Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

Introduction
What is Quality ? Totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs of customers. What is Quality Control ? Quality control is the process through which we measure actual quality performance, compare it with a standard, and act on the difference
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Statistical Process Control

What is SPC
Controlling the process through the use of statistics
Statistical Taking of measurements and the arrangement of those measurements in clear pattern to allow predictions to be made on performance Process Any activity involving a combination of Man, Machine, Material, Method, Tools working together to produce a final product Comparing actual performance with target and what corrective action is necessary to achieve the target
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Control

Statistical Process Control

What is SPC contd.

Statistical Process Control is a standardized method of identifying variation in a process using numerical performance information. SPC is a decision making tool telling when to adjust the process and when to leave it alone. SPC is a time series based methodology, giving information as to when changes in the process occur.
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Statistical Process Control

What is Time Series Management

Normal variation in the Process

Change occurred in the process. What happened !

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Statistical Process Control

Why should we use SPC ?

No Industrial process or machine is able to produce consecutive Items which are identical in Appearance, Length, Thickness, Diameter etc.

Differences will occur due to sources of variation which are inherent in the machine such as Vibration, Speed, Power etc.
The extent of the variation can be measured and is called Machine Capability.
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Statistical Process Control

Results of SPC
Improvement in Quality & Reliability Reduction in Scrap and Rework leading to economy in raw material used Decreased Inspection cost

Efficient use of men and machines leading to reduction in cost per unit of the product
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Statistical Process Control

Results of SPC
Quality Consciousness at all levels Scientific evaluation of standards for quality and production Improved level of Customer Satisfaction

Statistical Process Control

SPC Benefits
Why do we want to do SPC?
Determine if the process is capable or not Minimize Variation Determine if process is suitable for its application Continuous Improvement initiatives Proactively address operation performance Standardize process adjustments

Statistical Process Control

Detection Systems / Traditional Quality systems

Adjust Process 5

The Process
Scrap or Rework

Tools & People Equipment Materials

Output
Methods Environment 2

Mass Inspection

Product OK

Maintenance Schedule

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Statistical Process Control

Process Control Systems

SPC CHARTS
3 Action on the Process 2 Information about Performance 4 Action on the Output

The Process
Tools & Equipment Materials

People

Output
Methods Environment

OK Product

Maintenance Schedule

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Statistical Process Control

7 QC Tools
Check sheet Histogram Pareto Diagram Scatter Diagram Control Charts Stratification

Cause and Effect Diagram

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Statistical Process Control

Data Collection
Data is a numerical expression of an activity or process

Types

Variables / Continuous Data Length, Thickness, Diameter, Bore finish, etc

Attributes / Discrete Data Good, Bad & O.K / Not O.K Defective / Non Defective
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Statistical Process Control

Data Collection
Reasons / Purposes
To understand an actual situation Data for process control and acceptance or rejection For analysis

For Acceptance / Rejection

Sources
Past Records or already Available Data Live Data obtained from a freshly identified problems
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Statistical Process Control

Check Sheet
Purpose
To record factual data over a period of time To ensure all the required data are collected To make data-gathering easy and less time consuming To facilitate quick analysis To arrange data automatically so that it can be easily used
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Statistical Process Control

Check Sheet Example 1

Week Week Week Week
Cumulative

Cause
Weights too Heavy Reach too far Incorrect Posture Previous Injury Frequency of Lifts Cold Workplace Wrong Footwear Accidental Twists Total

1
53 24 5 24 8 21 22 1 158

2
43 29 28 20 31 9 4 12 176

3
42 27 13 2 15 7 10 26 142

4
61 27 30 29 11 16 6 3 183

Total
199 107 76 75 65 53 42 42 659

Total
199 306 382 457 522 575 617 659

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Check Sheet Example 2

Deviation 1 -8 -7 -6 Specification -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Specification 5 6 7 8 Total 2 3 4 5 6 7 Checks 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Statistical Process Control

Frequency

1 2 4 6 9 11 8 7 3 2 1 1

55

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Statistical Process Control

Pareto Diagram
A method of showing a table of data in graphical format to aid understanding This gives a visual impact The technique of arranging data according to its importance and then typing to a problem solving frame work Focus on the issue that is to be attended first by all concerned
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Statistical Process Control

