Chapter 3

Levelling
Importance of levelling
 The determination of elevations, known,
levelling, is a comparatively simple but
extremely important process.
 The significance of relative elevations cannot
be exaggerated
 They are so important that one cannot imagine
a construction project in which they are not
critical
 From terracing on a farm or the building of
simple wall to the construction of drainage
projects or the largest buildings and bridges.
Reference elevation or datums
 For a large percentage of surveys, it is
reasonable to use some convenient point as a
reference or datum with respect to which
elevation of other points can be determined
 Example, the surface of a body of water in the
vicinity can be assigned a convenient elevation
 Any value can be assigned to the datum, for
example, 100 m or 1000 m but the assigned
value is usually sufficiently large so that nearby
point will not have negative value
Introduction
 Levelling is the operation required in the
determination or more strictly, the comparison,
of heights of points on the surface of the earth
 The qualification is necessary, since the height
of one point can be given only relative to a
plane, this plane is called a datum and in
topographical work the datum used is the
mean level of the sea, since it makes
international comparison of heights possible
 In England, mean sea level was determined at Newlyn,
Cornwall, from hourly observation of the sea level over
a six year period from 1 May 1915
 In United States, the sea level datum is the value of
mean sea level determined by averaging the hourly
elevations of the sea level over a long periods, usually
19 years
 This level is termed Ordinance Datum and is the one
which will normally be used, though on small works an
arbitrary datum may be chosen
 The basic equipment required in levelling is:
- A device which gives a truly horizontal line (the Level)
- A suitably graduated staff (The Levelling staff)
 In addition, equipment is necessary to
enable the points levelled to be located
relative to each other on a map, plan or
section
 Before proceeding with detailed
description of the equipment and its use,
however, some definitions are required
A level line is one which is at a constant
height relative to mean sea level, and
since it follows the mean surface of the
earth it must be a curved line
 A horizontal line, however, is tangential
to the level at any particular point, since
it is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity at that point
 Over short distance the two lines are taken to
coincide; but over long distance a correction
for their divergence becomes necessary
 Figure 3.1 illustrates this point
 In this figure, h represents the height of the
instrument above mean sea level
 For a distance of 100 m the correction is less
than 1 mm in level
 The levelling device must be set up so that its longitudinal
axis is at right angles to the direction of gravity (i,.e. the
line taken by a plumb bob), and the line of sight will then
be horizontal, assuming the instrument to be in correct
adjustment
 Early levelling devices utilized the plumb bob
 If a semicircular protractor, with a plumb bob attached to
its centre, is held vertically, flat edge uppermost, then
when the string of the plumb bob cuts the 90° graduation,
the flat edge is horizontal and sight can be taken along it
 This, broadly, was the principle of the earliest practical
levels, dating to pre-Roman times and, as shown later,
some modern self-levelling instruments employ a form of
pendulum as part of the self levelling mechanism
 It is interesting to note that in this context that another of
the early levelling devices, the water level, and it was self
levelling. It consist of a U-tube partly filled with water, and
it was only necessary to sight along the two free water
surfaces to obtain horizontal sight.
 Many levelling instrument do not use a plumb
bob, this being replaced by a spirit level, a
glass tube curved internally in longitudinal
profile and partly filled with fluid
 The spirit level acts in effect as a very long
plumb bob
 The difference in the readings on the vertically
held graduated staff where intersected by the
horizontal line of sight is a direct measure of
the difference in height between the two staff
stations
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
The surveyor’s telescope
 The Kepler’s type telescope is the one used in
surveying. It consists essentially of two convex
lenses mounted so that their princial axes lie
on the same line to form the optical axis of the
instrument
 The converging object lens (that is, the one
nearest to the object, AB forms a real image,
ab, the rays from which pass on to the
eyepiece, where they are retracted again and
form a virtual image at the some convenient
distance in front of the eye
 Note that this image, a1b1, is inverted and
magnified
 Magnification is an important property of
surveying telescope the resolving power
depending directly upon magnification.
 However, the field of view diminishes with
increase magnification and, accordingly, in
order to obtain a bright image of the staff, the
clear aperture of the objective needs to be
increased as magnification increases.
The diaphragm
 To provide positive and visible horizontal and
vertical reference lines in the telescope, a
diaphragm is inserted in front of the eyepiece
in a plane at right angles to the optical axis.
