Introduction

Primary Data: are those which are collected a fresh and

for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.

Secondary data: are those which have already been

collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

 Observation Method Structured and unstructured observation Participant and non-participant observation Controlled and uncontrolled observation Interview Method Personal interviews (Structured and unstructured) Focused and Clinical interview Telephone interviews Questionnaires

General form Question sequence Question formulation and wording

Observation Methods
Observation Methods Scientific observation is the systematic process of

recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and occurrences as they are witnessed or the compilation of evidence from records of past events. Example Human behavior or physical action Verbal behavior Statements Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

Categories of Observation
Human vs. mechanical
Visible vs. hidden Direct vs. indirect

Contrived vs. natural

Advantages of Observation methods

Communication with respondent is not necessary
Data without distortions due to self-report (e.g.:

without social desirability bias) No need to rely on respondents memory Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained Certain data may be obtained more quickly Environmental conditions may be recorded May be combined with survey to provide supplemental evidence

Observation of Physical Objects

Physical-trace evidence
Wear and tear of a book indicates how often it has

been read

Mechanical Observation
Traffic Counters
Web Traffic (e.g., hits) Scanners

Peoplemeter
Eye tracking Pupilometer Psycho galvanometer Voice pitch

Eye Tracking Monitors

Record how the subject actually reads or views an

advertisement Measure unconscious eye movements

Pupilometer
This device observes and records changes in the

diameter of the subjects pupils.

Psychogalvanometer
Measures galvanic skin response
Involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the

skin Assumption: physiological changes accompany emotional reactions

Voice Pitch Analysis

Measures emotional reactions through
physiological changes in a persons voice

Structured and Unstructured Observations

Structured observation appropriate in descriptive

studies is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observation, standardized conditions of observations, selection of pertinent data of observations
Unstructured observation appropriate in exploratory

studies does not posses the above characteristics

Participant and Non-Participant Observations

Participant and Non-Participant observation type of observation depends upon the observers sharing or not

sharing the life of the group he is observing. If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called the participant observation.
But when the observer observes as a detached emissary

without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation is termed as non-participant observation.

Controlled and Uncontrolled Observations

If the observation takes place according to definite

prearranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the observation is called the controlled observation. If the observation takes place in the natural setting the setting, observation is termed as uncontrolled observation

Personal Interviews
Personal interview method requires a person known as the

interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. It may be in the form of direct personal investigation or an indirect oral (cross-examine other persons). Structured interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording. Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. This does not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information

Focused, Clinical and Non-directive Interviews

Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given

experience of the respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individuals life experience Non-directive interview, the interviewer encourages the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

Telephone Surveys
Speed of Data Collection
Very fast Geographical Flexibility

High
Respondent Cooperation Good

Telephone Surveys
Questionnaire Length
Moderate

Item Non response

Medium

Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding

Average

Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer

averge

Telephone Surveys
Supervision of interviewers

Moderate Ease of call back or follow-up Easy Cost Low to moderate Special features Fieldwork and supervision of data collection are simplified; quite adaptable to computer technology

Questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions

printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. It is considered as the heart of a survey option. Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct pilot study (Pilot Survey). Pilot survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey.

General Form of the questionnaire

General form of the questionnaire can be:
Structured questionnaires are definite, concrete and

predetermined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type yes or no) or open (i.e. inviting free response) but may be stated in advance and no constructed during questioning. Unstructured questionnaires do not posses the above characteristics

Question squence in the questionnaire

To make the questionnaire effective, quality to the

replies received and the question sequence is to be maintained. A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood. Questionnaire should not contain questions that put a strain on the memory reflects the personal character/life. relates to personal wealth etc.

Question formulation and wording

With regard to questionnaire, the researcher should note

that each question: Must be very clear for any sort of understanding Should be impartial in order not to give a biased picture Should be concrete and simple Forms of questions Multiple choice (closed) question: respondent selects one of the alternative possible answers put to him. Open-ended question: questions are designed to permit a free response from the respondent rather than limiting to the alternatives

Essentials of a good questionnaire

Essential features of a good questionnaire: Questionnaire should be short and simple Questions should proceed in a logical sequence moving from

easy to more difficult questions. Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire. Open ended question must be avoided. Should contain control questions to check validity of the respondent Questions affecting the sentiments of the respondents hould be avoided.

Cases on Questionnaire
Student opinion about the management institute
Feedback of alumni meet Transfer Pricing

Usage of fixed mobile phone

Mail Surveys
Speed of data collection Researcher has no control over return of questionnaire

slow

Geographical flexibility

High Respondent cooperation

Moderate questionnaire will have low respons

Mail Surveys
Versatility of questioning

Highly standardized format Questionnaire length Varies depending on incentive Items nonreponse High

Mail Surveys
Possibility of respondent misunderstanding

Highest--no interviewer present for clarification Degree of interviewer influence of answer None Supervision of interviewers Not applicable

E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys

Flexible, but
Extensive differences in the capabilities

of respondents computers and e-mail software limit the types of questions and the layout Respondent cooperation Varies depending if e-mail is seen as spam

Internet Surveys
A self-administered questionnaire posted on

a Web site. Respondents provide answers to questions displayed online by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon or keying in an answer

Internet Surveys
Speed of data collection

High Cost effective Geographic flexibility worldwide Visual and interactive

Internet Surveys
Possibility for respondent misunderstanding

High Interviewer influence of answers None Supervision of interviewers not required

 Ease of Call back or Follow-up

difficult unless e-mail address is known Special Features allows graphics and streaming media

Collection of Data through schedules

Schedules is very much like the collection of data

through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the enumerators, who are especially appointed for the purpose.
Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the

investigation to the respondent

Questionnaire vs. Schedule

Questionnaire Sent though mail, without further assistance from

the sender. Cheap and economical

No field staff is required Non response is high Not clear who is replying Can be used only when respondent is literate and cooperative

 Schedule Filled by the enumerator, who help the respondent in

interpretation of the questions Relatively more expensive

Enumerators are paid for the work and required to be

trained. Non response is low Identity of the respondent is known Information can be gathered even when the respondents to be illiterate

Some other methods of Primary data collection

Warranty cards Dealers collect information about their consumers on

postal size cards 2. Distributor or store audits Distributors get the retail stores audit regularly through salesmen and use the information to estimate market size, market share etc. 3. Pantry audits Investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities

Some other methods of Primary data collection

Consumer panels Regular pantry audits, with consumer involvement. 5. Use of mechanical devices Eye camera, motion picture camera and audiometer 6. Projective techniques (indirect interviewing techniques) Respondent tends unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. It plays an important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys

Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are already available
Published- publications of the government, foreign

gov, technical & trade journals, books, magazines and newspapers, reports and publications of business and industry, banks etc. Unpublished- diaries, letters, unpublished biographies, autobiographies, research work, trade associations etc.

Characteristics of a secondary data

Reliability of data
Suitability of data

Adequacy of data

Limitations of Observation Methods

Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
Interpretation of data may be a problem Not all activity can be recorded

Only short periods can be observed

Observer bias possible Possible invasion of privacy