wiping vials clean
prior to counting (reduces optical quenching)
Alternative Methods
Channel ratio method
two energy windows established
known amount of radioactivity is added to varying
concentrations of quenching agent
ratio of net counts in upper channel over lower
channel vs quench correction is plotted
Disadvantage
low count rates require longer counting times
multiple calibration curves may be required for
range
quenching agents

Internal standard method
older technique
sample is counted
known quantity of radioisotope is added
sample recounted
Efficiency = (cpm
(std+sample)
cpm
(sample)
)/dpm
(std)

Most accurate method
requires ability to add same amount of
radionuclide each time
more costly & time consuming

Alternative Methods
External standard method
relies on gamma source (
226
Ra or
133
Ba) adjacent to sample
two sets of calibration curves are derived
sample standard count is plotted versus amount of quench
agent
Net External Counts - [External & Sample Std cpm] -
[Sample Standard cpm]
Disadvantages
least accurate of available methods
samples must be counted twice
sample uniformly dispersed in counting vials
Alternative Methods
Light produced per disintegration of a
radioactive atom:
is related to particle type (alpha, beta, gamma),
and energy (keV - MeV).
Pulse height increases with energy
Example (follows) beta emitters of varying
energies:

3
H, |
max
18.6 keV

14
C, |
max
156 keV

32
P, |
max
1.71 MeV
Pulse Height Discrimination
Pulse Height Discrimination
for three common beta emitters
Count
Rate
Pulse Height
3
H

14
C

32
P

Background & Efficiency
Checks on LSC
Essential - LSCs are essentially proportional
counters; change in potential impacts gain
Efficiency depends on several variables:
temperature
quenching ( determine counting efficiency for every
sample)
Background & efficiency checks needed with
every run
contamination
efficiency changes
Field Applications for Liquid and Solid
Scintillation Counters
Solid Scintillators
in-situ measurement of low to high energy gammas
laboratory systems
spectroscopy
SCA or MCA mode
Liquid Scintillators
wipe tests
contaminants in solids (concrete)
contaminants in aqueous/organic liquids
Selecting Scintillators - Density and
Atomic number
Efficient detection of gamma-rays requires
material with a high density and high Z
Inorganic scintillation crystals meet the
requirements of stopping power and
optical transparency,
Densities range from roughly 3 to 9 g/cm
3

Very suitable to absorb gamma rays.
Materials with high Z-values are used for
spectroscopy at high energies (>1 MeV).
Linear
Attenuation of
NaI
Relative Importance of Three Major
Interaction Mechanisms
The lines show the values of Z and hv for which the two neighboring
effects are just equal
Light output of Scintillators

Scintillation material with a high light
output is preferred for all spectroscopic
applications.
Emission wavelength should be matched
to the sensitivity of the light detection
device that is used (PMT of photodiode).
Decay time
Scintillation light pulses (flashes) are usually
characterized by a fast increase of the intensity
in time (pulse rise time) followed by an
exponential decrease.
Decay time of a scintillator is defined by the time
after which the intensity of the light pulse has
returned to 1/e of its maximum value.
Most scintillators are characterized by more than
one decay time and usually, the effective
average decay time is given
The decay time is of importance for fast counting
and/or timing applications
Mechanical and Optical Properties
NaI(Tl) is one of the most important scintillants.
Hygroscopic
Can only be used in hermetically sealed metal containers
Some scintillation crystals may easily crack or cleave under
mechanical pressure
CsI is plastic and will deform.
Important aspects of commonly used scintillation materials are listed
on the next 2 slides.
The list is not exhaustive, and each scintillation crystal has its own
specific application.
For high resolution spectroscopy, NaI(Tl), or CsI(Na) (high light
output) are normally used.
For high energy physics applications, the use of bismuth
germanate Bi
4
Ge
3
O
12
(BGO) crystals (high density and Z)
improves the lateral confinement of the shower.
For the detection of beta-particles, CaF
2
(Eu) can be used
instead of plastic scintillators (higher density).
Material
Density
[g/cm
3
]
Emission
Max [nm]
Decay
Constant
(1)
Refractive
Index (2)
Conversion
Efficiency
(3)
Hygro-
scopic
NaI(Tl) 3.67 415 0.23 s 1.85 100 yes
CsI(Tl) 4.51 550 0.6/3.4 s 1.79 45 no
CsI(Na) 4.51 420 0.63 s 1.84 85 slightly
CsI
undoped
4.51 315 16 ns 1.95 4 - 6 no
CaF
2

