Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log

USE OF SP LOGS
To detect permeable beds To locate bed boundaries Give qualitative indications of bed shaliness Correlate equivalent beds from well to well Determine formation water resistivities

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

In and around wells filled with mud, an electric field due to spontaneous (natural) potential is generated.

Natural potential develops mainly as a result of having two electrolytes of different salinities in contact. These two electrolytes are:
Drilling Fluid Formation water

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

SP Log is a recording of depth versus the difference between the potential of : an electrode lowered in an uncased borehole and a stationary reference electrode at the surface. SP log is usually recorded together with resistivity log.

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

SP log usually show two characteristics:

The response in shale will lie on a reference line which can generally be traced along the extreme positive side of the SP curve. This reference line is called shale base line. The SP will peak to the left, of the shale base line, opposite permeable beds.

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

The SP deflection in permeable beds is measured with respect to the shale base line. Its magnitude is determined by: Drilling fluid and formation water resistivities The bed thickness The diameter of the invaded zone Borehole diameter

ORIGIN OF THE SP LOG

The deflections on the SP curve result from electric currents flowing in the mud in the borehole. These SP Currents are caused by the electromotive forces in the formation, which are of ; Electrochemical origins Electro kinetic origins

Electrochemical Component of the SP

Due to their layered structure and the charges on the layer, shales are permeable to Na+ ions but impervious to the Cl- ions. When a shale separates NaCl solutions of different salinities, the Na+ ions move through the shale from more concentrated to less concentrated solution.

Electrochemical Component of the SP

This movement of charged ions is an electric current, and the force causing them to move constitutes a potential across the shale. Since shales pass only the cations, they resemble ion selective membrane, and the potential across the shale is called the membrane potential.

Electrochemical Component of the SP

Another component of the electrochemical potential is produced at the edge of the invaded zone, where the mud filtrate and the formation water are in direct contact.

Here Na+ and Cl- ions can transfer from either solution to other.

Electrochemical Component of the SP

Since Cl- ions have greater mobility than Na+ ions, the net result is a flow of negative charges from the more concentrated solution to the less concentrated solution.

This is equivalent to a conventional current flow in the opposite direction. This current is generated by the emf called liquid junction potential.

Electrochemical Component of the SP

If the permeable formation is not shaly, the total electrochemical emf, Ec, corresponding to these two phenomena is equal to:

a E K log a
c

mf

aw, amf = Chemical activities of formation water and mud filtrate K = Equilibrium constant proportional to absolute temperature K = 61 + 0.133T (F) for NaCl solutions
If the permeable formation contains some shale or dispersed clay, the SP deflections will be reduced.

Electrokinetic Component of the SP

An electrokinetic potential, Ek, (also known as streaming potential or electro filtration potential) is produced by the flow of an electrolyte through a porous medium. Its magnitude is determined by: The differential pressure The resistivity of electrolyte in the porous medium

Electrokinetic Component of the SP

Electrokinetic emf, (Ek)mc, is produced by movement of filtrate through the mud cake on a permeable formation. Electrokinetic emf, (Ek)sh, is produced by movement of filtrate through shale which has sufficient permeability to permit a tiny amount of filtration flow from mud.

Electrokinetic Component of the SP

(Ek)mc, and (Ek)sh, contribute to a more negative SP reading opposite the permeable bed and opposite the shale respectively. Thus, the net contribution to SP deflection is the difference between the contributions of the mud cake and the shale electrokinetics effect.

Determination of Rw From SP Log

Conditions under which SP log should not be used for for Rw estimation: Very low permeability formations Depleted pressure formations Very heavy drilling fluids In all three cases given above abnormally high electro kinetic potential exists.

Determination of Rw From SP Log

SP reading in a clean, thick sandstone formation is called static spontaneous potential, SSP, or total SP. The SSP in clean formation is then related to the chemical activities of the formation water and the mud filtrate;

SSP = - K log (aw/amf)

Determination of Rw From SP Log

In practice, the solutions activities are roughly proportional to their conductivities (or inversely proportional to their resistivities). Therefore, one may write;

SSP = - K log (Rmf/Rw)

(*)

Equation (*) is valid for pure NaCl solutions that are not too concentrated. The inverse proportionality does not hold exactly at high concentrations or for all type of waters. Therefore, Equivalent resistivities are being used. Hence;

SSP = - K log(Rmfe/Rwe) (**)

Determination of Rw From SP Log-Procedure

1. 2. 3. Read SSP from the log (make the necessary corrections). Determine K and the ratio Determine Rmfe

Rmfe/Rwe using equation (**)

- for predominantly NaCl muds if Rmf at 75 F is

- if Rmf at 75 F is less than 0.1 ohm-m then use solid curves on the chart SP-2, SP-3 - if 4. 5. greater than 0.1 ohm-m then, Rmfe=0.85Rmf

Rmf is not measured, then use Gen-3 to estimate Rmf from mud resistivity Rm Determine Rwe Use chart SP-2, SP-3, to determine Rw using the value of Rwe

Note: Chart SP-1 can be used to determine the ratio Rmfe/Rwe using the measured SSP values.