 There are many forms of diaphragm
(alternatively termed cross-hairs, graticule or
reticule), but nowdays it is usually a thin glass
plate on which the lines are engraved
 The imaginary line passing through the
intersection normal to the cross-hairs
and through the optical centre of the
glass is called line of collimation of the
instrument, and all level readings are
taken to this line
 The diaphragm is held inside the
telescope tube by four adjusting screws,
which enable
- The cross-hairs to be adjusted so that
the horizontal cross-hair is truly
horizontal
- The line of collimation to be moved
vertically and laterally
Parallax
 In focusing this simple telescope, the
real image formed by the objective lens
is made to lie in the same plane as the
diaphragm
 If this is not done, some serious errors in
reading will ensue because of the
phenomenon known as parallax
 It is a matter of common observation and can be readily
confirmed by the student that if, when viewing with the
eye two distant objects that lie approximately along a
straight line, the eye is moved to one side, then the more
distant object moves relative to the nearer one in the
same direction as the eye, and this is known as parallax
 If the image is not formed in the plane of the diaphragm,
and parallax is observed when the eye is moved slightly
when viewing through the telescope, different will be
given depending upon the position of the eye
Internal focusing
 Early instruments were of the external
focusing type: that is, they had the same
basic construction as the simple one
shown in Figure below.
 The eyepiece and the object lens were
mounted in two tubes arranged so that
one could slide inside the other, and
focusing was achieved by moving one of
the systems relative to the other
 This type is now superseded by the
internal focusing telescope (Figure
below), in which the eyepiece and object
lens are mounted in a tube of fixed
length
 A movable concave lens is usually
inserted between them.
 The concave lens is moved by means of a rack
and pinion gearing, the pinion being connected
by a spindle to the focusing screw, and the
image focused on the cross-hairs without any
movement of the object lens as shown Figure
3.7.
 The image from the objective would form at P’
if the concave lens was absent, and it is
treated at the virtual object for that lens, the
actual image forming at P
Figure 3.7
 Although this extra lens absorbd some light,
the disadvantage of this is more than offset by
having a closed tube into which dust and
moisture have no access
 In addition, the internal focusing telescope is
much more compact, while wear on the sliding
surfaces is much less serious than in the
external focusing type, where it causes ‘droop’
with consequent loss of alignment in the
principal axes of the eyepiece and objective
 Some manufacturers introduce prism systems into the
optical path inside the telescope, which re-inverts the
image so that the eye will be presented with an upright
picture
 In automatic levels, devices to ensure that the lineof
collimation is horizontal are introduced in the optical path
 There are, in fact, in modern surveying instrumentation, a
great number of different designs of telescopes, some
looking more like periscopes than telescopes
 In all instruments, however, the purpose of the telescope
remains the same;
 To define precisely a line of sight and to magnify a target
The levelling staff
 Staff used for ordinary levelling work are
sectional and are assembled either
relescopically or by slotting onto one another
vertically
 Most modern staffs made of mahogany are still
available
 BS 4484: Part 1:1969 requires length of either
3 m, 4 m or 5 m on extension, upon which the
closed lengths naturally depend
 It is possible that an extended length of 4.267
m will also be encountered since this was a
typical equivalent Imperial dimension for the
Sopwith staff shown in Fig 3.8.
 BS 4484: Part 1 requires upright figuring with
graduations 10 mm deep spaced at 10 mm
intervals, the lower three graduations in each
100 mm intervals being connected by a vertical
band to form an E-shape, natural or reversed
 The 50 mm or 100 mm intervals are therefore
located by these shapes
 The graduations of the first metre length are
coloured black on a white background, with
next metre length showing graduation red
graduations and so on alternately
 To assist in holding the staff truly vertical, a
small circular spirit level and a pair of handles
are sometimes incorporated
Dumpy level
 In a Dumpy level the telescope and vertical spindle are
cast as one piece
 The levelling head shown consist essentially of two
plates, the telescope being mounted on the upper plate
while the lower plate screws directly on to a tripod
 The two plates are held apart by three levelling screws or
foot screws, and adjustments to these enable accurate
levelling of the instrument to be carried out
 When this has been effected, using the bubble attached
to the telescope, the instrument should remain level no
matter in which direction it is pointed
Setting up
The following sequence of operations is required to bring a
tilting level ready for use.
(b) Screw the lower plate of the instrument on the head of
the tripod, whose legs have been opened and firmly
fixed on the ground
(c) The circular bubble should be brought to its central
position, using the foot screw or ‘ball and socket’
assembly. If using an instrument fitted with foot screw,
the best procedures is as follows. Referring Fig 3.14, by
rotating foot screws 1 and 2 in opposite directions at
the same time the bubble can be st on the line 1---2.
Now, by rotating foot screw 3 only, the bubble can be
centred in the target ring
(a) It is essential that parallax between the cross-hairs and the
image of the levelling staff can be eliminated, for reasons
already explained. There is no doubt that failure to do so is
responsible for much error in levelling. To eliminate parallax:
(i) hold a piece of white paper in front of the objective, and
focus the eyepiece so that the cross-hairs appear clear and
distinct. This is usually achieved by turning the eyepiece,
which is threaded into telescope barrel. It must be realised
that the eyepiece setting depends on the characteristics of
the surveyor’s eye, so that it will vary from one person to
another; for one given operator, the setting will not vary; (ii)
now sight the levelling staff and focus its image with the
focusing screw so that when the eye is moved slightly there
is no relative movement between the image and the cross-
hairs
(a) Centre the sensitive bubble using the
tilting screw before every reading.
