CHAPTER 5

5.1 : ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

Important terminology

Coulomb (C): The basic unit used to measure electric charge.

Joule (J): A joule is the work done by a constant 1-N force applied
through a 1-m distance.

Ampere (A): One ampere or amp is the current that flows when 1
Coulomb of charge passes each second (1 A = 1 C/s)

Volt (V): If a charge of 1 Coulomb may be moved between two points
in space with expenditure of 1 Joule of work, 1 Volt is said
to be a potential difference existing between these points (1
V = 1 J/C)

Watt (W): The rate at which work is done or energy expended. The
watt is defined as 1 Joule per second (1 J/s).
Quantities and SI Units
SI UNITS used in electricity:

VOLTS (V): unit of potential difference, emf, or voltage

OHM (): unit of resistance

AMPS (AMPERES) (A): unit of current

COULOMBS (C): unit of charge (= the charge moved when one amp of current
runs for one second).

WATTS (W): unit of power (power energy per unit time). In electrical circuits,
one watt is produced when a current of one amp flows down a
potential difference of one volt.

JOULE (J): unit of energy.

Quantities and SI Units
Six Basic SI unit used in electrical engineering field:
Quantity Basic unit Symbol
length
mass
time
Electric current
Thermodynamic
temperature
Luminous intensity
meter
kilogram
second
ampere
Kelvin/ Celsius
Candela
m
kg
s
A
K / C
cd
Table 1: SI unit
Electrical Simple Rules.
One watt is one joule per second.
One amp is one coulomb per second.
If you double the voltage the current will double.
If you halve the voltage the current will halve.
If you double the resistance the current will halve.
If you halve the resistance the current will double.
Charge


Battery
I
-Electricity is any effect resulting from the presence and/or movement
of electrical charges.
- Electrical charge is property of the atomic particles,
- measured in Coulomb (C)
Conducting wire
(atoms within)
Battery (source of electromotive force, emf)
+ +
+
Motion of charge
Electric Current
An electric current is the flow of electric charges.
Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge.
In a simple circuit such as that illustrated, the current in the
wire is composed of electrons that flow from the negative pole
of the battery (the cathode at the bottom of the battery) and
return to the positive pole (the anode at the top of the battery,
marked by a +).
Electric Current
Electric current is the time rate of change of
charge, measured in Amperes (A).
Mathematically, the relationship between
current i, charge q, and time t, is


Current is measured in amperes (A),
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
dt
dq
i =
Electric Current
Two common types of current are;
Direct Current (dc)
Alternating Current (ac),
A direct current (dc) is a current
that remains constant with time.
The symbol I is used to represent
such a constant current.
An alternating current (ac) is a current
that varies sinusoidally with time.
A time-varying current is represented by
the symbol i.
Voltage
Some work or energy transfer is required to move the electron in a
conductor in a particular direction. This work is performed by an
external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the
battery.

The emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.

Electric potential is the energy required to move a unit of electric
charge to a particular place in a static electric field.

Voltage can be measured by a VOLTMETER.

The unit of measurement is the VOLT (V).
Energy and Power
Energy is the fundamental ability to do work and
produce action.
Energy exists in many forms, such as mechanical,
sound, light, electrical, nuclear and chemical.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can be
converted from one form to another.
Energy is measured in JOULES, but in many fields other
units, such as kilowatt-hours and kilocalories.
Electrical energy is the most convenient form of energy
that is readily to be convert to other forms. For
examples; to mechanical energy through a motor, to
lighting energy through a lamp, and to heating energy
through a resistance heater.
Power is a measure of how fast energy is being used.
(power is the rate of consuming energy)
Energy and Power
Power is a certain amount of energy used in a certain length of time
P = energy/time = W/t


VI P=
In direct current resistive circuits, electrical power is calculated using
Joule's law:

where P is the electric power,
V the potential difference, and
I the electric current.


Energy and Power
Power can be delivered or absorbed as defined by the
polarity of the voltage and the direction of the current.

-
+
V
Power delivered or supplied
by voltage source
-
+
V
Power delivered or supplied
by voltage source
I
+ -
V
Power absorbed by resistor
I
+ -
V
Power absorbed by resistor
Two polarity of the voltage and the direction of the current
Energy and Power
Ohms Law
defines the relationship
between the three fundamental
electrical quantities: current,
voltage, and resistance .
When a voltage is applied to a
circuit containing only resistive
elements, current flows
according to Ohm's Law, which
is shown below;






Ohm's law states that the electrical
current (I) flowing in a circuit is
proportional to the voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance
(R).
If the voltage is increased, the current
will increase provided the resistance of
the circuit does not change.
Increasing the resistance of the circuit
will lower the current flow if the voltage
is not changed.
The formula current , I = V/R
Energy and Power
Ohms Law
The formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily
be seen for all of the three variables.

V = I R or I = V/R or R = V/I

Where: I = Electrical Current (Amperes)
V = Voltage (Volt)
R = Resistance (Ohms)

When the current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential
(v = iR). If current flows from a lower to high potential, then v = -iR.
Energy and Power
Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
When a voltage (V) is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current (I) will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that
voltage.
It is usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds.
Resistance factor depend on cross-sectional area (A), length (l) and
resistivity () of the material used as shown in the figure.
Mathematically:



A
R
L
=
y, resistivit with material
A area, sectional - cross
l length,
Energy and Power
A material with low resistivity is a good conductor; examples are
gold, copper and aluminum.
An insulator like mica and paper has a very high resistivity.
Insulator 3x10^12 Teflon
Insulator 10^12 Glass
Insulator 5x10^11 Mica
Insulator 10^10 Paper
Semiconductor 6.4x10^2 Silicon
Semiconductor 47x10^-2 Germanium
Semiconductor 4x10^-5 Carbon
Semiconductor 2.45x10^-8 Gold
Conductor 2.8x10^-8 Aluminum
Conductor 1.72x10^-8 Cooper
Conductor 1.64 x 10^-8 Silver
Usage Resistivity (.m) Material
Insulator 3x10^12 Teflon
Insulator 10^12 Glass
Insulator 5x10^11 Mica
Insulator 10^10 Paper
Semiconductor 6.4x10^2 Silicon
Semiconductor 47x10^-2 Germanium
Semiconductor 4x10^-5 Carbon
Semiconductor 2.45x10^-8 Gold
Conductor 2.8x10^-8 Aluminum
Conductor 1.72x10^-8 Cooper
Conductor 1.64 x 10^-8 Silver
Usage Resistivity (.m) Material
Table 2: Resistivity of common materials at 20
o
C
Energy and Power
Example;
Calculate the electrical resistance per meter length at 20
o
C of a
cooper conductor of 2.5mm
2
cross section area.

( )
O =
O
=
O =

O =
O =

0069 . 0
10 5 . 2
10 72 . 1
10 5 . 2
1
10 72 . 1
1000
1
5 . 2
1
10 72 . 1
2 6
2 8
2 6
8
2 2
2
2
8
m x
m x
R
m x
m
m x R
mm
m
mm
m
m x R
A
l
R
Energy and Power
Conductance
Reciprocal of resistance is conductance and denoted by G




It measures of how well an element will conduct electric current.
The unit for conductance is Siemens (S), and previously called
mho () - ohm spelled back-ward.

R
1
G =
Circuit Design (series)
A series circuit is a circuit which provides only one path for current to
flow between two points in a circuit so that the current is the same
through each series component. The total resistance of a series circuit
is equal to the sum of the resistances of each individual resistor.
N eq equivalent T
R R R R R R R + + + + = = = ...
3 2 1
+ V
1
- + V
2
-
V
s
R
1
R
2
+ V
3
- + V
N
-
R
3
R
N
+ V -
V
s
R
series
(a) (b)
+ V
1
- + V
2
-
V
s
R
1
R
2
+ V
3
- + V
N
-
R
3
R
N
+ V
1
- + V
2
-
V
s
R
1
R
2
+ V
3
- + V
N
-
R
3
R
N
+ V -
V
s
R
series
+ V -
V
s
R
series
(a) (b)
O : units
T
S
R
V
I : Current =
Circuit Design (parallel) and Current
Division
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same
potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them
add.
The conductance of the resistors then add to determine the
conductance of the network.

V
s
+ V -
V
s
R
parallel
(a) (b)
I
+
V
1
-
R
1
+
V
2
-
R
2
+
V
N
-
R
N
I
I
1
I
2
I
N
V
s
+ V -
V
s
R
parallel
+ V -
V
s
R
parallel
(a) (b)
I
+
V
1
-
R
1
+
V
1
-
R
1
+
V
2
-
R
2
+
V
2
-
R
2
+
V
2
-
R
2
+
V
N
-
R
N
+
V
N
-
R
N
+
V
N
-
R
N
I
I
1
I
2
I
N
Circuit (parallel) and Current Division
The equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:
N 3 2 1
I ... I I I I + + + + =
1
N 3 2 1
T
N 3 2 1 equivalent T
R
1
...
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
R
1
...
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1

+ + + + =
+ + + + = =
Current:
Exercise
Calculate:
Total resistance R
T
Total current , I
V
1
, V
2
and V
3

Solutions:
( )
O =
O + + =
+ + =
30
15 10 5
3 2 1
R R R R
T
150V
R 1 = 5 O

R 2 = 10 O

R 3 = 15 O

A
V
R
V
I
T
s
5
30
150
=
O
= =
( ) O = O + + = + + = 30 15 10 5
3 2 1
R R R R
T
R
V
I =
N
N
R
V
I =
( ) V V x IxR V 25 5 5
1 1
= = =
V x V
V x V
75 15 5
50 10 5
3
2
= =
= =
Circuit Design (combination)
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series
connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one
or the other,
Exercise 1

10 O
4 O


7 O 5 O

12 O
A
B
Determine the total resistance of the following circuit between points A and B
Answer: R
T
= 20
Exercise 2
One 100W lamp and one 200W lamp are
plugged into a 120V circuit. For either DC
or AC. The two lamps are connected in
parallel. Calculate the current flow through
each lamp, the total resistance of the
circuit, the total energy consumed in a
month (30 days x 12 hours per day), and
the cost of electrical energy for the year
(based on current TNB rates).
Exercise 2: Calculate the following
current flow through each lamp,
the total resistance of the circuit,
the total energy consumed in a month,
the cost of electrical energy for month

Measurement Equipment
ammeter
voltmeter
ohmmeter
megger
multimeter
wattmeter
Watt-hour
meter
Assignment
One 18 watt lamp and two 60-watt light bulb are
plugged into a 120V circuit. For either DC or AC, the
two bulbs are connected each other in parallel and in
series with the lamp in the same circuit. Calculate;
i. the current flow through each light
ii. the total resistance of the circuit,
iii. the total energy consumed in a year,
iv. the cost of electrical energy for the year (assume
365 days per year) if the lights have been used for 8
hour per day (based on $0.286/kWh).
answer
i. the current flow through each light
(0.15A,05A,0.5A)
ii. the total resistance of the circuit, (RT=920)
iii. the total energy consumed in a year,
(402.96kW)
iv. the cost of electrical energy for the year
(assume 365 days per year) if the lights have
been used for 8 hour per day (based on
$0.286/kWh). ($115.25)