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Statistical Quality Control

This document discusses statistical quality control and statistical process control. It covers topics such as histograms, control charts, process capability, and important continuous distributions like the normal, exponential, and gamma distributions. It also describes control charts for variables like X-bar and R charts and control charts for attributes like P, C, U, and NP charts. It provides details on how to construct and interpret these different types of control charts.

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158 views81 pages

Statistical Quality Control

This document discusses statistical quality control and statistical process control. It covers topics such as histograms, control charts, process capability, and important continuous distributions like the normal, exponential, and gamma distributions. It also describes control charts for variables like X-bar and R charts and control charts for attributes like P, C, U, and NP charts. It provides details on how to construct and interpret these different types of control charts.

Uploaded by

MSA-ACCA
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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STATISTICAL QUALITY

CONTROL
HISTOGRAM OR
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
• Plot frequency (or relative frequency) versus the
values of the variable

• Shape
• Location or central tendency
• Scatter or spread
Histogram
for discrete
data
Numerical Summary of Data
The Box Plot
The Binomial Distribution
Basis is in Bernoulli trials
The Poisson Distribution
IMPORTANT CONTINUOUS
DISTRIBUTIONS
The Normal Distribution
The Exponential Distribution
The Gamma Distribution
• When r is an integer, the gamma distribution is the result of
summing r independently and identically exponential random
variables each with parameter λ

• The gamma distribution has many applications in reliability


engineering; see Example 2-121, text page 71
QUALITY
Definitions and Meaning of
Quality
The Eight Dimensions of Quality
2. Performance
3. Reliability
4. Durability
5. Serviceability
6. Aesthetics
7. Features
8. Perceived Quality
9. Conformance to Standards
STATISTICAL
PROCESS
CONTROL
Basic SPC Tools
Check Sheet
Pareto Chart
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Defect Concentration Diagram
Scatter Diagram
CHANCE AND ASSIGNABLE CAUSES OF QUALITY VARIATION

A process is operating with only chance causes of variation present is said to be in


statistical control.
A process that is operating in the presence of assignable causes is said to be
out of control
STATICAL BASIS OF CONTROL CHART

A control chart contains


– A center line
– An upper control limit
– A lower control limit
Shewhart Control Chart Model
Reasons for Popularity
of Control Charts

• Control charts are a proven technique for


improving productivity.
• Control charts are effective in defect prevention.
• Control charts prevent unnecessary process
adjustment.
• Control charts provide diagnostic information.
• Control charts provide information about process
capability.
CHOICE OF CONTROL LIMIT

• 3-Sigma Control Limits


– Probability of type I error is 0.0027
• Probability Limits
– Type I error probability is chosen directly
– For example, 0.001 gives 3.09-sigma control limits
• Warning Limits
– Typically selected as 2-sigma limits
More Basic Principles

• Charts may be used to estimate process parameters,


which are used to determine capability

• Two general types of control charts


– Variables
• Continuous scale of measurement
• Quality characteristic described by central tendency and a
measure of variability
• Counts
– Attributes
• Conforming/nonconforming
CONTROL CHARTS FOR ATTRIBUTE

• P-chart
Control chart for Fraction nonconforming
• C-chart
Control chart for Defects
• U-chart
Control chart for the average number of
nonconformities
CONTROL CHARTS FOR ATTRIBUTE

• Fraction nonconforming is the ratio of the


number of nonconforming items in a population
to the total number of items in that population.
• Control charts for fraction nonconforming are
based on the binomial distribution
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

Recall: A quality characteristic follows a binomial


distribution if:
1. All trials are independent.
2. Each outcome is either a “success” or “failure”.
3. The probability of success on any trial is given as p. The
probability of a failure is
1-p.
4. The probability of a success is constant.
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

• The binomial distribution with parameters n ≠ 0 and 0 <


p < 1, is given by

n  x n −x
p( x ) = 
x p (1 −p )
 
• The mean and variance of the binomial distribution are

µ = np σ = np(1 − p)
2
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

Development of the Fraction Nonconforming Control


Chart

Assume
• n = number of units of product selected at random.
• D = number of nonconforming units from the sample
• p= probability of selecting a nonconforming unit from the
sample.

