Aviation Weather Meteorology for Pilots

Chapter 6 Section A Basic Weather Theory

The Atmosphere

Mixture of gases surrounding the earth Fairly uniform in proportions up to approx. 260,000 feet Divided into layers that are defined by other criteria

The Atmosphere

Troposphere Tropopause Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere

The Atmosphere

Troposphere

Surface to approx. 36,000 feet

Higher in summer than winter Higher at equator than poles

Where most of the weather is

Tropopause top of troposphere, jet stream, turbulence, top of thunderstorms Stratosphere to approx. 160,000 feet Mesosphere and Thermosphere

Composition of the Atmosphere

Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Other 1% Water vapor 0% to 4%

Pollutants

Atmospheric Circulation

Why is there movement of the air?

Atmosphere fixed to earth by gravity Rotates with earth

What upsets the equilibrium?

Unequal temperatures at the earths surface

Circulation - theory

Temperature is affected by exposure to sun

Length of time summer versus winter Angle at which sun strikes the surfaces equator versus poles

Air compensates for unequal heating by convection

Warmer air is less dense, rises - equator Cooler air is more dense, sinks - poles and replaces warmer air by flowing to equator

Circulation - reality

Three-cell pattern

Hadley Cell Ferrel Cell Polar Cell

Atmospheric Pressure

Unequal heating causes

Changes in air density Circulation Results in pressure changes

Altimeter settings are different in different locations

On the Weather Maps

Isobars

Lines connecting points of equal pressure

Pressure gradient change in pressure over distance

Close together or widely spaced isobars indicate strong or weak gradient

Isobars Identify Pressure Systems

High pressure system Low pressure system Ridge Trough Col

Air Flow

From cool, dense air of high pressure To warm, less dense air of low pressure Pressure gradient force

Strong pressure gradient (isobars close together) = strong wind Weak pressure gradient (isobars far apart) = light wind

Coriolis Force

Air does not go in a straight line directly from high pressure to low pressure Rotation of the earth causes path to deflect

To right in northern hemisphere To left in southern hemisphere No deflection at equator, most deflection at poles The greater the speed the greater the deflection

Coriolis Force

Deflection continues until Coriolis Force and Pressure Gradient Force are equal Air flows parallel to isobars Clockwise flow around a high pressure area Counterclockwise around a low pressure area

Frictional Force

Friction slows air near surface of earth Less Coriolis force because of slower speed of air Pressure gradient force is greater and air flows toward low pressure

Global Wind Patterns

Local Wind Patterns

Wind patterns are affected by:

Terrain variations Water

Warmer air rises - cool air replaces warm air

Same as global patterns smaller scale

Sea Breeze

Day time heating of land Causes air to rise Cooler air from over water flows in to replace warmer air Return flow above sea breeze 10 to 20 knots 1,500 to 3,000 feet AGL

Land Breeze

Land cools faster than water at night Reverse of daytime sea breeze Temperature contrasts less at night than during day so land breeze not as strong 1,000 to 2,000 feet AGL

Valley Breeze

Mountain slopes heated by sun which heats adjacent air Warmed air flows up the valley 5 to 20 knots Maximum winds several hundred feet above surface

Mountain Breeze

At night, terrain cools Becomes cooler than the air Pressure gradient reverses Air flows down the slopes and valley 5 to 15 knots, max 25 knots

Katabatic Wind

Downslope wind Stronger than mountain breeze Either warm or cold

Cold Downslope Winds

Over areas of ice or snow air becomes extremely cold Shallow dome of high pressure forms Pressure gradient force pushes cold air through gaps in mountains If through a narrow canyon, speeds can exceed 100 knots Named in some locations bora (Croatia), mistral (France), Columbia Gorge wind (US)

Warm Downslope Wind

Warm airmass moving over mountains can form trough of low pressure on lee side Causes downslope wind to develop As descends, compresses and warms Can increase over 20 in an hour 20 to 50 knots, as much as 100 knots Named Chinook (eastern slopes of Rockies), foehn (Alps), Santa Ana (So. Calif)

Meteorology for Pilots

Atmospheric Stability

Stability resistance to vertical motion Stable atmosphere makes vertical motion more difficult Generally smooth air Unstable air turbulent, rising air, large vertical movement Significant cloud development, hazardous weather

Adiabatic Heating/Cooling

Air moving up expands due to lower pressure Air moving down compressed, high pressure As pressure changes so does temperature Process is adiabatic heating (compression) or cooling (expansion

