PART-A

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
COMPUTER AND ITS EVOLUTION

MADE BY :KSHITIJ BISHT

Necessity is the mother of invention. The saying holds true for computers also because computer were invented as a result of mans search for fast and accurate calculating devices. The earliest device that qualifies as a digital computer is the abacus also known as soroban. This device permits the users to represent numbers by the position of beads on a rack. Simple addition and subtraction can be carried out rapidly and efficiently by positioning the beads appropriately.

C H A R L E S

B A B B A G E

A nineteenth century Professor at Cambridge University, is considered to be the Father of modern digital computers. Babbage designed a Difference Engine in the year 1822 which could produce reliable tables. In 1842, Babbage came out with his new idea of Analytical Engine that was intended to be completely automatic. It was capable of performing the basic arithmetic functions for any mathematical problem and it was to do so at an average speed of 60 additions per minute..

Also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled calculator, this was the first fully automatic calculating machine designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University in collaboration with IBM (International Business Machines) corporation. Its design was based on the techniques already developed for punched card machinery.
1. The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

2. THE ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER (1939-42)

This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff to solve certain mathematical equations. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer, or ABC, after its inventors name and his assistant, Clifford Berry. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage.

3. The ENIAC (1943-46)

The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC) was the first electronic computer. It was constructed at the Moore School of Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. by a design team led by Professors J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.
It could store and manipulate only a very limited amount of information, and

Its programs were wired on boards.

The operation of ENIAC was seriously handicapped by the wiring board. This problem was later overcome by the new concept of stored program developed by Dr. John Von Neumann. The basic idea behind the stored program concept is that a sequence of instructions as well as data can be stored in the memory of the computer for the purpose of automatically directing the flow of operations. The stored program feature considerably influenced the development of modern digital computers and because of this feature we often refer to modern digital computers as stored program digital computers. The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was designed on stored program concept.

5. EDSAC (1947-49)
Almost simultaneously with EDVAC of U.S.A., the Britishers developed the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). The machine executed its first program in May 1949. In this machine, addition operation was accomplished in 1500 microseconds, and multiplication operation in 4000 microseconds. The machine was developed by a group of scientists headed by Professor Maurice Wilkes at the Cambridge University Mathematical Laboratory.

This computer was a small experimental machine based on the stored program concept. It was designed at Manchester University by a group of scientists headed by Professor M.H.A. Newman. Its storage capacity was only 32 words, each of 31 binary digits. This was too limited to store data and instructions. Hence, the Manchester Mark I was hardly of any practical use.

The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first digital computer which was not one of a kind. Many UNICAC machines were produced, the first of which was installed in the Census Bureau in 1951 and was used continuously for 10 years. The first business use of a computer, a UNICAC I, was by General Electric Corporation in 1954. In 1952, the International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation introduced the 701 commercial computer. In rapid succession, improved models of the UNICAC I and other 700-series machines were introduced. In 1953, IBM produced the IBM-650 and sold over 1000 of these computers. The commercially available digital computers, that could be used for business and scientific applications, had arrived.

7. The UNIVAC I (1951)

Data are raw facts and figures. Data are represented by values. These values may be numbers, characters, or sequence of any symbols that carry meaning in certain context.

Data

Instruction used For processing

Information

Data storage
Example:- 20, 60, 98 are the marks of student out of 100. The passing percentage is 40. Evaluate how many students have passed? Sol. Data is 20, 60, 98. Context marks of student out of 100. Instruction compare each data with 40 to find if student has passed or not? Information 2 students passed (obtained after processing instruction)

The word Computer comes from the word Compute which means to calculate. So, a computer is considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetical, logical as well as relational operation at very high speed and with approximately zero error. A computer can be defined as
An electronic device used to process data, convert that data into information which can be useful to user. A general purpose machine that processes data according to a set of instructions that are stored in it. A programmable computing machine. A system of hardware
a) Which can accept data (facts, figures, observations) in prescribed form (in specific sequence) b) Which can process the data according to the stored set of instructions c) Supply the results of processing in a specific format i. ii. iii. As an information which cab assist in decision-making As signals to control automatically further machines or processes. Store the results in a primary or secondary storage for safe keeping or later reuse.

In simple terms, a computer is an electronic device for accepting and processing of data, convert that data into information, which can further be used in decision-making.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

6.
7.

Speed Accuracy Versatility Power of Remembering Diligence No IQ No Feelings

A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds the amount of work the human being can do approximate in a week. The speed of computer is measured in microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and in picoseconds (10-12). A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3 to 4 million simple arithmetic operations per second.