Pareto Diagram
Pareto Diagram helps in identifying and isolating Vital few factors from Trivial many

70% to 80% of the defects will arise from 10% - 20% of the causes. These are called Vital few which are highlighted for special attention. Elimination of these Vital few cause will considerably reduce the total no. of defects.
The remaining 20% - 30% of the defects are from various causes which are called Trivial many
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Statistical Process Control

Pareto Diagram - Example

Week Week Week Week
Cumulative Cumulative

Reject
Weights too Heavy Reach Too far Incorrect Posture Previous Injuries Frequency of Lifts Cold Workplace Wrong Footwear Accidental Twists Total
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

1
53 24 5 24 8 21 22 1 158

2
43 29 28 20 31 9 4 12 176

3
42 27 13 2 15 7 10 26 142

4
61 27 30 29 11 16 6 3 183

Total
199 107 76 75 65 53 42 42 659

Total
199 306 382 457 522 575 617 659

30.19727 30.1972686 16.23672 46.4339909 11.53263 57.9666161 11.38088 69.3474962 9.863429 79.2109256 8.042489 87.2534143 6.373293 93.6267071 6.373293 100

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Pr ev i

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H ea vy

Po st ur

In ju ri

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ea ch

re ct

eq ue nc y

ou s

Co ld

ro ng

Fo ot w

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of

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Statistical Process Control

Cause and Effect Diagram

Cause and Effect Diagram is a method of Brainstorming Causes of a problem or situation Cause and Effect Diagram is a systematic way of listing down all the possible contributing factors ( Causes ) of a problem ( the Effect ) Cause and Effect Diagram helps the Team can focus specific causes This identifies problem areas where data can be collected and analysis Cause and Effect diagram is also known as FISH-BONE Diagram or ISHIKAWA Diagram
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Statistical Process Control

Cause and Effect Diagram

Man Machine Measurement Effect

Material
Step 1 Step 2 -

Methods
Write the Effect

Other factor

Write all the possible causes from the table in turn until dried up Priorities and select the appropriate causes
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Step 3 -

Statistical Process Control

Scatter Diagram
Scatter Diagram are used to examine the relations between two variables to find whether they are related, by controlling the independent variable, the dependent variable is also controlled. Scatter Diagram is a Graphical plot of characteristic on Y- axis and the influencing variable on X- axis Scatter Diagram is used in explaining the behavior of a process and the means of controlling it.

Thickness Of plating

Example
Thickness of plating is related Time of plating
Time of plating
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Statistical Process Control

Stratification
Stratification is the process of separation of data into categories, it is normally done for identifying the categories contributing to the problem
Types

Material Based
Quality Based

Worker Based
Machine Based Process Based
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Statistical Process Control

Histograms
It provides a simple and common language
Show the variation in products coming from a process. Give a picture to the nature of the variation

Purpose
To find fact and Visualization of Data To know the central value of the Group To know the extent of variation in the Group To estimate the % Non-Conformance
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 Cell

Histograms

Statistical Process Control

The interval along the scale of measurement of each of the ordered classes

Cell Boundaries The values of the measurement at the ends of cells

Cell Interval It is the difference between the upper & lower boundaries of the cell Cell Midpoint It is the value equidistant from the cell boundaries Frequency The no. of observations in each of these Cells

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Statistical Process Control

Histograms Construction Procedure

Generate about 100 observations on the Quality Characteristics Observe the min. and max. value in the data Compute the Range ( R = max. min. ) Divide the range into several smaller intervals of equal width ( Width of class interval = R / total no. of intervals ) Decide the class boundaries ( includes the smallest and the largest of values ) Go through the observation and make the tallies

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Statistical Process Control

Histograms Construction Procedure

Count the frequencies in each class Make a bar graph with class intervals in the X-axis and frequencies in the Y-axis Draw a free hand curve connecting the mid-points of the bars Super-impose the specification limits

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Histograms Construction Procedure