Lapse Rate

Lapse rate rate of temperature decrease with increase in altitude Average is 2C (3.5F) per 1,000 feet

Water Vapor and Lapse Rate

Water vapor is lighter than air

Moisture decreases air density causes air to rise Less moisture air is more dense air descends

Moist air cools at a slower rate than dry air Dry adiabatic lapse rate is 3C (5.4F) per 1,000 Moist adiabatic lapse rate is
1.1C to 2.8C (2F to 5F) per 1,000

Temperature and Moisture

Combined, determine the stability of air Warm, moist air = greatest instability Cold, dry air = greatest stability Lapse rate can be used to determine the stability of the atmosphere

Temperature Inversions

Temperature usually decreases with altitude Inversion is when temperature increases with altitude Usually in shallow layers Near surface or at higher altitudes Lid for weather and pollutants In stable air with little or no wind and turbulence Visibility usually poor

Temperature Inversion

Clear, cool night, calm wind Terrestrial radiation

Ground cools, lowers the temperature of air near ground

Cooler layer of air next to ground

Frontal Inversions

Cold front

Cool air forced under warm air

Warm front

Warm air rides up over cold air

Moisture

In terms of flight hazards

Very moist air poor or severe weather can occur Dry air weather will usually be good

State of moisture

Solid, Liquid, Gas

Evaporation Condensation Sublimation Deposition Melting Freezing

Latent Heat

Extra heat in changing state either absorbed or released

32 water to 32 ice

Every physical process of weather is accompanied by a heat exchange Page 6-19, Latent heat diagram

Humidity

Moisture in the air

Relative humidity

Actual amount of moisture in air compared to total amount that could be at that temperature

Amount of moisture in the air depends on air temperature

Dewpoint

Temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated can hold no more water Calculate cloud bases
Temp F Dewpoint F x 1,000 4.4 F

Dew and Frost

Surface cools to temp below the dewpoint of surrounding air

Dew if dewpoint is above freezing water vapor condenses Frost if dewpoint is below freezing water vapor changes directly to ice

Frost and Airplanes

Frost

Spoils smooth surface of airfoil Spoils the smooth airflow over wings Decreases lift Increases drag

Thou shall not fly an airplane with frost on it.

Clouds

Air cools to saturation point Condensation and sublimation changes vapor into visible moisture Clouds, fog (clouds near surface) Very small droplets or ice crystals Condense or sublimate onto small particles of solid matter in the air condensation nuclei

Cooling of Air

Clouds and Fog

Anticipate by noting temperature/dewpoint spread Less than 4F (2C) of spread and decreasing favorable for fog, clouds

Types of Clouds

Grouped by families according to altitude Low, fog Middle High Clouds with vertical development

Low Clouds

Surface to about 6,500 feet Stratus

Layered, stable, uniform appearance, cover wide area Nimbus means rain producing Widespread areas of rain, thick layer, heavy icing if below freezing White, puffy clouds

Nimbostratus

Stratocumulus

Fog

Low cloud Base within 50 feet of the ground Ground fog if less than 20 feet deep Classified by way forms

Radiation fog clear, calm, humid nights Advection fog warm, moist air moves over cooler surface Upslope fog moist, stable air forced up sloping land Steam fog cold, dry air moves over warmer water, turbulence and icing hazard

Middle Clouds

6,500 to 20,000 feet AGL Altostratus

Flat, dense, uniform color, min. turbulence, mod. ice

Altocumulus

High Clouds

Above 20,000 feet AGL Cirrus

Wispy, indicate stable air, white, patches or bands Thin, white, long bands or sheets, low moisture content White, patchy, look like cotton, light turbulence

Cirrostratus

Cirrocumulus

Clouds with Vertical Development

Cumulus

In convective currents from heating of earths surface, flat bottoms, dome-shaped tops, fair weather cus, turbulence, little icing or precip Large mounds of cotton, deep area of unstable air, heavy turbulence, icing, pre-thundestorm Thunderstorms, large, vertically developed, very unstable air, large amounts of moisture, heavy turbulence, icing, hail many flight hazards

Towering cumulus

Cumulonimbus

Precipitation

Water, liquid or solid, that falls from the atmosphere and reaches the ground Aviation problems

Visibility Engine performance Increased braking distance Wind shift direction, velocity Icing