The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. The degree of accuracy depends on designing of the computer. But for a particular computer, each and every calculation has to be performed with certain accuracy. Errors can occur in a computer but these are mainly due to human rather than technological weakness as: due to imprecise thinking of programmer due to inaccurate data

It is the most wonderful thing about the computers. At a time, a computer can be busy preparing electricity bill, at another preparing resume (biodata), and at still another drawing images and animation. A computer is capable of performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a service of logical step.

As a human being acquires new knowledge, the brain subconsciously select what it feels is important and worth retains in its memory and neglects the unimportant details or just forgets them. But with computers this is not the case. A computer can store and retrieve any amount of information because of its secondary storage device capability. Every small information can be retained from the computer as and when required even after several years. Computer does not forget unless it is crash or it is explicitly told to do so.

Unlike human being the computer is free from monotony, tiredness of concentration etc. and hence can work for hours together without creating any error and without grumbling. Due to this property, computers obviously score more over human being in doing routine type of jobs which require great accuracy.

Computer is not a magical device. It can perform only the task which a human being can, the difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possess no intelligence of its own. Till date its IQ is zero. It is told by human beings through a set of instruction what to do and in what sequence. It depends on the users decision and not on computers wish what task to perform.

Computers have no feelings and no instincts because they are made line. Based on feelings, taste, knowledge and experience certain judgements are made which is not possible with computers. Computers judgements are based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs, that are written by programmers.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
COMPUTERS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY In business, where the computer simply replicated the previous manual tasks, it now automates fully. The process and the procedures have been improved. Office automation is defined as using computer and communication technology to help people to better use and manage information. Office automation technology includes all types of computers, telephones, email and office machines that use microprocessors or other hightechnology components.

Scientists use computers to develop theories, to collect and test data and to exchange information electronically with colleagues around the world. Researchers can access databases in distant locations. Scientist requires complex computation of very high degree of accuracy and precision.

COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION
Most educational application packages incorporate interesting and colorful graphics to hold the students attention and include programs to increase reading comprehension, improve spelling, build vocabulary, and develop thinking and other special skills. In todays world computer will be a common place as telephones and dictionaries. To prepare for outside world the student should learn how to work comfortably with all kinds of knowledge tools including pencils, books, calculators, computers and other information utilities. Students need to have a clear understanding of the limitations of the technology and the ability to assess the benefits and risks of applying technology to a problem. They need to be able to question technology.

COMPUTERS IN SCHOOL
The information age clearly makes new demands on the educational system, requiring major changes in what and how people learn. Many educators believe that computers and IT are essential parts. Many of the elementary and secondary schools are now introducing computers. Students and teachers are using these computers in a variety of ways to learn. Computers allow student to learn based on drill and practice principle. The computer based training software allows student to learn at their own pace. Gives feedback about how much they have learned. Tutorial software provides direct instruction in a clearly specified skill or project. Drill-and-practice software and tutorial software are often referred to as Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) software.

COMPUTERS IN ENTERTAINMENT APPLICATIONS

The use of computers in the entertainment field-movies, music, presentation, sports and gameshas increased over the last decades and now computer play a vital role in these fields. Computers help in improving productivity by automating time consuming, repetitive and monotonous processes. They give the movie makers a lot of options by giving them the power to create the kind of special effects they wantthose that were not possible in early times. The computers can create outer space, alien characters, extinct animals and so on without the creating of their physical models. The filmmakers can then integrate these backgrounds and characters with real characters. Computers are used in almost all phases of movie making may it be writing scripts, creating special effects, editing, adding sound effects and so on. Computer technology has given the ability to create special effects. Any musical composition i.e., when a piece of music is treated, when it is played, or when it is reproduced.

COMPUTERS IN WEATHER FORECASTING

Weather forecasting is one of the important areas of application of IT. With the advancement of IT, weather forecasting has become very reliable, accurate and simpler. It is combination of science and art both. In the modern and scientific techniques, it is possible to read the weather maps in digital medium and these maps may be processed in such a way that a pattern for the next day is obtained. Based on the forecasters experience and projected weather maps, the forecasting is done. Use of computer has facilitated the job of data processing related with weather. The size of data used for weather forecasting is normally huge, therefore the use of computers for processing these data is essential. There are several methods used for weather forecasting such as Persistence method, Trends method, Analog method, Numerical Weather Prediction, Textual examination etc.