D
p̂ =
n
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

Development of the Fraction Nonconforming Control


Chart
n x
P(D = x ) =  p (1 − p) n − x
x

where is a random variable with mean and variance

p(1 − p)
µ=p σ =
2

n
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

Standard Given
• If a standard value of p is given, then the control
limits for the fraction nonconforming are

p(1 − p )
UCL = p + 3
n
CL = p
p(1 − p )
LCL = p − 3
n
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

No Standard Given
• If no standard value of p is given, then the control limits
for the fraction nonconforming are
p (1 −p )
UCL =p +3
n
CL =p
p (1 −p )
LCL =p −3
n
m m
∑Di ∑ p̂ i
p = i =1 = i =1
mn m
Control charts for fraction nonconforming

• The np control chart


• The actual number of nonconforming can also be
charted. Let n = sample size, p = proportion of
nonconforming. The control limits are:

UCL = np + 3 np(1 − p)
CL = np
LCL = np − 3 np(1 − p)

• (if a standard, p, is not given, use )


Operating-characteristic function (OC)
and Average RUN length (ARL)
The oc function
• The number of nonconforming units, D, follows a
binomial distribution. Let p be a standard value for the
fraction nonconforming. The probability of committing a
Type II error is
D
p̂ =
n

β = P(p̂ < UCL | p) − P(p̂ ≤ LCL | p)


= P(D < nUCL | p) − P(D ≤ nLCL | p)
OC

1.0

0.5
B

0.0

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

p
Average RUN length (ARL)

ARL
• The average run lengths for
fraction nonconforming control
charts can be found as before:
• ARL = 1
p (out-of-control)

• 1
The in-control ARL is ARL 0 =
α
• The out-of-control ARL is
1
ARL1 =
1 −β
Control charts for defects
• There are many instances where an item will
contain nonconformities but the item itself is
not classified as nonconforming.

• Poisson Distribution
−c x
e c
p( x ) =
x!
C-chart
• Standard Given:
UCL = c + 3 c
CL = c
LCL = c − 3 c

No Standard Given
UCL = c + 3 c
CL = c
LCL = c − 3 c
Control chart for the average number of
nonconformities
U-chart
• If we find c total nonconformities in a sample of n
inspection units, then the average number of
nonconformities per inspection unit is u = c / n.
• The control limits for the average number of
nonconformities is
u
UCL = u + 3
n
CL = u
u
LCL = u −3
n
Demerit Systems

Demerit Schemes

3. Class A Defects - very serious


4. Class B Defects - serious
5. Class C Defects - Moderately serious
6. Class D Defects - Minor

• Let ciA, ciB, ciC, and ciD represent the number of units in
each of the four classes.
• Demerit Schemes

The following weights are fairly popular in practice:


– Class A-100, Class B - 50, Class C – 10, Class D - 1

di = 100ciA + 50ciB + 10ciC + ciD

di - the number of demerits in an inspection unit


CONTROL CHARTS FOR
VARIABLES
CONTROL CHARTS FOR
VARIABLES

• Variable - a single quality characteristic that can


be measured on a numerical scale.
• When working with variables, we should monitor
both the mean value of the characteristic and
the variability associated with the characteristic.
Control Charts for X and R
• X bar chart monitors the between sample
variability
• R chart monitors the within sample
variability.
x1 + x2 +  + xn
x=
n

σx =σ / n

Ri = range of the values in the ith sample


Ri = xmax - xmin
R = average range for all m samples
Control Charts for X and R
• Control Charts for x and R

UCL = x + A 2 R
Center Line = x
LCL = x −A 2 R
A2 is found in Appendix VI for various values of n.
Control Charts for X and R

Control Limits for the R chart

UCL = D4 R
Center Line = R
LCL = D3 R

• D3 and D4 are found in Appendix VI for


various values of n.
Estimating Process Capability

• The x-bar and R charts give information about the


capability of the process relative to its specification
limits.
• Assumes a stable process.
• Assume the process is normally distributed, and x is
normally distributed, the fraction nonconforming can be
found by solving:

P(x < LSL) + P(x > USL)


Process-Capability Ratios (Cp)

• If Cp > 1, then a low # of nonconforming items


will be produced.
• If Cp = 1, (assume norm. dist) then we are
producing about 0.27% nonconforming.
• If Cp < 1, then a large number of nonconforming
items are being produced.
USL − LSL
Cp =
6σ
Control Limits, Specification Limits, and
Natural Tolerance Limits

• Control limits are functions of the natural variability of


the process
• Natural tolerance limits represent the natural variability
of the process (usually set at 3-sigma from the mean)
• Specification limits are determined by
developers/designers

• There is no mathematical relationship between


control limits and specification limits.
Interpretation of X and R charts

• Patterns of the plotted points will provide useful


diagnostic information on the process, and this
information can be used to make process
modifications that reduce variability.
– Cyclic Patterns
– Mixture
– Shift in process level
– Trend
– Stratification
Control chart for X and S
If a standard σ is given the control limits
for the S chart are:
UCL = B6 σ
CL = c 4 σ
LCL = B5σ
• B5, B6, and c4 are found in the Appendix
for various values of n.
Control chart for X and S
No Standard Given
• If σ is unknown, we can use an average
1 m
sample standard deviation, S = ∑ S
i
m i =1

UCL =B 4 S
CL =S
LCL =B3 S
Control chart for X and S

x Chart when Using S


x
The upper and lower control limits for the
chart are given as
UCL = x + A 3 S
CL = x
LCL = x − A 3 S

where A3 is found in the Appendix

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