Draw a Histogram from the data given below
SPECIFICATION : 141 140 140 140 140 140 142 139 137 140 130 - 150 141 139 140 138 143 138 143 139 141 138 140 141 139 141 139

Statistical Process Control

141 139 139 145 141

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Statistical Process Control

Histograms
Cell
25

LSL

USL

20

15

Frequency
10

Cell width
5

0 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60

Class Interval

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Statistical Process Control

Histograms - Examples

Centered on nominal - good

Skewed

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Statistical Process Control

Interpretation of Histograms

LSL

USL

LSL

USL

Normal, centered, good dispersion, well within limits

Normal, centered, spread too wide, can not meet spec. process must be improved or spec. changed

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Statistical Process Control

Basic Statistics
Types of Data
Continuous Data Variables
Data that can be divided infinitely - Temperature, Time, Pressure, Voltage Nominal / Discrete Data Attribute Data Categorical data Is it scratched? Is it chipped? Does if fit the gauge? On time? Pass Fail?
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Statistical Process Control

Basic Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Average / Mean or
a) Sample Mean X = X

X and :
= X n

b) Population Mean

n
2. Median :

Center of values / mid values ( to be arranged in Ascending or Descending order )

E.g. (113 ,10, 70, 30,90) = 70

3. Mode :

Most frequently occurring value

E.g. (1,2,3,3,4,5,6) Mode = 3
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Statistical Process Control

Basic Statistics
Measures Of Dispersion ( Spread )
1. Range : High value low value ( Xmax Xmin ) 2. Standard Deviation: Sigma - Average distance of each measurement within a sample from the mean of the sample Sample S= Population (x-x) n-1
2

(x-x) N

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Statistical Process Control

Normal Distribution
AREA UNDER NORMAL CURVE
The area under the normal curve has a special relationship to the

population mean and population standard deviation.

-4s

-3s

-2s

-1s

X
68.26 % 95.46 % 99.73 %

+1s

+2s

+3s

+4s

99.994 %

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Statistical Process Control

Normal Distribution
Most of measured characteristics and natural phenomena exhibit this pattern of variation. Higher frequency around the central value and lesser frequency at values away from central value. This pattern of variation is known as Normal pattern

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Statistical Process Control

Normal Distribution
Properties
The frequency curve is Bell shaped
The distribution is Symmetrical around average The distribution is completely known when its Average (X) & Standard deviation ( S ) are known The area between any two vertical lines represents the chance of obtaining an observation in this interval
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Statistical Process Control

Machine Capability Analysis

Machine capability study enables us to separate variation due to machine and assess its capability to produce to specifications

Purpose
To identify the pattern of variation of output
To estimate the capability of machine and compare to product specification To estimate % of out of specification parts which might occur if the machine proves incapable
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Statistical Process Control

Machine Capability Studies

Pre-study Requirements
Specify the product characteristic to be studied and its specifications Schedule 50 consecutive items Specify an uninterrupted run under normal operating conditions with the machine Pre-set at nominal Ensure that all parts and materials used in the study are themselves to the required standards and that operator is fully trained Provide calibrated measuring equipment
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Statistical Process Control

Machine Capability Studies

Conditions for Study New (or) Rebuilt Equipment

On-going capability Assessment for existing equipment

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Statistical Process Control

Machine Capability Studies

Conducting The Study

Record measurements in sequence from an uninterrupted production run. If any non-planned interruption occurs ( Tool breakage, machine fault ) discard the partially collected sample and start again Identify each part by its sequence. Retain all parts until analysis of study data is over Observe process and note any unusual occurrence along with the sequence number of the parts produced immediately after the event If a single measurement is found to be way out of line with others, the part should be examined for any special cause. Record the results of such an examination. Only if it is verified that the cause is not due to the machine, may the part be excluded for determining the capability
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Statistical Process Control

Machine Capability Studies

Actions to be taken If equipment is not capable
Work on the machine to improve capability and repeat capability evaluation Check to see whether the design limits / tolerances / engineering specifications can be extended Alternative machine or process should be sought to provide capability
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Statistical Process Control