(Eu)
3.18 435 0.84 s 1.47 50 no
6
LiI (Eu) 4.08 470 1.4 s 1.96 35 yes
6
Li -
glass
2.6 390 - 430 60 ns 1.56 4 - 6 no
CsF 4.64 390 3 - 5 ns 1.48 5 - 7 yes
(1) Effective average decay time For -rays.
(2) At the wavelength of the emission maximum.
(3) Relative scintillation signal at room temperature for -rays when coupled to a photomultiplier tube
with a Bi-Alkalai photocathode.
Commonly Used Scintillators
Material
Density
[g/cm
3
]
Emission
Maximum
[nm]
Decay
Constant
(1)
Refractive
Index (2)
Conversion
Efficiency
(3)
Hygros
copic
BaF
2
4.88
315
220
0.63 s
0.8 ns
1.50
1.54
16
5
no
YAP (Ce) 5.55 350 27 ns 1.94 35 - 40 no
GSO (Ce) 6.71 440 30 - 60 ns 1.85 20 - 25 no
BGO 7.13 480 0.3 s 2.15 15 - 20 no
CdWO
4
7.90 470 / 540 20 / 5 s 2.3 25 - 30 no
Plastics 1.03 375 - 600 1 - 3 s 1.58 25 - 30 no
(1) Effective agerage decay time For -rays.
(2) At the wavelength of the emission maximum.
(3) Relative scintillation signal at room temperature for -rays when coupled to a photomultiplier tube
with a Bi-Alkalai photocathode.
Commonly Used Scintillators
Afterglow
Defined as the fraction of scintillation light still present for
a certain time after the X-ray excitation stops.
Originates from the presence of millisecond to even hour long
decay time components.
Can be as high as a few % after 3 ms in most halide scintillation
crystals .
CsI(Tl) long duration afterglow can be a problem for many
applications.
Afterglow in halides is believed to be intrinsic and correlated to
certain lattice defects.
BGO and Cadmium Tungstate (CdWO
4
) crystals are
examples of low afterglow scintillation materials
Scintillators - Neutron Detection
Neutrons do not produce ionization directly
in scintillation crystals
Can be detected through their interaction
with the nuclei of a suitable element.

6
LiI(Eu) crystal -neutrons interact with
6
Li
nuclei to produce an alpha particle and
3
H
which both produce scintillation light that can
be detected.
Enriched
6
Li containing glasses doped with
Ce as activator can also be used.
Neutron Detection
Neutron Detection
Conventional neutron meters surround a
thermal neutron detector with a large and
heavy (20 lb) polyethylene neutron
moderator.
Other meters utilizes multiple windows
formed of a fast neutron scintillator (ZnS in
an epoxy matrix), with both a thermal
neutron detector and a photomultiplier
tube.
Radiation Damage in Scintillators
Radiation damage results inchange in
scintillation characteristics caused by prolonged
exposure to intense radiation.
Manifests as decrease of optical transmission of
a crystal
decreased pulse height
deterioration of the energy resolution
Radiation damage other than activation may be
partially reversible; i.e. the absorption bands
disappear slowly in time.
Radiation Damage in Scintillators
Doped alkali halide scintillators such as NaI(Tl)
and CsI(Tl) are rather susceptible to radiation
damage.
All known scintillation materials show more or
less damage when exposed to large radiation
doses.
Effects usually observed in thick (> 5 cm)
crystals.
A material is usually called radiation hard if no
measurable effects occur at a dose of 10,000
Gray. Examples of radiation hard materials are
CdWO
4
and GSO.
Emission Spectra of Scintillation
Crystals
Each scintillation material has characteristic
emission spectrum.
Spectrum shape is sometimes dependent on the
type of excitation (photons / particles).
Emission spectrum is important when choosing
the optimum readout device (PMT /photodiode)
and the required window material.
Emission spectrum of some common scintillation
materials shown in next two slides.
Emission Spectra of Scintillators
Emission Spectra of Scintillators
Temperature Influence on the
Scintillation Response
Light output (photons per MeV gamma) of most
scintillators is a function of temperature.
Radiative transitions, responsible for the production of
scintillation light compete with non-radiative
transitions (no light production).
In most light output is quenched (decreased) at higher
temperatures.
An exception is the fast component of BaF
2
where
intensity is essentially temperature independent.
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Temperature Influence on the
Scintillation Response
Choosing a Scintillator