Precipitation Causes

Need

Saturation of atmosphere Growth of water or ice particles to point where atmosphere can not support them

Precipitation Causes

Condensation/deposition Coalescence Slow and inefficient

Precipitation Causes

Super-cooled water droplets H2O in liquid form to temperatures as low as -40C Water vapor from these droplets cause ice crystals to grow more quickly

Types of Precipitation

Drizzle <.02 inches in diameter Rain, rain showers Virga Precipitation induced fog Freezing drizzle, freezing rain like drizzle and rain but freeze on contact with ground or objects

Types of Precipitation

Ice pellets Hail Snow Snow grains Fallstreaks or mares tails

Airmasses

Large body of air Uniform temperature Uniform moisture content Several hundred miles across Forms where air remains stationary for several days

Source Regions

Where air tends to stagnate Semi-permanent areas of high pressure

Polar Tropical Continental Maritime

Source Regions

Stable Air Characteristics

Smooth Layered/stratiform clouds Restricted visibility Widespread clouds Steady rain or drizzle

Unstable Air Characteristics

Cumuliform clouds Showers Turbulence Good surface visibility

Modification

After source region, airmass takes on characteristics of area over which it moves Degree of change

Depends on speed of airmass Nature of area it moves over Temperature difference Depth of airmass

Warming from Below

Causes vertical movement of air Causes instability Lake effect

Cooling from Below

Vertical movement is inhibited Stability of air is increased Enough moisture fog will develop Temperature inversion

Low ceilings Poor visibility

Fronts

Boundaries between airmasses Cold front Warm front Stationary front Occluded front

Discontinuities

Or how do you know when a front passes by?

Temperature more pronounced at surface Wind direction and possible speed Pressure lowest pressure directly over front

Cold Front

Cold Front Weather

Warm Front

Warm Front Weather

Stationary Front

Opposing airmasses relatively balanced Stay in place for several days Weather is a mixture of both warm and cold fronts

Occluded Front

Fast moving cold front catches up with slow moving warm front Cold front occlusion

Cold front colder than air ahead of warm front Air ahead of warm front is colder than air with cold front

Warm front occlusion

Occluded Fronts

Occluded Front Weather

Meteorology for Pilots

Thunderstorms

Needed for development of thunderstorms

Unstable conditions Lifting force High moisture levels

Thunderstorms Two Types

Airmass

Scattered Short-lived Rarely have large hail or strong winds

Severe

50 knot winds or more Hail inches diameter Tornadoes

T-storms

Single-cell an hour Super-cell may last two hours Multi-cell cluster of t-storms at different stages, interact to last longer than individual cells would

T-storms

Squall line non-frontal, often 50 to 300 miles ahead of fast-moving cold front, continuous line, most severe conditions (winds, hail, tornadoes) Frontal thunderstorms with frontal activity

Warm front obscured, with showery precip Cold front visible line Occluded front depends on conditions

Thunderstorm Life Cycle

Three stages of a thunderstorm

Cumulus Stage

Lifting action begins the vertical movement Continuous updrafts Condensation creates clouds, releases latent heat which continues vertical development No precipitation falls 3000/minute updrafts Grows rapidly into towering cumulus 15 minutes

Mature Stage

Precipitation begins to fall signals mature stage Warm updrafts and cool precipitation induced downdrafts = severe turbulence Gusty surface winds and wind shear gust front and roll cloud Top as high as 40,000 spreads out horizontally forming anvil (points in approx. direction of storms movement)

Dissipating Stage

15 to 30 minutes after precip begins Characterized by downdrafts Weakens Stratiform appearance, gradually dissipates Anvil lasts longer ice cloud

Upper-level Winds and T-storms

T-storm Hazards Turbulence

Turbulence cumulonimbus clouds are the most turbulent clouds

Between updrafts and downdrafts in the t-storm Low-level turbulence where downdrafts spread out at the surface

T-storm Hazards Lightning

Lightning always associated with t-storms

In-cloud Cloud-to-cloud Cloud-to-ground Cloud-to-clear air 300,000 volts per foot, 50,000F Can cause temp. loss of vision, puncture aircraft skin, damage electronic nav. and comm. equipment

Rarely harm crew or substantially damage plane

T-storm Hazards Hail

Occurs at all altitudes In or outside of clouds Can be thrown downwind Can do major damage to aircraft