COMPUTER IN BANKING APPLICATIONS

Banking is yet another type of business application that benefits from computerisation and information technology because of the repetitiveness of the transactions, the accuracy required, and the speed required to handle the large volume of daily transactions. Electronic Funds Transfer. To reduce demands for handling of paper documents, banks have devised a number of computer applications that make it possible to transfer funds through communication between computers. This technique is know as Eelctronic Funds Transfer (EFT).

APPLICATIONS IN SPORTS
In most sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for players and athletes, and suggest game plans and strategies based on the competitors past performance. Computers are used in sports to analyze the movements of sports persons and to find faults in the movements and optimize the movements so that maximum efficiency is achieved. Computers are used by sports professionals to analyze their techniques to find their strengths and weaknesses. Computers are used to simulate games and to try out different games strategies.

COMPUTER IN MULTIMEDIA
The term multimedia refers to the integration of multiple media such as visual imager, text, video, sound and animationwhich together can multiply the impact of the message. Multimedia systems can be used in training the students, teachers and employees located at different places. Through the use of video conferencing systems, great savings in travel time and cost can be achieved. In modern organisations, video conferencing provides better communication between persons separated by space and time who need to work together on common projects. Multimedia has also improved interpersonal communication between people. Another use for which multimedia is of ten used is making presentations in groups. It provides the presenter with a powerful tool that can enhance communication by delivering a multi-sensory experience.

VARIOUS FIELDS OF COMPUTERS

1)

Hardware:- Hardware is the jargon term given to the machinery itself and to the various individual pieces of equipment. It referes to the physical devices of a computer system. Software:- A computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do a desired job. Hence it is necessary to specify a sequence of instructions that a computer must perform to solve a problem. Such a sequence of instructions written in a language that can be understood by a computer is called a Computer Program. Firmware:- With the advancement in technology and the reduction in hardware cost, today software is also being made available by many computer manufacturers on read-only memory (ROM) chips. These ROM chips can be easily plugged intothe computer system and they form a part of the hardware. Such programs (software) made available on hardware are known firmware. Humanware:- The personnel involved in using and maintaining the computer system form the Humanware.
Hardware Engineer who takes care of the various components loaded computer. Software Engineer who manages and handles the softwares loaded onto the computer.

2)

3)

1)

Accuracy:-- Computers provides very high level of accuracy or correctness in computing without doing any errors in computing. No fatigue:-- A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration at fatigue etc. Memorising effect:-- A computer is also called as a Store Houses has the power of storing huge amount of information or data. Analysis of data:-- Computer can transform data into meaningful information. Speed:-- Computers can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. Dynamic role:-- Computer are capable of playing a versatile job. Intangible benefits:-- Computers give many intangible benefits like flexibility, ability to accommodate changes and expansion.

No psychological problems:-- As computers are machines they do not come with any emotional ego and psychological problems, which are otherwise destructive in nature. Cost reduction:-- Inspite of the cost of computerisation, which is coming down drastically over the years, the benefits which computer give override the cost, thereby making the cost incurred to be recovered within no time, in turn reducing the effective cost, thus one can have competitive edge over others. Works automatically (Automation):-Computer is a device, which is much more than a calculator which is not able to do various automatic operations and need a human operator to press the necessary keys for any operation to be performed.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

Computer does not work on it self, it receives a set of instructions and only then it can function. Computers are not intelligent, they have to be instructed about each and every step which they have to perform i.e., each and every task to be performed by them should be given in detail. Computers cannot take decisions on its won, one has to programme the computer to take an action if some conditions prevail. Data handling through computers is prone to the loss of information and being tampered. Thus, it requires special protection routines. Computers, unlike humans, cannot learn by experience.

 Processor Memory Input

and Output device

Storage

INPUT

CPU

OUTPUT

MEMORY

STORAGE

PROCESSOR
Processor is the brain of the computer that organizes and carries out instructions that come from either the user or the software. The function of Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) is to perform.
a.

MEMORY
Memory is also known as storage, Memory is like an electronic scratch pad inside the computer. When new data is entered into the computer it is stored into memory but only temporarily. The most common type of memory is Random Access Memory (RAM). Unit of measurement of computers memory is the bytethe amount of memory it takes to store a single character. Secondary or Auxiliary memory is used to store operating system, compiler, assembler, application programs, data files etc. which are not read by CPU directly. Another kind of memory which is placed between the CPU and the

1)

b.

Arithmetic operations as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing one set of data with another Logical Operations (AND, OR, NOT, exclusive OR) which is done by analyzing and evaluating data by matching it with the set of known data that are included in the program or called from memory. This unit also performs increment, decrement, shift, and clearance operations.

