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Tutun Juhana
Telecommunication Engineering
School of Electrical Engineering & Informatics Institut Teknologi Bandung

Underlying Technologies
Computer Networks

Objectives
To briefly discuss the technology of dominant wired LANs, Ethernet, including traditional, fast, gigabit, and ten-gigabit Ethernet To briefly discuss the technology of wireless WANs, including IEEE 802.11 LANs, and Bluetooth To briefly discuss the technology of point-to-point WANs including 56K modems, DSL, cable modem, T-lines, and SONET To briefly discuss the technology of switched WANs including X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM To discuss the need and use of connecting devices such as repeaters (hubs), bridges (two-layer switches), and routers (three-layer switches)

WIRED LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

 A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed for a limited geographic area such as a building or a campus Most LANs today are also linked to a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet

Token Ring

ATM LAN

FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface

Token Bus

IEEE Standard Project 802, designed to regulate the manufacturing and interconnectivity between different LANs
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IEEE Standards
Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of major LAN protocols

The Ethernet
Robert Melancton "Bob" Metcalfe (born April 7,1946) is an electrical engineer from the United States who co-invented Ethernet
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Frame Format
Length used by IEEE standard to define the number of bytes in the data field

Type used by original Ethernet to define upper-layer protocol using the frame

Frame Length
The minimum length restriction is required for the correct operation of CSMA/CD If the upper-layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to make up the difference

Reason for the maximum length restriction: 1. To reduce the size of the buffer (memory was very expensive when Ethernet was designed) 2. It prevents one station from monopolizing the shared medium

Addressing

Each station on an Ethernet network has its own network interface card (NIC) The NIC provides the station with a 6-byte physical address

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 Ethernet Address
The address normally is referred to as the data link address, physical address, or MAC address

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Example: 00-14-22 OUI for Dell 00-04-DC for Nortel 00-40-96 for Cisco 00-30-BD for Belkin

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 The address is sent left-to-right, byte by byte For each byte, it is sent right-to-left, bit by bit Example
Show how the address 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE is sent out on line

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Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses

A source address is always a unicast address

the frame comes from only one station

The destination address can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast

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 The broadcast address is a special case of the multicast address; the recipients are all the stations on the LAN
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 Define the type of the following destination addresses

4A:30:10:21:10:1A 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

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Ethernet Evolution

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STANDARD ETHERNET

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Access Method: CSMA/CD

The IEEE 802.3 standard defines carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) as the access method for traditional Ethernet

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 Stations on a traditional Ethernet can be connected together using a physical bus or star topology, but the logical topology is always a bus

Physical bus topology

Physical star, logically bus topology

The medium (channel) is shared between stations and only one station at a time can use it All stations receive a frame sent by a station (broadcasting) The real destination keeps the frame while the rest drop it

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 How can we be sure that two stations are not using the medium at the same time? If they do, their frames will collide with each other
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 To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance, the CSMA method was developed

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 Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) requires that each station first listen to the medium (or check the state of the medium) before sending
sense before transmit, or listen before talk

CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot eliminate it

The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation delay 24

Space/time model of a collision in CSMA

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Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD A transmits for the duration t4 - t1; C transmits for the duration t3 - t2 for the protocol to work, the length of any frame divided by the bit rate in this protocol must be more than either of these durations Before sending the last bit of the frame, the sending station must detect a collision, if any, and abort the transmission because, once the entire frame is sent, station does not keep a copy of the frame and 26 does not monitor the line for collision detection

Minimum Frame Size

The worst collision on a shared bus http://cnp3book.info.ucl.ac.be/lan/lan/

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 The frame transmission time Tfr must be at least two times the maximum propagation time Tp

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 Example
In the standard Ethernet, if the maximum propagation time is 25.6 s, what is the minimum size of the frame?

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CSMA/CD flow diagram

The station transmits and receives continuously and simultaneously (using two different ports)

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Implementation

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FAST ETHERNET

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 IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard Ethernet, but 10 times faster (100 Mbps) The goals of Fast Ethernet:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet Keep the same 48-bit address. Keep the same frame format. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths

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MAC Sublayer
Keep only the star topology
There are two choices: half duplex and full duplex In the half-duplex approach, the stations are connected via a hub in the full-duplex approach, the connection is made via a switch with buffers at each port

The access method is the same (CSMA/CD) for the half-duplex approach For full-duplex there is no need for CSMA/CD
The implementations keep CSMA/CD for backward compatibility with Standard Ethernet
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Autonegotiation
Autonegotiation allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate of operation It was designed particularly for the following purposes:
To allow incompatible devices to connect to one another To allow one device to have multiple capabilities To allow a station to check a hubs capabilities.
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Implementation

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GIGABIT ETHERNET

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 Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3z) The goals of the Gigabit Ethernet:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet Use the same 48-bit address Use the same frame format Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths. 6. To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet
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MAC Sublayer
A main consideration: keep the MAC sublayer untouched To achieve a data rate of 1 Gbps, this was no longer possible Gigabit Ethernet has two distinctive approaches for medium access
1. Half-duplex 2. Full-duplex

Almost all implementations of Gigabit Ethernet follow the full-duplex approach

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Full-Duplex Mode
There is a central switch connected to all computers or other switches
Each switch has buffers for each input port in which data are stored until they are transmitted

There is no collision in this mode CSMA/CD is not used The maximum length of the cable is determined by the signal attenuation in the cable, not by the collision detection process

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Half-Duplex Mode
A switch can be replaced by a hub a collision might occur CSMA/CD is used the maximum length of the network is totally dependent on the minimum frame size Three solutions have been defined:
1. Traditional 2. Carrier extension 3. Frame bursting
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 Traditional approach
Keep the minimum frame length 512 bits The maximum network length only 25 m (because the length of a bit is 1/100 shorter than in standard Ethernet)
It may not even be long enough to connect the computers in one single office

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 Carrier Extension
Increase the minimum frame length 512 bytes (4096 bits) 8 times longer It forces a station to add extension bits (padding) to any frame that is less than 4096 bits The maximum length of the network can be increased 8 times to a length of 200 m This allows a length of 100 m from the hub to the station
Frame RRRRRRRRRRRRR Carrier Extension 512 bytes
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Carrier Extension is very inefficient if we have a series of short frames to send (each frame carries redundant data)

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 Frame Bursting
To improve efficiency, frame bursting was proposed Instead of adding an extension to each frame, multiple frames are sent
To make these multiple frames look like one frame, padding is added between the frames (96 bits) so that the channel is not idle The method deceives other stations into thinking that a very large frame has been transmitted
Frame Extension Frame Frame Frame

512 bytes
Frame burst Maximum frame burst is 8192 bytes
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Gigabit Ethernet Implementation

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TEN-GIGABIT ETHERNET

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 Ten-Gigabit Ethernet standard : IEEE802.3ae The goals :

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Upgrade the data rate to 10 Gbps. Make it compatible with Standard, Fast, and Gigabit Ethernet. Use the same 48-bit address. Use the same frame format. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths. Allow the interconnection of existing LANs into a metropolitan area network (MAN) or a wide area network (WAN) Make Ethernet compatible with technologies such as Frame Relay and ATM.

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Implementation
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet operates only in full duplex mode no need for contention CSMA/CD is not used

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