Corrections for SP Readings From Logs

Many times, it is difficult to find thick, clean permeable beds in the zone under study.

When the beds are thin, the SP log readings must be corrected.
Corrections for the effect of bed thickness and invasion are given in Charts SP-4, SP-5, and SP-6.

Determination of Rweq From SP log

Determination of Rweq From SP log

Enter the nomograph (SP-1) with ESSP (static spontaneous potential measurement in clean formations) in mV, turning through the reservoir temperature in F or C to define the Rmfeq/Rweq ratio. From this value, pass through the Rmfeq value to define Rweq. For predominantly NaCL muds, determine Rmfeq as follows: a. If Rmf at 75 F (24 C) is greater than 0.1 ohm-m correct Rmf to formation temperature using Chart Gen-6 and use Rmfeq = 0.85 Rmf b. If Rmf at 75 F (24 C) is less than 0.1 ohm-m, use Chart SP-2 to derive a value of Rmfeq at formation temperature.

Determination of Rw From SP log

Example: SSP = -100 mV at 250 F Rmf = 0.70 ohm-m at 100 F or 0.33 ohm-m at 250 F Therefore, Rmfeq =0.85 * 0.33 = 0.28 ohm-m at 250 F ESSP = -Kc Log(Rmfeq / Rweq) Kc = 61 + 0.133 T (F) = 61+0.133*250 = 94.25 Rmfeq / Rweq =11.5 Rweq = 0.025 ohm-m at 250 F From SP-2 Rw = 0.03 ohm-m

Resistivity Logs

Resistivity Logs
Resistivity of clean (non-shaly) formation fully saturated with water is proportional to the formation water resistivity:

Ro = F Rw
Where F is the formation resistivity factor given as:

F = a/m

In general, the true formation resistivity is expressed as follows:

Rt

FR S
n w

Resistivity Logs
One may also write (for n=2):

Sw

R R

o t

Sw = 1-Shc

Resistivity of the flushed zone can be expressed by a similar formulation :

R xo

FR S
n

mf

Sxo =1- Shcr

xo

Where ;

Shc is the hydrocarbon saturation

Sxo is the mud filtrate saturation Shcr is the residual oil saturation

Resistivity Logs
Previous equations defining formation resistivities are the basis of quantitative well log interpretation:

OOIP= 7758**(1-Sw)*h*A ROIP= 7758**(Sxo -Sw)*h*A

Where ;
OOIP is the original oil in place, bbl ROIP is the recoverable oil in place , bbl

Applications of Resistivity Tools

Quick look interpretation; hydrocarbon detection Estimation of water saturation, Sw Estimation of invasion diameter, di Determination of in-situ water resistivity, Rw

Types of Resistivity Measurement

Conventional electrode resistivity logs Focused current resistivity logs Induction logs Micro resistivity logs

These tools provide apparent resistivity, Ra . The resistivities of interest, Rt and Rxo , can be deduced from apparent resistivity value. For best results: Resistivity of the borehole environment (i.e., drilling fluids, mud filtrate, mud cake, etc.) Resistivity of the invaded zone Resistivities of the adjacent beds

should be taken into account.

Conventional Electrode Resistivity Logs (ES Survey)

16-spacing sonde is called SHORT NORMAL, mainly measures the resistivity of the invaded zone. 64 spacing sonde is called LONG NORMAL, measures mainly the resistivity of the uninvaded zone. Accuracy of the readings depend on; -thickness of the layer, h -diameter of the borehole -mud resistivity

Lateral Device
This sonde has one-current emission electrode, and measurement is done between two neighboring electrodes in the borehole. Spacing (the distance between electrodes) is 32. And spacing between emitting electrode and the middle electrode is 188.

In homogeneous media this sonde measures the resistivity of a spherical shell with a radius of 5.7 m. (188). The true resistivity of the layer will be read only if it is much thicker than spacing ( h > 10 m).