Control Unit (CU) generates control and timing signals necessary for the processing of an instructions. It controls all the operations of the computers. The CPU of small computers is a Microprocessor.
2)

I N P U T A N D

O U T P U T D E V I C E

Without interaction with user the computer is useless. Input devices accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system. Output devices return processed data back to the user or to another computer system.
The mouse, trackball and touchpad enable to draw or point on the screen. The joystick is especially well suited for playing fast moving video games. A scanner can copy a printed page of text or a graphic into the computers memory, eliminating the time consuming step of typing input or creating an image from scratch. Digital cameras record live images that cab viewed and edited on the computer.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
1)

On the basis of Technology Computers can be classified on the basis of technology i.e., on the basis of type of data processing for which they are designed
i. Analog Computers. These computer operates on the data which are continuously varying with respect to same physical quantity.

2)

On the basis of Processing Speed and Storage Capacity According to the processing speed and storage capacity computers can be classified as follow:
i) Micro Computer. Micro computer is a small sized and an inexpensive computer which was originated in late 1970s. The most familiar kind of computer is the microcomputer. The past, microcomputers have been considered to be of two types: a) b) ii) Personal computers Workstations Mini Computer. A mini computer is a small general purpose computer with computing power larger than a microcomputer their capacity lies between microcomputers and the mainframes. Minicomputers are usually designed to handle multiple client requests. Mainframe Computer. Mainframe computer are more powerful than a minicomputer. The mainframe computers have word length of 32-bits, 48-bits or 64-bits. Super Computer. Super computers are the most powerful computers. These system have extremely high processing speed and a very large size. The fastest super computers can perform more than 1 trillion calculations per second.

ii.

Digital Computers. These computer manipulates discrete data and can perform arithmetic and logical operation. The data which are countable and discrete data
Hybrid Computers. Hybrid computer is the combination of analog and digital computers. In hybrid computers some calculations are performed in the analog portion of the computer and some are performed on the digital portion of the computer.

iii.

iii)

iv)

3) On the basis of Purpose

General purpose computers. These computers are used to perform as many task as possible. These computers are store different programs and can be used to execute counters applications. Specific purpose computers. These computers are designed to perform only one specific task. The programs or instructions are wired into or permanently store in these machines. These machines lacks versatility but performs their single task quickly and efficiently.

DIFFERENT GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

FIRST GENERATION (1942-1955)
This generation include:- ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, MANCHESTER MARK I, the UNIVAC I. These machines used Vacuum Tubes which was delicate glass device that could control and amplify electronic signals. Advantages : Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computers. These computers were the fastest calculating device of that time, performed operation in millisecond. Disadvantages : Too big in size. Non-portable. Requires air-conditioners to run. Prone to frequent hardware failure. Unreliable. Requires constant maintenance. Commercial use is limited. Costly and difficult to use for commercial production.

SECOND GENERATION (1955-1964)

The second generation was revolutionized by the use of transistors in lieu of vacuum tubes. Transistors are smaller and more reliable and so called the brain of computers. This reduced the size of computer. Advantages : Smaller in Size More reliable. Can be ported. Generates less quantity of heat. Hardware failure is less. Wider commercial use. Reduction of computational time from milliseconds to microseconds. Disadvantages : Requires air conditioners to run. Requires regular maintenance. Commercial production is difficult and costly. Individual components have to be manually assembled into functional units.

THIRD GENERATION (19641975)

FOURTH GENERATION (19751995)

This era came with the integration of over 30,000 components over a single chip called large scale integration technology (LSI). Fourth generation computers has LSI chips as its brain.

Advancement in electronic technology made possible to integrate large number of circuit elements into very small surfaces of silicon called Chips, calling this new technology as Ics (Integrated Circuits). Advantages :

Advantages :

Compact, with high components density. Generates negligible amount of heat. Very reliable. Cheapest as compared to all generation computers. Least air conditioner required. Much faster in computation. Hardware failure is minimum. Less maintenance is required. Easily portable as size is small. Totally used as general purpose machine. Assembling stage requires minimum labor cost and difficulty.

Smaller in size. Generates still less amount of heat. Easily portable. More reliable. Requires less power to run. Low cost of maintenance. General purpose machines. Cheaper and easier commercial production.

Disadvantages :

Sometimes requires air-conditions.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
a) Application software b) Systems software

Application software, also known as an application package, is a set of one or more programs designed to carry out operations for a specified application.