Following table lists characteristics such as high density,
fast decay etc.
Choice of a certain scintillation crystal in a radiation
detector depends strongly on the application.
Questions such as :
What is the energy of the radiation to measure ?
What is the expected count rate ?
What are the experimental conditions (temperature, shock)?

Material Important Properties Major Applications
NaI(Tl)
Very high light output, good
energy resolution
General scintillation counting, health
physics, environmental
monitoring, high temperature use
CsI(Tl)
Noon-hygroscopic, rugged,
long wavelength
emission
Particle and high energy physics,
general radiation detection,
photodiode readout, phoswiches
CsI(Na) High light output, rugged
Geophysical, general radiation
detection
CsI
undoped
Fast, non-hygroscopic,
radiation hard, low light
output
Physics (calorimetry)
CaF
2
(Eu) Low Z, high light outut | detection, o, | phoswiches
CdWO
4

Very high density, low
afterglow, radiation hard
DC measurement of X-rays (high
intensity), readout with
photodiodes, Computerized
Tomography (CT)
Plastics
Fast, low density and Z,
high light output
Particle detection, beta detection
Material Important Properties Major Applications
6
LiI(Eu)
High neutron cross-section,
high light output
Thermal neutron detection and
spectroscopy
6
Li -
glass
High neutron cross-section,
non-hygroscopic
Thermal neutron detection
BaF
2
Ultra-fast sub-ns UV emission
Positron life time studies, physics
research, fast timing
YAP(Ce
)
High light output, low Z, fast
MHz X-ray spectroscopy, synchrotron
physics
GSO(Ce
)
High density and Z, fast,
radiation hard
Physics research
BGO High density and Z
Particle physics, geophysical
research, PET, anti-Compton
spectrometers
CdWO
4

Very high density, low
afterglow, radiation hard
DC measurement of X-rays (high
intensity), readout with
photodiodes, Computerized
Tomography (CT)
Plastics
Fast, low density and Z, high
light output
Particle detection, beta detection
PRACTICAL SCINTILLATION
COUNTERS
Highly sensitive surface contamination probes
incorporate a range phosphors
Examples include:
zinc sulphide (ZnS(Ag)) powder coatings (510
mgcm2) on glass or plastic substrates or coated
directly onto the photomultiplier window for detecting
alpha and other heavy particles;
cesium iodide (CsI(Tl)) that is thinly machined (0.25
mm) and that may be bent into various shapes;
and plastic phosphors in thin sheets or powders fixed
to a glass base for beta detection.
PRACTICAL SCINTILLATION
COUNTERS
Probes (A and B previous slide) and their associated
ratemeters (C) tend not to be robust.
Photomultipliers are sensitive to shock damage and are
affected by localized magnetic fields.
Minor damage to the thin foil through which radiation
enters the detector allows ambient light to enter and
swamp the photomultiplier.
Cables connecting ratemeters and probes are also a
common problem.
Very low energy beta emitters (for example
3
H) can be
dissolved in liquid phosphors in order to be detected.

43-93 Alpha/Beta Scintillator
The Model 43-93 is a 100 cm dual
phosphor alpha/beta scintillator that is
designed to be used for simultaneously
counting alpha and beta contamination
43-93 Alpha/Beta Scintillator
INDICATED USE: Alpha beta survey
SCINTILLATOR: ZnS(Ag) adhered to 0.010" thick plastic scintillation
material
WINDOW: 1.2 mg/cm recommended for outdoor use
WINDOW AREA:
Active - 100 cm
Open - 89 cm
EFFICIENCY (4pi geometry): Typically 15% - Tc-99; 20% - Pu-239; 20% -
S-90/Y-90
NON-UNIFORMITY: Less than 10%
BACKGROUND: Alpha - 3 cpm or less
Beta - Typically 300 cpm or less (10 R/hr field )
CROSS TALK:
Alpha to beta - less than 10%
Beta to alpha - less than 1%