Example of ES Survey

Focused Current Resistivity Logs (Laterologs)

The quality of conventional electrode logs is severely impaired in the case of: 1. Thin to moderately thick beds 2. Large resistivity contrast with adjacent beds, Rt/ Rs 3. Salt muds and/or highly resistive formations Focused resistivity devices known as Laterologs were developed to be run efficiently under such conditions. Rt tools Laterolog 7, LL7 Laterolog 3, LL3 LLd of the Dual Laterolog Medium to Shallow Reading Laterolog 8, LL8 Dual induction-Laterolog LLs of The Dual Laterolog Spherically Focused Log

Laterolog 3 (LL3)
Guard electrodes provides bucking currents to focus the measuring current into horizontal sheet penetrating into the formation. Central electrode emits the measuring current, Io, which is constrained to the shaded approximately diskshaped area. The thickness of the O1O2 current sheet is usually about 12 inches. LL3 has better vertical resolution and shows more detail than LL7. The influence of the borehole and the invaded zone are slightly less.

Laterolog 7 (LL7)
It contains 7 electrodes, which are Ao, a center electrode and three pairs of electrodes M1,M2, M1,M2 and A1, A2. The electrodes of each pair are symmetrically located and are connected to each other by a short circuiting wire. Since there is no potential difference between M1,-M2, and M1,-M2 , the current from Ao must penetrate horizontally into the formations. The thickness of the current, Ao ,sheet is 32 and the length of the A1-A2 sonde is 80.

Laterolog 8 (LL8)
The shallow investigation, Laterolog 8, device is recorded with small electrodes on the dual induction-laterolog sonde.

It is similar in principle to laterolog 7 except for its shorter spacing. The thickness of the current sheet is 14 and the distance between two bucking electrode is about 40. The current return electrode is located at relatively short distance from Ao.
With this configuration LL8 gives sharp vertical detail and the readings are more influenced by the borehole and the invaded zone.

SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG (SFL) The SFL was developed as an improvement over both the 16 normal and the LL8 as a short spacing companion to the deep induction log. The investigation radius of this sonde is shorter than that of the LL8 or the short normal. The investigated zone has a spherical shape.

INDUCTION LOGS
An induction log is obtained by a device consisting, in its simplest form, of two coils;

A generating coil, fed by alternating current from an oscillator

A receiver coil provided with an amplifier

INDUCTION LOGS
The magnetic field generated by the transmitter coil is to induce eddy currents in the surrounding medium.

These current flow in circular ground-loop paths coaxial with the tool.
The induction currents give rise to a secondary magnetic field which induces signals in the receiver coil. These signals are amplified and recorded. The strength of the induction currents is essentially proportional to the conductivity of the formation. With proper calibration the instrument records a conductivity log in millimho/meter.

INDUCTION LOGS
The conventional Induction Electric Survey (IES) provides SP.

The 16 short normal, the conductivity curve and the reciprocated induction curve (induction resistivity).
More recent devices include the deep induction (Ild) and the medium induction (ILm). The induction device does not require direct contact between the coils and the formation. Thus it can also be used in empty holes and in holes full of oil-base mud.

APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION LOGS It will work in non-conductive fluids such as air and oil-base mud. Yields better results in low resistivity formations. Can be used in combination with Rxo tools. For beds thicker than 5-6 ft and no more than 100 ohm-m.

INTERPRETATION
Before we can get a good quantitative value for Rt, we must make several corrections to the log readings for the following; ILd, ILm, SFL Borehole: Borehole: Bed thickness: Chart Rcor-4 for Ild and Ilm Chart Rcor-1 for SFL Charts Rcor-5 to Rcor-7

Required Data: Borehole diameter (from caliper log) Rm @ BHT Tool position (centered or with standoff) Rxo log to combine with deep and medium induction logs to correct them

Dual Laterolog
Since the measuring current of the Laterolog has to traverse mud and the invaded zone to reach the undisturbed formation, the measurement is necessarily a combination of effects. With only one resistivity measurement, the invasion profile and the Rxo, had to be known or estimated in order to calculate Rt. The need for a second measurement at different depth of investigation resulted in the Dual Laterolog tools.

Dual Laterolog
By using effectively longer bucking electrodes and longer spacing, the LLd (deep laterolog) gives deeper investigation than LL7 or LL3. The LLs (shallow laterolog) uses the same electrodes in a different manner to achieve a current beam equal in thickness to that of Lld, 24 in, but having much smaller penetration. LLs depth of investigation lies between those of LL7 and LL8.