T-storm Hazards Tornadoes

Funnel cloud descends from bottom of cloud Touching ground tornado Touching water waterspout Winds can exceed 200 knots

Turbulence

Turbulence in and near thunderstorms Low-level turbulence Clear air turbulence Mountain wave turbulence What to do

In flight, slow to maneuvering speed, maintain level flight attitude On approach, consider power-on approach with slightly higher than normal approach speed

Low-level Turbulence

Below 15,000 Usually due to surface heating or friction Four types:

Mechanical Convective Frontal Wake

Mechanical Turbulence

Obstacles (building, terrain) interfere with normal wind flow Wind forms eddies when it blows around trees, hangars, etc. Produced downwind of obstructions

Convective Turbulence

Thermal turbulence Daytime, fair weather Either cold air moving over warm surface or when ground is heated by the sun 200 to 2,000 f.p.m. updrafts Towering cumulus clouds indicate presence of convective turbulence Capping stable layer above cumulus clouds, haze or dust

Frontal Turbulence

In the narrow zone just ahead of a fast-moving cold front Up to 1000 f.p.m. Moderate or greater turbulence

Wake Turbulence

Wingtip vortices created when lift is generated Intensity depends on

Aircraft weight Speed Configuration

Large, heavy aircraft, low speed, high angle of attack = greatest wake turbulence Can induce uncontrollable roll rate for small ac

Wake Turbulence

Wingtip vortices sink below the flight path of the aircraft which generated them Most dangerous during a light, quartering tailwind condition can move the upwind vortex over the runway, forward into the touchdown zone Can bounce 2x as high as wingspan of ac ATC provides separation unless you accept clearance to follow aircraft in sight

Avoiding Wake Turbulence

Jet Engine Blast

Hazard for small aircraft behind aircraft with jet engines Stay several hundred feet away

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)

Usually above 15,000 No visual warning Can be present in non-convective clouds Often develops around jet stream (narrow band of high winds near tropopause) Usually thin layers

Mountain Wave Turbulence

Stable air crosses mountains smooth on windward side Wind 40 knots or greater, perpendicular to ridge Waves extend 100 miles or more downwind Crests can be well above highest peaks Violent turbulence

Mountain Wave Turbulence

Mountain Wave Turbulence

Signature clouds

Rotor clouds form below crests of waves Lenticular (standing lenticular) form in the crests

May contain 50 knot winds

Cap clouds form over the mountains

Approach at 45 angle If winds at altitude exceed 30 knots, FAA recommends against light aircraft flying over mountains

Wind Shear

Sudden, drastic shift in speed/direction, in vertical or horizontal plane, any altitude Associated with:

Frontal system Thunderstorm Temperature inversion with strong upper-level winds Clear air turbulence Convective precipitation Jet stream

Microburst

Horizontal one n.m. or less Vertical 1,000

LLWSAS

Low-level Wind shear alert systems Wind sensors placed at several places around airports Wind differences evaluated by computer Alert given when wind shear detected ATC will give you the readouts of two or more sensors

TDWR

Terminal Doppler weather radar Uses narrower beam Better picture of thunderstorms

Visual Indications of Wind Shear

Rain shaft Virga Dust ring on ground

Icing

Visible moisture necessary for structural icing Freezing rain gives highest rate of accumulation Temperature of aircraft surface 0C or less Effects:

Thrust reduced Drag and weight increased Lift decreased

Types of Ice

Rime ice

Stratus clouds Tiny super cooled droplets Trapped air gives opaque appearance Changes shape of airfoil, destroys lift On leading edge of airfoils Temps -15C to -20C

Types of Ice

Clear ice

In areas of large supercooled water droplets In cumulus clouds or freezing rain under warm front inversion Flow over the structure, slowly freeze Glaze the surface Most serious form of ice adheres, difficult to remove Temps 0C to -10C

Types of ice

Mixed ice

Combo of rime and clear Temps -10C to -15C

Restrictions to Visibility

Haze fine dry particles, stable atmosphere, light winds, visibility good above layer Smoke combustion particles, reddish or orange sky Smog combo of fog and smoke, stable air and terrain may trap smog and make worse Dust - fine particles of loose soil, strong winds, unstable atmosphere

Volcanic Ash

Highly abrasive Pit windscreens and landing lights Can clog pitot-static and ventilation systems Can damage control surfaces Jet engines more likely to be severely damaged than piston AVOID