Variation and Process Control

If there is no variation, there would be very few operational problems. All parts would be identical to each other and the entire output would be within specification ( or all would be rejected ) There is a variation among the products from any manufacturing process We would like to completely get rid of variation but we know that cant be done The goal is to be able to measure / identify variation and then work to minimize it
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Statistical Process Control

Sources of Variation
Equipment Machines Fixtures Gauges Spindles Collets
Indirect Material Tools Coolant Bushings Lubricants Chemicals

People Training Communication Skill Motivation Attitude

Methods Specification Speeds Feeds Process documentation

Variation

Direct Materials Hardness Machinability Pick-up points

Orders Clarity Timeliness Product Mix Adequacy Quantity

Facilities Temperature Cleanliness Coolant system Humidity Noise

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Statistical Process Control

Variations
- are due to Causes

Causes

Chance / Inherent
Many in number, not economical to eliminate

Assignable / Special
Few in number , economical to eliminate Large in magnitude & Sporadic in nature

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Statistical Process Control

Chance Causes ( Inherent )

Sources of variation which are built into the process and will be caused by such problems as Vibration, Speed, Power etc., These are the sources of random variation, the extent of which can be measured and monitored A large number are in effect at any time Each has an individual effect that is too small to mention Only a change in the system will reduce that part of the variability Only management has the ability to make changes Remain constant over time
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Statistical Process Control

Assignable Causes
Sources of variation which will be due to specific identifiable causes such as variation in Raw material, Operator, Tool wear, Wrong setting etc., these removal are usually the responsibility of someone who is connected directly with the operation Very few in effect at any time The effect is measurable They can be found and eliminated The machine operator is best able to discover and make changes They occur infrequently in an unpredictable manner
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Statistical Process Control

Chance & Assignable Causes

Chance Causes
Normal errors in handling material and machine elements Normal play in machine slides Hardness within Tolerances Small variation in job clamping Temperature change

Assignable Causes
Workmen Carelessness Untrained Workmen Poor maintenance Defective material Blow holes Mix-up of material Wrong speed & feed Bush oversize Wrong drawings Clamps broken Checking of hot jobs with cold instruments

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Statistical Process Control

Process Control And Process Capability

PROCESS CONTROL
IN CONTROL (SPECIAL CAUSES ELIMINATED)

OUT OF CONTROL (SPECIAL CAUSES PRESENT) SIZE LOWER SPECIFICATION LIMIT UPPER SPECIFICATION LIMIT IN CONTROL AND CAPABLE OF MEETING SPECIFICATIONS ( VARIATION FROM COMMON CAUSES HAVE BEEN REDUCED )

PROCESS CAPABILITY

SIZE

IN CONTROL BUT NOT CAPABLE OF MEETING SPECIFICATIONS ( VARIATION FROM COMMON CAUSES IS EXCESSIVE )

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Statistical Process Control

Control Charts
Control charts are Visual representation of variations in the selected parameters over a time A Control chart is simply a Run Chart with statistically determined upper and lower limits drawn on either side of the process Control charts are used to assess and maintain the stability of the process Control chart indicates whether the process variation is natural and to be expected ( Chance cause ) or due to special cause (Assignable cause) Control chart provides a common language for communications about the performance of a process
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Statistical Process Control

Control Charts
SPC involves control followed by Improvement Process are initially brought under control by identifying and eliminating the Assignable Cause variation. A controlled situation is one when the process is operating only under the influence of Chance Cause ( Inherent ) variation Control charts is a simple Graphical device which will help to identify the presence of any Assignable Cause In short, Control chart will indicate How well the job is running It gives when the job is running satisfactorily Or when something has gone wrong needing corrective action
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Statistical Process Control

Purpose of Control Charts

The function of a Control chart is to minimize the net economic loss from Overadjustment and Underadjustment

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Statistical Process Control

A Typical Control Charts

AVERAGE

UCL

A Control chart has three lines. One at the centre is central line ( CL ) and the lines on either side of the central line are known as Control limits The one above is called the Upper Control Limit ( UCL ) The one below is called the Lower Control Limit ( LCL )
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X LCL

RANGE

UCL

R LCL

Statistical Process Control

Why Establish Controls

Stable Process : Predictable operation Unstable process: Poor prediction or performance