43-93 Alpha/Beta Scintillator
COMPATIBLE INSTRUMENTS: Models 2224, 2360
TUBE: 1.125"(2.9cm) diameter magnetically shielded
photomultiplier
OPERATING VOLTAGE: Typically 500 - 1200 volts
DYNODE STRING RESISTANCE: 100 megohm
CONNECTOR: Series C (others available )
CONSTRUCTION: Aluminum housing with beige
polyurethane enamel paint
TEMPERATURE RANGE: 5F(-15C) to 122F(50C)
May be certified to operate from -40F(-40C) to
150F(65C)
SIZE: 3.2"(8.1 cm)H X 3.5"(8.9 cm)W X 12.2"(31 cm)L
WEIGHT: 1 lb (0.5kg)
44-2 Gamma Scintillator
The Model 44-2 is a 1" X 1" NaI(Tl)
Gamma Scintillator that can be used with
several different instruments including
survey meters, scalers, ratemeters, and
alarm ratemeters
INDICATED USE: High energy gamma detection
SCINTILLATOR: 1" (2.5 cm) diameter X 1" (2.5 cm) thick sodium iodide
(NaI)Tl scintillator
SENSITIVITY: Typically 175 cpm/microR/hr (Cs-137)
COMPATIBLE INSTRUMENTS: General purpose survey meters,
ratemeters, and scalers
TUBE: 1.5:(3.8cm) diameter magnetically shielded photomultiplier
OPERATING VOLTAGE: Typically 500 - 1200 volts
DYNODE STRING RESISTANCE: 100 megohm
CONNECTOR: Series "C" (others available )
CONSTRUCTION: Aluminum housing with beige polyurethane enamel
paint
TEMPERATURE RANGE: -4 F(-20 C) to 122 F(50 C)
May be certified for operation from -40 F(-40 C) to 150 F(65 C)
SIZE: 2" (5.1 cm) diameter X 7.3" (18.5 cm)L
WEIGHT: 1 lb (0.5kg)
44-2 Gamma Scintillator
Scintillation Detectors
Best:
Measure low gamma dose rates
Also:
Measure beta dose rates (with corrections)
However:
Somewhat fragile and expensive
CANNOT:
Not intended for detecting contamination, only
radiation fields

Semi-Conductor Detectors
Idealized Gamma-Ray
Spectrum in NaI
Energy
Counts
per
Energy
Interval
E
o

theoretical
Actual
Components of Spectrum
Energy
Counts
per
Energy
Interval
E
o

Photopeak
Compton edge
Backscatter
Peak
Annihilation
Peak
X-ray
Peak
NaI(Tl) vs. HPGE
NaI(Tl) vs. HPGE
Semiconductor Detectors
Solids have
lattice structure (molecular level)
quantized energy levels
valence bands
conduction bands
Semiconductors have lattice structure
similar to inorganic scintillators
composed of Group IVB elements
ability to easily share electrons with adjoining atoms

Crystal Lattice
Ge
As
+

e
-

Shared
electron pair
Basic Nature of
Semiconductors
Schematic view of lattice of Group IVB element Si
Dots represent electron pair bonds between the Si
atoms

Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Basic Nature, contd
Schematic diagram of energy levels of crystalline
Si.







Pure Si is a poor conductor of electricity
Conduction Band
Valence Band
E
n
e
r
g
y

1.08 eV
Forbidden Gap
Basic Nature, contd
Schematic view of lattice of Group IV element
Si, doped with P (Group VB) as an impurity
note extra electron

Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
P
Basic Nature, contd
Schematic diagram of disturbed energy levels of
crystalline Si.








Si with Group V impurities like P is said to be an n-
type silicon because of the negative charge carriers
(the electrons)
Conduction Band
Valence Band
E
n
e
r
g
y

0.05 eV
Donor level
Basic Nature, contd
Schematic view of lattice of Group IV element
Si, doped with B (Group IIIB) as an impurity
note hole in electron orbital
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
B
Basic Nature, contd
Schematic diagram of disturbed energy levels of
crystalline Si with B impurity.