Dual Laterolog
RLLS = JsRxo+(1-Js) Rt RLLd = JdRxo+(1-Jd) Rt Js = function (di) = f (di) Jd = function (di) = g (di)

If Rxo is known with the help of a microresistivity log, Rt and di can be determined because the functions f (di) and g (di) are given in the pseudo-geometrical factor charts provided by service companies.

Dual Laterolog
In the first approximation, the deep resistivity can be taken as true formation resistivity, Rt. However for more accuracy, both LLd and LLs measurements need to be corrected for a number of effects. Borehole - Rcor-2 Invasion - Rint-9
(Requires Borehole diameter from Caliper Log) (Requires Rm @ BHT)

The Dual laterolog offers many improvements over the earlier induction log; High dynamic range from 0.2 to 40,000 ohm-m Can be combined with Rxo devices Can be used in medium to highly saline muds Good results in high contrast Rt / Rm ratio Better vertical resolution than induction

Microresistivity (Rxo ) Logs Microresistivity (Rxo) logs can be used to determine:

Moveable hydrocarbon saturations Porosity in clean formations In-situ mud filtrate resistivity Mud cake thickness Correction of Rt logs for invasion effects Correction of porosity logs for hydrocarbon effect Detection of permeable intervals

Microlog (ML)
ML is a very old tool. Two short spacing device provide; 1 x 1 Microinverse (R 1x1 )- Mud cake resistivity 2 Normal (R2) Invaded zone resistivity. They readily detect presence of any mud cake indicated invaded (hence permeable) formations. Resistivity of mud cake is usually considerably smaller than the resistivity of the invaded zone near the borehole. Under favorable conditions, Rxo can be derived from the microlog using chart Rxo-1. Required data : Rmc @ BHT and Mud cake thickness from Caliper log

Limitations of Microlog (ML) Rxo / Rmc

<

about 15 (porosity > 15 %)

hmc no greater than in. Depth of invasion > about 4 in., otherwise ML is affected by Rt.

Micro Spherically Focused Log (MSFL)

Run together with either induction log or laterolog. Since the depth of investigation is too small the influence of mud cake is not negligible and it is necessary to correct the log reading for that effect. Rxo-3 is used for mud cake correction. Required data: Rmc @ BHT hmc from the caliper log Earlier devices: Proximity Log (PL) and Microlaterolog (MLL) work on the similar principle.

Use of Rxo to Correct Rt The availability of three simultaneous resistivity measurements with different depths ofinvestigation permits the solution of the three variables; Rt, Rxo, and di.
Dual Laterolog- MSFL Use Chart Rint-9 to solve for di and Rt. Induction-MSFL use Chart Rint-5 to solve for di and Rt.

Determination of Rt and Rxo from Resistivity Logs

The response of the different resistivity tools, is a weighted average reflecting the different zones surrounding the tool. These zones are; 1. 2. 3. 4. Borehole Adjacent beds The invaded zone of the bed of interest The uninvaded zone of the bed of interest

The tool response is used to calculate a resistivity parameter known as apparent resistivity, Ra. The process of determining Rt and Rxo requires three steps as follows:

Determination of Rt and Rxo from Resistivity Logs

The process of determining Rt and Rxo requires three steps as follows:

1. Correct the apparent resistivity, Ra, for the borehole effect using Rm and dh.
Correction of readings of micro resistivity tool requires Rmc and hmc instead. For each resistivity tool, there are optimum measurement conditions in which the borehole effect is nil or negligible. See charts, Rxos and Rcors from Schlumberger chart book. This corrections will yield borehole effect free resistivity values, Ra.

Determination of Rt and Rxo from Resistivity Logs

2. Correct the value, Ra, obtained from the Step 1, for bed thickness effect using the resistivity of adjacent bed, Rs, and the thickness of the bed in question (Ra). No adjacent bed corrections are necessary when bed thickness exceeds certain value. This value depends on the tool design and the resistivity contrast Rt/Rs. Because of their small spacing, micro resistivity tools are free from this effect. See charts Rcor from Schlumberger chart book.

Determination of Rt and Rxo from Resistivity Logs

3. The last step is to use the value Ra obtained in the Step 2 to calculate Rt and Rxo. The calculation calls on the geometric factors concept. Departure curves (Tornado charts) are used for this purpose. See charts Rint from the Schlumberger chart book.

