Raymond A.

Serway Chris Vuille

Chapter Eleven
Energy in Thermal Processes

Energy Transfer
When two objects of different temperatures are placed in thermal contact, the temperature of the warmer decreases and the temperature of the cooler increases The energy exchange ceases when the objects reach thermal equilibrium The concept of energy was broadened from just mechanical to include internal
Made Conservation of Energy a universal law of nature

Introduction

Heat Compared to Internal Energy

Important to distinguish between them
They are not interchangeable

Heat involves a transfer of energy

Section 11.1

Internal Energy
Internal Energy, U, is the energy associated with the atoms and molecules of the system
Includes kinetic and potential energy associated with the random translational, rotational and vibrational motion of the particles that make up the system Also includes any potential energy bonding the particles together

Section 11.1

Heat
Heat is the transfer of energy between a system and its environment because of a temperature difference between them
The symbol Q is used to represent the amount of energy transferred by heat between a system and its environment

Section 11.1

Units of Heat
Calorie
An historical unit, before the connection between thermodynamics and mechanics was recognized A calorie is the amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C .
A Calorie (food calorie) is 1000 calin the UK now termed kcallook on food packaging! For example, popcorn is 459 kcal per 100 g or 1920 kJ per 100 g or 19.20 MJ/kg
Section 11.1

Units of Heat, cont.

US Customary Unit BTU BTU stands for British Thermal Unit
A BTU is the amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from 63 F to 64 F

1 cal = 4.186 J
This is called the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Section 11.1

James Prescott Joule

1818 1889 British physicist Conservation of Energy Relationship between heat and other forms of energy transfer

Section 11.1

Specific Heat
Every substance requires a unique amount of energy per unit mass to change the temperature of that substance by 1 C The specific heat, c, of a substance is a measure of this amount

Section 11.2

Units and Values of Specific Heat

SI units
J / kg C

Historical units
cal / g C

See table 11.1 for the specific heats of various materials

These values are typical
They may vary depending on the temperature and state of the material
Section 11.2

Heat and Specific Heat

Q = m c T T is always the final temperature minus the initial temperature When the temperature increases, T and Q are positive and energy flows into the system When the temperature decreases, T and Q are negative and energy flows out of the system

Section 11.2

A Consequence of Different Specific Heats

Water has a high specific heat compared to land On a hot day, the air above the land warms faster The warmer air flows upward and cooler air moves toward the beach
Section 11.2

Calorimeter
Used in one technique for determining the specific heat of a substance A calorimeter is a vessel that is a good insulator which allows a thermal equilibrium to be achieved between substances without any energy loss to the environment

Section 11.3

Calorimetry
Analysis performed using a calorimeter Conservation of energy applies to the isolated system The energy that leaves the warmer substance equals the energy that enters the water
Qcold = -Qhot Negative sign keeps consistency in the sign convention of T

Section 11.3

Calorimetry with More Than Two Materials

In some cases it may be difficult to determine which materials gain heat and which materials lose heat You can start with SQk = 0
Qk is the energy of the kth object Each Q = m c DT Use Tf Ti You dont have to determine before using the equation which materials will gain or lose heat

Section 11.3

Problem Solving Hint

It is important to organize the information in a problem A table will be helpful Headings can be
Qmaterial m c Tf Ti

See example 11.4, page 369

Section 11.3

Phase Changes
A phase change occurs when the physical characteristics of the substance change from one form to another Common phases changes are
Solid to liquid melting Liquid to gas/vapour boiling Gas/vapour to solid sublimation

Phases changes involve a change in the internal energy, but no change in temperature when pressure constant
Section 11.4

Latent Heat
The energy Q needed to change the phase of a given pure substance is
Q = m L

L is the called the latent heat of the substance

Latent means hidden L depends on the substance and the nature of the phase change

Choose a positive sign if you are adding energy to the system and a negative sign if energy is being removed from the system
Section 11.4

Latent Heat, cont.

SI unit of latent heat are J / kg Latent heat of fusion, Lf, is used for melting or freezing Latent heat of vaporization, Lv, is used for boiling or condensing Table 11.2 gives the latent heats for various substances

Section 11.4

Sublimation
Some substances will go directly from solid to gaseous phase
Without passing through the liquid phase

This process is called sublimation

There will be a latent heat of sublimation associated with this phase change

NB THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE ASSUMES THAT THE PRESSURE IS ONE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (101.325 kPa)
Section 11.4

Graph of Ice to Steam

Section 11.4

Warming Ice
Start with one gram of ice at 30.0 C During A, the temperature of the ice changes from 30.0 C to 0 C Use Q = m c T Will add 62.7 J of energy
Section 11.4

Melting Ice
Once at 0 C, the phase change (melting) starts The temperature stays the same although energy is still being added Use Q = m Lf Needs 333 J of energy

Section 11.4

Warming Water
Between 0 C and 100 C, the material is liquid and no phase changes take place Energy added increases the temperature Use Q = m c T 419 J of energy are added