Si with Group III impurities is said to be a p-type silicon
because of the positive charge carriers (the holes)
Conduction Band
Valence Band
E
n
e
r
g
y

0.08 eV
Acceptor level
Occupation of energy states for
n and p-type semiconductors
Conduction Band
Valence Band
After Turner
0.67 eV
As donor
impurity
levels
Ga acceptor
impurity
levels
0.013 eV
0.011eV
Operating Principles of
Semiconductor detectors
Si semiconductor is a layer of p-type Si in contact with n-
type Si.
What happens when this junction is created?
Electrons from n-type migrate across junction to fill holes
in p-type
Creates an area around the p-n junction with no excess of
holes or electrons
Called a depletion region
Apply (+) voltage to n-type and (-) to p-type:
Depletion region made thicker
Called a reverse bias
Energy-level diagram for n-p
junction
Conduction
Band
Valence
Band
After Turner
n-type
p-type
Junction
region
Detector specifics
Depletion region acts as sensitive volume of
the detector
Passage of ionizing radiation through the
region
Creates holes in valence band
Electrons in conduction band
Electrons migrate to positive charge on n side
Holes migrate to negative voltage on p side
Creates electrical output
Requires about 3.6 eV to create an electron
hole pair in Si

Detector Specifics, contd
Reverse bias n-p junction is good detector
Depletion region
Has high resistivity
Can be varied by changing bias voltage
Ions produced can be quickly collected
Number of ion pairs collected is proportional to
energy deposited in detector
Junction can be used as a spectrometer
Types of detectors:
HPGe
GeLi (lithium drifted detectors)
Surface barrier detectors
Electronic dosimeters
SOLID STATE DETECTORS RECAP

Solid state detectors utilize semiconductor
materials.
Intrinsic semiconductors are of very high purity
and extrinsic semiconductors are formed by
adding trace quantities (impurities) such as
phosphorus (P) and lithium (Li) to materials such
as germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
There are two groups of detectors:
junction detectors and bulk conductivity detectors.
SOLID STATE DETECTORS

Junction detectors are of either
diffused junction or
surface barrier type:
an impurity is either diffused into, or spontaneously oxidized
onto, a prepared surface of intrinsic material to change a layer of
p-type semiconductor from or to n-type.
When a voltage (reverse bias) is applied to the surface barrier
detector it behaves like a solid ionization chamber.
Bulk conductivity detectors are formed from intrinsic semiconductors
of very high bulk resistivity (for example CdS and CdSe).
They also operate like ionization counters but with a higher density
than gases and a ten-fold greater ionization per unit absorbed dose.
Further amplification by the detector creates outputs of about one
microampere at 10 mSvh
1
Solid State Counters
A - very thin metal
(gold) electrode.
P - thin layer of p-
type semiconductor.
D - depletion region,
310 mm thick
formed by the
voltage, is free of
charge in the absence
of ionizing radiations.
N - n-type
semiconductor.
B - thin metal
electrode which
provides a positive
potential at the n-type
semiconductor.

PRACTICAL SOLID STATE
DETECTORS
The main applications for semiconductor detectors are in
the laboratory for the spectrometry of both heavy
charged (alpha) particle and gamma radiations.
However, energy compensated PIN diodes and special
photodiodes are used as pocket electronic (active)
dosimeters.
PIN diode: Acronym for positive-intrinsic-negative diode.
A photodiode with a large, neutrally doped intrinsic region
sandwiched between p-doped and n-doped semiconducting
regions.
A PIN diode exhibits an increase in its electrical conductivity as a
function of the intensity, wavelength, and modulation rate of the
incident radiation. Synonym PIN photodiode.
PIN Diodes
Ordinary Silicon PIN photodiodes can serve as detectors for X-ray
and gamma ray photons. The detection efficiency is a function of the
thickness of the silicon wafer. For a wafer thickness of 300 microns
(ignoring attenuation in the diode window and/or package) the
detection efficiency is close to 100% at 10 KeV, falling to
approximately 1% at 150 KeV(3).
For energies above approximately 60 KeV, photons interact almost
entirely through Compton scattering. Moreover, the active region of
the diode is in electronic equilibrium with the surrounding medium--
the diode package, substrate, window and outer coating, etc., so
that Compton recoil electrons which are produced near--and close
enough to penetrate--the active volume of the diode, are also
detected.
For this reason the overall detection efficiency at 150 KeV and
above is maintained fairly constant (approximately 1%) over a wide
range of photon energies.
Thus, a silicon PIN diode can be thought of as a solid-state
equivalent to an ionization-chamber radiation detector.