Determination of Rt and Rxo from Resistivity Logs

If the diameter of invasion is small, the effect of invasion is negligible and Rt = Ra. On the other hand, for micro resistivity devices, when invasion is deep, the effect of the uninvaded zone becomes negligible and Rxo = Ra. It should be noticed that in certain measurement environments, the three effects (borehole, bed thickness, and invasion) are negligible. In these cases Rt and Rxo can be directly read from the log.

GAMMA RAY LOG

GAMMA RAY LOG (GR) The Gamma-Ray (GR) Log measures the intensity of the natural Gamma-Ray radiation of rocks along a borehole by means of a Gamma Ray detector (Geiger Counter). Radioactivity of rocks is due to the presence of: - Thorium - Uranium - Radium - Radioactive Isotope of Potassium

GAMMA RAY LOG (GR)

Sedimentary rocks can be classified into one of the following three groups according to their degree of natural radioactivity: 1. Rocks of high radioactivity - Shales - Volcanic ash - Potassium salts 2. Rocks of average radioactivity - Shaly-sandstone - Shaly-limestone - Shaly-dolomite 3. Rocks of Low radioactivity - Anhydrite - Limestone - Gypsum - Dolomite - Coal - Sandstone

USES OF GAMMA RAY LOG (GR)

Evaluation of shale content, Vsh Permeable bed detection Evaluation of radioactive mineral ores Delineation of non-radioactive mineral beds Cased-hole correlation Well to well correlation Permeable bed detection, especially, in oil based mud where SP log can not be run

The Gamma Ray log is usually recorded simultaneously with other radioactivity logs, the density log, the neutron log and with laterologs. In general, correlation is good between SP and GR logs. Some variations are ,however,expected for example, in impermeable carbonates.

Evaluation of Shale Content, Vsh GR log is used as a quantitative indicator of a shale content. The GR-Index or relative GR deflection is established by first observing the GR deflection in clean sand or other porous rocks, and then establishing a shale line. GR Index varies from zero to one with one being the shale line and zero being the clean sedimentary rock.

GR GR V GR shaleGR
sh

clean clean

I GR

Clay Content From Gamma Ray Index

Porosity Tools

Porosity Measurements

Sw F
2

R R

w t

Rw - SP Log Rt - Resistivity Log

F= a/m

Need Porosity! 3 Tools available; - Density Log - Neutron Log - Sonic Log

DENSITY LOGS

Density Logs
Principle: Irradiate the wall of the borehole with Gamma Rays and study the effects of their interaction with the rocks. High energy GR from natural radioactive material are directed at the formation. The interaction between GR photon with an electron of an atom in the rock will result that the photon loses energy during the collision and finally is absorbed.

Density Logs
The absorbed photon magnitude is a function of the electron density. What you measure with density log is the reduction in GR photons or the electron density of the medium.

The electron density is directly related to the bulk density of the rock.

Dual Spacing Formation Density Logging Tool

Density Logs
Applications: Porosity estimation Gas detection Complex lithology evaluation Shaly sand interpretation

FDC- Formation Density Compensated (Older Tool) LDT- Litho Density Tool (New version of FDC)

Density Logs
FDC Tool has one short spacing detector and one long spacing detector.

If the mud cake is more dense than formation, short spacing will read higher density than long spacing or vice-versa.
The difference between LS and SS gives a correction to be added (or subtracted from) to the LS density according to its sign. The correction is done automatically.

b= (b)LS - (b)SS

(b)correct = (b)LS + b

Determination of Porosity
For a clean (non-shaly) formation, the bulk density is given by the following expression:

b = f + (1-) ma

Porosity, , can be solved from the bulk density equation as follows:

= (ma-b)/(ma-f)
= Bulk density, gr/cc = Matrix density, gr/cc

b ma f

= Fluid density, gr/cc (1-1.15 gr/cc)

Determination of Porosity
Selection of matrix density is based upon the knowledge of the lithology of the section logged. Average densities of common sedimentary rocks are as follows:
Sandstone 2.65 gr/cc Limestone 2.71 gr/cc Dolomite 2.87 gr/cc Anhydrite 2.94 gr/cc

In gas formation, density log reads low bulk density and

hence, high porosity!