Section 11.4

Boiling Water
At 100 C, a phase change occurs (boiling) Temperature does not change Use Q = m Lv 2 260 J of energy are needed

Section 11.4

Heating Steam
After all the water is converted to steam, the steam will heat up No phase change occurs The added energy goes to increasing the temperature Use Q = m c T To raise the temperature of the steam to 120, 40.2 J of energy are neededsuperheating
Section 11.4

Problem Solving Strategies

Make a table
A column for each quantity A row for each phase and/or phase change Use a final column for the combination of quantities Use consistent units

Section 11.4

Problem Solving Strategies, cont

Apply Conservation of Energy
Transfers in energy are given as Q=mcT for processes with no phase changes Use Q = m Lf or Q = m Lv if there is a phase change Start with SQ = 0
Or Qcold = - Qhot, but be careful of signs

T is Tf Ti

Solve for the unknown

Section 11.4

Methods of Heat Transfer

Need to know the rate at which energy is transferred Need to know the mechanisms responsible for the transfer Methods include
Conduction Convection Radiation

Section 11.5

Conduction
The transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale
It is an exchange of energy between microscopic particles by collisions Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions with more energetic particles

Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the substance

Section 11.5

Conduction example
The molecules vibrate about their equilibrium positions Particles near the stove coil vibrate with larger amplitudes These collide with adjacent molecules and transfer some energy Eventually, the energy travels entirely through the pan and its handle
Section 11.5

Conduction, cont.
The rate of conduction depends on the properties of the substance In general, metals are good conductors
They contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively free to move through the metal They can transport energy from one region to another

Conduction can occur only if there is a difference in temperature between two parts of the conducting medium
Section 11.5

Conduction, equation
The slab of material allows energy to transfer from the region of higher temperature to the region of lower temperature A is the cross-sectional area

Section 11.5

Conduction, equation explanation

A is the cross-sectional area Through a rod, x = L P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and t is in seconds k is the thermal conductivity of the material

See table 11.3 for some conductivities Good conductors have high k values and good insulators have low k values

Section 11.5

Home Insulation
Substances are rated by their R values
R=L/k See table 11.4 for some R values

For multiple layers, the total R value is the sum of the R values of each layer Wind increases the energy loss by conduction in a home

Section 11.5

Conduction and Insulation with Multiple Materials

Each portion will have a specific thickness and a specific thermal conductivity The rate of conduction through each portion is equal

Section 11.5

Multiple Materials, cont.

The rate through the multiple materials will be

TH and TC are the temperatures at the outer extremities of the compound material

Section 11.5

Convection
Energy transferred by the movement of a substance
When the movement results from differences in density, it is called natural convection When the movement is forced by a fan or a pump, it is called forced convection

Section 11.5

Convection example
Air directly above the flame is warmed and expands The density of the air decreases, and it rises The mass of air warms the hand as it moves by

Section 11.5

Convection applications
Boiling water Convector heaters Cooling automobile engines Algal blooms in ponds and lakes

Section 11.5

Convection Current Example

The radiator warms the air in the lower region of the room The warm air is less dense, so it rises to the ceiling The denser, cooler air sinks A continuous air current pattern is set up as shown
Notein this example it is the convected air we look atradiant heat warms surrounding solid surfaces which may themselves convect.
Section 11.5

Radiation
Radiation does not require physical contact All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations of the molecules Rate of radiation is given by Stefans Law

Section 11.5

Radiation example

The electromagnetic waves carry the energy from the fire to the hands No physical contact is necessary Cannot be accounted for by conduction or convection
Section 11.5

Radiation equation
P = A e T4
The power is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts = 5.669 6 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
Called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

A is the surface area of the object e is a constant called the emissivity

e varies from 0 to 1. It is 1 for a black body

T is the temperature in Kelvins

Section 11.5

Energy Absorption and Emission by Radiation

The rate at which the object at temperature T with surroundings at To radiates is
Pnet = A e (T4 - To4) When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it radiates and absorbs at the same rate
Its temperature will not change

Section 11.5

Ideal Absorbers
An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all of the energy incident on it
e = 1

This type of object is called a black body An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of energy

Section 11.5

Ideal Reflector
An ideal reflector absorbs none of the energy incident on it
e=0

Section 11.5

Applications of Radiation
Clothing
Black fabric acts as a good absorber White fabric is a better reflector

Thermography
The image of the pattern formed by varying radiation levels is called a thermogram

Body temperature
Radiation thermometer measures the intensity of the infrared radiation from the eardrum

Section 11.5

Resisting Energy Transfer

Dewar flask/thermos bottle Designed to minimize energy transfer to surroundings Space between walls is evacuated to minimize conduction and convection Silvered surface minimizes radiation Neck size is reduced

Section 11.5

Global Warming
Greenhouse example
Visible light is absorbed and re-emitted as infrared radiation Convection currents are inhibited by the glass

Earths atmosphere is also a good transmitter of visible light and a good absorber of infrared radiation

Section 11.6