SIZE

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Statistical Process Control

Control Charts
Control Limits Vs Specification Limits
Specification limits / Drawing limits Describe what the customer requires the process to produce or what the product measurements must be.
Control limits Describe what the process is actually giving you. If the UCL is above the USL, the LCL is below the LSL, or both, it means that your process will predictably give you a certain (almost certainly too high) percentage of out-of-spec output
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Statistical Process Control

Types of Control Charts

Variable Data
X - R Chart one unit / group X R Chart 2-5 units / group

Attribute Data
Np Chart used for monitoring
no. of defective items in a sample of given size

X S Chart - 6 or more units / group

X chart used for monitoring process average R chart used for monitoring process variability

P Chart used for monitoring fraction defective C Chart used for monitoring the defects in a single part or assembled unit U chart used for monitoring the defects, unequal sample sizes
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Statistical Process Control

Control Charts - Variable

Outline for Preparing to Use Control Charts Collection - Gather data and plot the chart Control - Calculate Control Limits from process data, using simple formulas Interpretation Identify special causes of variation: take local action to correct Capability Quantify common cause variation, take action on the system
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Control Charts - Variable

Sl.no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 X1 42 45 19 36 40 20 X2 60 55 24 48 45 25 X3 65 66 75 54 65 33 X4 70 72 76 63 70 40 X5 75 78 80 72 75 50 X BAR 62.4 63.2 54.8 54.6 59 33.6 R 33 33 61 36 35 30

Statistical Process Control

Draw a Control chart from the data given below

UCL : X Chart = X + A2 * R = 54.6 + 0.58 * 38 = 76.64 LCL : X Chart = X A2 * R = 54.6 0.58 * 38 = 32.56

UCL : R Chart = D4 * R = 2.11 * 38 = 80.18 LCL : R Chart = D3 * R = 0 * 38 = 0

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Statistical Process Control

Construction of Control Charts

Generate sample of size 4 or 5 at periodical intervals Compute Average and Range for each sample Repeat step 1 & 2 for about 25 sub-groups Compute average Range R

The UCL for R - Chart = D4 * R

The LCL for R - Chart = D3 * R
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Statistical Process Control

Construction of Control Charts

Homogenize R Chart

Compute overall Average X

The central line for X Chart is at X The UCL for X Chart = X + A2 * R The LCL for X Chart = X A2 * R Homogenize X - Chart
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Statistical Process Control

Construction of Control Charts

Correction factors for sub-group size n A2 D3 2 1.880 0 3 1.023 0 4 0.729 0 5 0.577 0 6 0.483 0 7 0.419 .076

D4 3.268 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924

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Statistical Process Control

Chart Interpretation
1. Points outside of control limits
UCL CL LCL LCL 2. Runs - 7 consecutive points above or below average UCL CL

3. Trends - 7 consecutive points moving up or down

UCL CL

4. Patterns - 1/3 - 2/3 rule or any non-random pattern UCL CL

LCL

LCL

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Statistical Process Control

Chart Interpretation
A Single points outside the Control limits Seven consecutive points or 10 out of 11 or 12 out of 14 consecutive readings on the same side of the Central Line Seven consecutive readings showing a continuously or decreasing trend Readings showing a Cycle pattern or Saw-Tooth pattern Readings reaming too close to central line Readings suddenly going from one extreme to the other Readings showing large fluctuations & erratic Ups & Downs
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Statistical Process Control

Process Capability Analysis

Process Capability concerns with the Variation caused by all sources of variations : The Machine, The Material used, The Methods employed, The people involved and The environment as it affects the product To make a process capability study, Data must be collected over a fairly long period of time the machine

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Statistical Process Control

Process Capability Analysis

What is Cp.
Cp is an index comparing the variation within the process to the spec limits. The higher the number , the less variation in the process.