Factors Affecting Density Log Measurement

Borehole condition
Poor hole gives dubious readings. b should be less than 0.1 gr/cc to ensure good compensation for bad hole effects and hence good density measurement Shaliness A correction should be made for the volume of shale, in view of obtaining shale corrected density measurement.

b = f + shVsh +(1--Vsh) ma

Factors Affecting Density Log Measurement

Hydrocarbon Presence When hydrocarbon is present, it may be necessary to change fluid density in the formula. Barite Mud With its huge photoelectric cross-section, barite effects the photoelectric absorption index, Pe.

Neutron Logs

NEUTRON LOGS

Principle: Neutron tool consists of a source of fast neutrons and a detector. Upon entering the formation environment, neutron beam starts collisions with nuclei of formation elements. A neutron losses some of its energy after each collision. The energy level through which a neutron passes are: - Fast (2 MeV) - Intermediate - Epithermal (0.4 eV-10 eV) - Thermal (0.025 eV) A neutron at the thermal energy level will be eventually absorbed by a nucleus.

NEUTRON LOGS

The most widely distributed element in rocks capable of slowing down neutrons is hydrogen. The neutron readings depends mostly on the hydrogen content of the formation (i.e. Hydrogen counter). Hydrogen is mostly present in fluids, therefore, Hydrogen Index is directly proportional to porosity Readings of old neutron tools are given in arbitrary units (API units) which can be converted to porosity using charts provided by the tool manufacturer. With modern tools, porosity is computed from the tool response and directly recorded on the log.

NEUTRON LOGS

Calibration: The neutron tool is calibrated by using water filled limestone so the tool reads porosity in limestone porosity units. This means that if the matrix is limestone then no matrix correction is required. A sandstone or dolomite matrix however must be corrected and the porosity can be derived from Chart Por-13.

NEUTRON LOG APPLICATIONS

Porosity determination Gas detection Shaly sand interpretation Complex lithology evaluation

CNL- Compensated Neutron Log CNT- Compensated Neutron Tool Chart Por-15 SNP Mud cake corrections Chart Por-14 CNL Environmental corrections

NEUTRON LOG APPLICATIONS

Gas detection: Oil and water contain similar amounts of Hydrogen per unit volume. However, gas has much lower content. This has a dramatic effect on CNL and causes the Neutron porosity to drop sharply. This effect provides an excellent gas indicator. Shale Detection: Shales contain water which is bound to the clay particles. Hence, the neutron log will respond to this water and indicate a very high porosity.

FACTORS AFFECTING NEUTRON LOG MEASUREMENTS

Borehole size (Chart Por-14) Mud cake Borehole Fluid salinity Formation fluid salinity
- Chlorine has a large absorption/scattering effect and must be taken into account

Mud weight Sonde stand-off Pressure Temperature

Sonic Logs

SONIC LOGS

Principle: The sonic tool measure the interval transit time for a sound to travel through one foot of formation. Current sonic tools are borehole compensated types (BHC). The BHC system uses two transmitters and two pairs of sonic receivers. The transmitters are pulsed alternately and t values are read on alternate pairs of receivers. The two t values are averaged and recorded.

SONIC LOGS

In clean and consolidated formations with uniformly distributed liquid filled small pores, interval transit time is given by the following relationship: t = (1-) tm + tf The porosity can be calculated from the sonic log reading as follows: = (t - tm )/ (tf - tm)

SONIC LOGS

Commonly used Matrix transit time, tm, values are as follows:

Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Anhydrate Salt

55.5 to 51.0 sec/ft 47.5 sec/ft 43.5 sec/ft 50.0 sec/ft 67 sec/ft

The mixture of liquids in the rock pores is usually assumed to have a transit travel time, tf, 189sec/ft. Use Chart Por-3 to determine porosity from sonic log readings.

FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC LOG MEASUREMENTS

- Compaction The elastic properties of the rock are regarded as constant if the pressure on the rock is sufficiently large (several thousand psi). At lower pressures(shallow depth) a correction factor may be needed. - Fractures and Vugs

Sonic log readings tend to ignore presence of secondary porosity due to fractures and vugs.

FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC LOG MEASUREMENTS

- Borehole effects Large borehole size will cause attenuation of the far receiver signals. This will lead to sudden change in t.

- Shaliness
t = tf + (1--Vsh) tm + tshVsh

COMBINATION LOG SYSTEMS

Following benefits can be realized by combining logging devices to produce simultaneous readings of several different logs: Substantial savings in rig time Positive depth matching of the logs Capabilities of merging measurements for quick-look interpretation techniques. Examples of combination log systems: The induction Spherically focused log-sonic log combination, ISF/Sonic. The compensated neutron log-Formation Density Compensated, CNL/FDC.