Ensure that the tripod itself is
untouched when taking readings
(b), (c) and (d) can be referred to as
temporary adjustments
 Fig 3.9
Fig 3.8
Fig 3.10
Tilting Level
Fig 3.14
Procedure in levelling
 The basic operation is the determination of the
difference in level between two points
 Consider two points A and B as shown Figure
3.28.
 Set up the level, assumed to be in perfect
adjuctment, so that readings may be made on
a staff held vertically on A and B are 3.222 m
and 1.414 m respectively (Figure 3.28a)
Figure 3.28
 The difference in level between A and B is
equal to AC, 3.222-1.414 =1.808 m, and this is
represents a RISE in the height of the land at
B relative to A.
 If the reading at B is greater than that at A
(Figure 3.28b), say 3.484 m, then the
difference in level would be 3.22-3.484 =
-0.262 m.
 This would represent a FALL in the height of
the land at B relative to A.
 Thus, we have that in any two succesive
staff readings:
- Secodn reading less than first represent
RISE
- Second reading greater than first
represents a FALL
 If the actual level of one of the two points is
known, the level of other may be found by
either adding the rise or subtracting the fall.
 Example, if the level at A is 128.480 m above
Ordinance datum (AOD), then
- Level at B = Level at A + RISE
= 128.480 + 1.808
= 130.288 m (above datum)
Level at B = Level at A – Fall (Figure 3.28b)
= 128.480 -0.262
= 128.218 m above datum
 The levels at A and B are known as reduced
levels (RL), because they give the level of the
land at these points ‘reduced’ or referred to a
datum level (I this case, Ordinance datum,
which is the mean sea height)
 The mentioned method of reducing the staff
readings gives a system of booking known as
the RISE AND FALL method
 A second method, known as the HEIGHT OF
COLLIMATION method, also exists and
because the two methods are in common use
they must both be known
 In this second method, the height of the line of
collimation above the datum is found by
adding the staff reading, obtained with staff on
a point of known level, to the RL of that point.
 Thus, in Figure 3.28,the height of collimation is 128.480 +
3.222 = 131.702 m AOD, and this will remain constant
until the level is moved to another position
 The levels of points such as B are determined by
deducting the staff reading at these points from the height
of collimation
- Level at B = height of collimation – Reading B
= 131.702 – 1.414
= 130.288 m AOD
Level at B = Height of collimation- Reading at B
= 131.702 – 3.484
= 128.218 m AOD
Uses of levelling
 Apart from the general problem determining
the difference in level between two points,
which has already been fully dealt with, the
main uses of levelling are:
- The taking of longitudinal sections
- Cross sections
- Contouring
- Setting out levels
Accuracy in levelling
 The main factor affecting accuracy in levelling
are as follows:
- Reading of staff
- Bubble not being central
- Instrument not being in adjustment
- Differential settlement of the tripod
- Tilting and settlement of the staff
- Sensitivity of bubble of compensator
 Assuming a tripod on firm ground with its legs
well dug in, we can ignore the effects of tripod
settlement
 Similarly, the effect of staff tilt and settlement
can be kept to the minimum by use of a staff
with a target bubble to ensure vertically
standing on firm ground on a change plate
 The effects of maladjustment are eliminated in
long runs of levelling by equal backsight and
foresight with the level set up such that its line
of sight is as high as possible.
Reading error
 These depend on (1) the magnification
and image clarify afforded by the
telescope, (2) on the manner in which
the staff is marked and (3) the length of
sight
Bubble displacement
 The accuracy of bubble centring depends on the methods
used to view the bubble
 The less accurate instruments are fitted with viewing
mirrors while those of higher accuracy are fitted with
prismatic viewers
 The uncertainty caused by bubble mislevelment in tilting
levels is comparable to the uncertainty due to
mislevelment of the compensator in automatic
instruments
 Manufacturer usually quote the setting accuracy of the
bubble or compensator for their instruments
 The accuracy of setting for a standard
engineer’s level would lie somewhere in
the range of ±1.5" to ±0.5", with the more
precise instruments capable of being set
horizontal to ±0.2“
 The precision of staff reading over any
range can be determined from this value
References
 Jack McCormac (5th Ed), Surveying, john
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Arthur Bannister, Stanley Raymond,
Raymond Baker, Surveying, (7Ed),
Pearson/ Prentice Hall