System software, also known as system package, is a set of one or more programs, designed to control the operation of a computer system. These programs do not solve specific problems.

COMPILER
A computer hardware is capable of only understanding machine level instructions and so it becomes compulsory to convert the instructions written in high level languages to machine level instruction before the execution of the program. Assembler is used to convert assembly language instructions to machine level instructions. Compiler is used to translate the program written in high level language into machine language. Compiler is a translating program which is much more sophisticated than an assembler.

INTERPRETER
An interpreter is a type of translator used for translating high-level language into machine code. It takes one statement of a high level language and translates it into a machine instruction which is immediately executed.

Advantages :
1. 2.

3.

4.

Fast response to change in the source program. Interpreter eliminates the need for separate compiling run after each program change to add features or correct errors. Compiler is a complex program as compared to interpreter. Interpreters are easy to write.

PART - B

NUMBER SYSTEM

NUMBER SYSTEM
Number systems are basically of two types : Non-positional and positional number system.

Non positional : In early days , human beings counted on fingers. When the fingers were not adequate then on stones , pebbles or sticks were used to indicate value. This method is Non positional or additive approach. Positional : In this number system there are only a few symbols called digits. These symbols represents different values depending upon the position they occupy in the number.

Decimal number system

This number system, consists of ten digits. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. A decimal number can be represented in combination of these 10 digits. The positions of digits are represented according to place value of the digits. The base value for decimal number is 10 and so the number is represented as (6734)10. The expanded form is
(6734)10= 6*1000+7*100+3*10+4*1 (6734)10=6*103+7*102 +3*101 +4*100

Binary number system

In the binary number system the base is 2. So we have only 2 digits and these digits are 0 and 1 which can be used in binary system.
(11011)2=1*24+1*23+0*22+1*21*1*2
0

(11011)2=1*16+1*8+0*4+1*2+1*1 = 16+8+0+2+1 (11011)2= (27)10

The power of ten indicate the relative position of the digits of the number from right to left.

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

In the octal number system the base is 8. So we have 8 digits starting from 0 and ending with value (8-1)= 7 i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, (4621)8=4*83+6*82+2*81+1*80 =4*512+6*64+2*8+1*1 =2048+384+16+1 (4621)8 =(2449)10 As there are only 8 digits in the octal number system, so 3 bits (23=8) are sufficient to represent only octal number in binary. Following table shows 3 bit number with their decimal values :

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

In the hexadecimal number system the base is 16. (A31)16= A*162+3*161+1*160 (A31)16= A*162+3*16+1*160 = 10*256+3*16+1*1 = 2560+48+1 (A31)16= (2609)10 As there are only 16 digits in the hexadecimal number system, so 4-bits (24=16) are sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in binary form.

CONVERSION AMONG VARIOUS NUMBER SYSTEM

1) Converting any base number to decimal
The three steps which are used to convert any base number to decimal. Step i. Determine the positional value of each digit. This depends on the position of the digit and the base of the number system. Step ii. Multiply the obtained positional values from Step 1 by the digits in the corresponding columns. Step iii. Sum the product obtained from step 2. The total is equivalent to the decimal value.

2) Converting from base 10

3) Converting from a base other than 10 to a base other than 10

The three steps which are used to convert any base number to decimal. Step i. Convert the original number to a decimal number i.e., base 10.

Decimal number to a new base (Division Remainder Technique) Step i. Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

Step ii. Record the remainder from the step 1 on the right most digit of the new base number.
Step iii. Divide the Quotient by the new base.

Step ii. Convert the decimal number to the new base number.

Step iv. Again, record the remainder of step 3 as the next digit of the new base number.

(a) Converting binary number to an octal number

Step 1. Divide the binary digits into groups of three, starting from the right. If the left most group fall short of digits then insert required number of zeros to the left of most significant bit (MSB). Step 2. Convert each group of three binary digits into one octal digit.

(b) Converting binary number to hexadecimal number

Step 1. Divide the binary digits into groups of four, starting from the right. If the left most group fall short of digits then insert required number of zeros to the left of most significant bit (MSB). Step 2. Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal digit. Hexadecimal digits 0 to 9 are equal to decimal digits 0 to 9 and hexadecimal digits A to F are equal to decimal digits 10 to 15

(c) Converting octal number to binary number

Step 1. Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number. Step 2. Combine all the resulting binary number into a single binary number.

(d) Converting hexadecimal number to binary number

Step 1. Convert the decimal equivalent of each hexadecimal digit to 4 binary digits. Step 2. Combine all the resulting binary groups into a single binary number.