PRACTICAL SOLID STATE
DETECTORS

Specially combined thin and thick detectors provide the
means to identify charged particles.
used to monitor for plutonium in air, discriminating against alpha
particles arising from natural radioactivity, and for monitoring for
radon daughter products in air.
Small physical size and insensitivity to gamma radiation have
found novel applications: inside nuclear fuel flasks monitoring for
alpha contamination and checking sealed radium sources for
leakage.
Bulk conductivity detectors can measure high dose rates
but with minute-long response times. A Ge(Li) detector
operated at 170C is capable of a very high gamma
resolution of 0.5%. The temperature dependence and
high cost add to their impracticality.
Another type of Solid State /
Scintillation system
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
Thermoluminescence
(TL) is the ability to convert energy from
radiation to a radiation of a different wavelength,
normally in the visible light range.
Two categories
Fluorescence - emission of light during or immediately
after irradiation
Not a particularly useful reaction for TLD use
Phosphorescence - emission of light after the
irradiation period. Delay can be seconds to months.
TLDs use phosphorescence to detect radiation.
Thermoluminescence
Radiation moves electrons into traps
Heating moves them out
Energy released is proportional to
radiation
Response is ~ linear
High energy trap data is stored in TLD for
a long time
TL Process
Valence Band (outermost electron shell)
Conduction Band (unfilled shell)
Phosphor atom
Incident
radiation
Electron trap
(metastable state)
-
TL Process, continued
Valence Band (outermost electron shell)
Conduction Band
Phosphor atom
Thermoluminescent
photon
Heat Applied
-
Output Glow Curves
A glow curve is obtained from heating
Light output from TLis not easily interpreted
Multiple peaks result from electrons in "shallow" traps
Peak results as traps are emptied.
Light output drops off as these traps are depleted.
Heating continues
Electrons in deeper traps are released.
Highest peak is typically used to calculate dose
Area under represents the radiation energy deposited in
the TLD
Trap Depths - Equate to LongTerm
Stability of Information
Time or temperature

TLD Reader Construction
Power Supply
PMT
DC Amp
Filter
Heated Cup
TL material
To High
Voltage
To ground
Recorder or meter
Advantages
Advantages (as compared to film dosimeter
badges) includes:
Able to measure a greater range of doses
Doses may be easily obtained
They can be read on site instead of being sent away
for developing
Quicker turnaround time for readout
Reusable
Small size
Low cost


TLD Disadvantages
Lack of uniformity batch calibration needed
Storage instablity
Fading
Light sensitivity
Spurious TL (cracking, contamination)
Reader instability
No permanent record
NON-TL Dosimeters
LUXEL DOSIMETER
"Optically Stimulated Luminescence"
(OSL) technology
Minimum detectable dose
1 mRem for gamma and x-ray radiation,
10 mRem for beta radiation.
Non TL Dosimeters, continued
Uses thin layer of Al
2
O
3
:C
Has a TL sensitivity 50 times greater than
TLD-100 (LiF:Mg,Ti)
Almost tissue equivalent.
Strong sensitivity to light
Thermal quenching.
Readout stimulated using laser
Dosimeter luminesces in proportion to
radiation dose.
Summary
Wide range of detection equipment
available
Understand strengths and weaknesses of
each
No single detector will do everything
Well get to selection issues in the next
two days
Suggested Reading
Glenn F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and
Measurement, John Wiley & Sons.
Hernam Cember, Introduction to Health
Physics, McGraw Hill.
Nicholas Tsoulfanidis, Measurement and
Detection of Radiation, Taylor & Francis.
C.H. Wang, D.L.Willis, W.D. Loveland,
Radiotracer Methodology in the Biological,
Environmental and Physical Sciences,
Prentice-Hall