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Statistical Process Control

Process Capability Analysis

What is CPK
Cpk is an index (a simple number) which measures how close a process is running to its specification limits, relative to the target of the process. The larger the index, the less likely it is that any item will be outside the specifications
Cpk 0.5 1.0 1.33 Confirming Output (%) 93.3 99.86 99.997 PPM 67,000 ppm 1,400 ppm 30 ppm
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Statistical Process Control

Process Capability Analysis

Cp & Cpk - Calculation:

Cpk =

Min( USL - Xm) or (Xm-LSL) 3s Cp = ( USL - LSL ) = Tolerance 6s 6s s = Standard Deviation

=

(X-X)2 or
n-1

R d2

when n = 5, d2 = 2.33
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Statistical Process Control

Process Capability Analysis

Comparison Of Cp & Cpk :

Cpk
Low High Reduce Process Variability Move process mean

Cpk will always be less than or at the most equal to Cp.

If the process is Preferably Centered, Cpk and Cp shall be equal

Low

Impossible
Seek a target dimension

Cp
High

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Statistical Process Control

Process Capability Index

1.33 < Cpk : The process capability is ample, review the specification or process if excessive Cpk = 1.33 : Ideal status. The goal for all processes

1 < Cpk < 1.33 : This status is desirable, but careful control is necessary because defective units may be generated when Cp approaches 1
Cpk < 1 : Since defective units exist, it is necessary to take action, such as change operation methods or total screening

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Statistical Process Control

Examples of Cp, Cpk

LSL Cp =1 Cpk =1 USL Cp=2, Cpk =1.5 LSL USL

LSL Cp=Cpk =2 USL

Cp=.8, Cpk =.75 LSL USL

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Statistical Process Control

6 Sigma And Cp & Cpk

3.4 ppm +/- 1.5
3.4 ppm

Cp=2 Cpk = 1.5

Cp=Cpk =2

Cp=2 Cpk = 1.5 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-6 -5 -4

-3

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Control Charts Attributes ( Fraction Rejected )

p - Chart
Generate sample of size 25 or 30 at periodical intervals Observe proportion of Defective items p Repeat step 1 & 2 for about 25 times The central is at average proportion Defectives per sample = p

Statistical Process Control

The UCL for p - Chart = p + 3

The LCL for p - Chart = p - 3

p ( 1-p ) / n
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p ( 1-p ) / n

Control Charts Attributes ( Fraction Rejected )

np - Chart
Generate sample of size 25 or 30 at periodical intervals Observe the number of Defective items np Repeat step 1 & 2 for about 25 times The central is at average proportion Defectives per sample = np

Statistical Process Control

The UCL for np - Chart = np + 3

The LCL for np - Chart = np - 3

np ( 1-p )
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np ( 1-p )

Control Charts Attributes ( Fraction Rejected )

p - Chart
Fraction Defective or Fraction Rejected no. of rejected article ----------------------------Total no. of inspected

Statistical Process Control

np - Chart
np = Total no. of defectives ----------------------------No. of samples Total no. of defectives ----------------------------Total no. inspected np = ----n
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Where, n = sample size

Control Charts Attributes ( Fraction Rejected )

Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 No.of 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 units No.of Defectives 4 0 3 2 3 5 1 2 2 0 3 4 2 5 1 0 4 4 5 2 Fraction 0.08 0 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.02 0.04 0.04 0 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.1 0.02 0 0.08 0.08 0.1 0.04 % defective, 8 0 6 4 6 10 2 4 4 0 6 8 4 10 2 0 8 8 10 4 inspected, n defective, p 100 * p

Statistical Process Control

For p-chart UCL = 0.052 + 30.052(1-0.052) / 50 = 0.142 = 14.2 % UCL = 0.052 - 30.052(1-0.052) / 50 = -0.442 = 0

For np-chart = 52/20 = 2.6 UCL = 2.6 + 32.6(1-0.052) = 7.3 UCL = 2.6 - 32.6(1-0.052) = -2.1 = 0

52

0.052

52%

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Control Charts Attributes ( non-conformities )

c Chart
a) no. of surface defects observed in a roll of coated paper b) no. of air bubbles in a glass bottle

Statistical Process Control

Generate sample periodically

Observe the no. of defects C in the sample piece / part Repeat sampling for 20 or 25 times The central line is plotted at average no. of Defects / part c The UCL for c - Chart = c + 3c The LCL for c - Chart = c - 3c
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