1

Principles of radio transmitters

and receivers
Dr Ding JiaXin
Engineer of Radio Monitoring Division
State Radio Monitoring Center
[email protected]
+8610-68312933

Radio Monitoring and Spectrum Management Training
(China,23-31,May,2005)

2
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

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Position of oscillator:
BPF
IF RF
HPA
Antenna
Amplifier
LO
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
HPA: High-Power Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio transmitter architecture
BPF
RF IF
Amplifier
Antenna
LNA
LO
BPF
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio receiver architecture
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Function of oscillator:
Generate a periodic output

Provide stable and accurate
frequencies for mixer
5
Classification of oscillators:
Feedback oscillator

Negative resistance oscillator
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Principle of feedback oscillator:
H(f)
X(f)
VX
VY
VF
VI
Y(f)
Overall transfer function

Loop gain:
) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
f H
f H
f X
f Y

=
I
F
V
V
T =
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Barkhausens criteria
The loop gain must be equal to unity

The total phase shift around the loop
must be equal to zero
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Frequency selective network:
H(f)
X(f)
Y(f)
Frequency selective
network
Resonator
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Oscillator characteristics:
Accuracy

Stability
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Definition of accuracy:
fx: actual frequency
f0: nominal frequency

0 0
0
f
f
f
f f
x
A
=

c
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Stability of oscillator:
The ability to remain at a fixed
frequency
Long-term
Short-term
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Phase noise:
t f A t v
c
t 2 cos ) ( =
Ideal output:

Actual output:


Phase noise:
t f t A t f A
t t f t a A t v
c n c
n c
t | t
| t
2 sin ) ( 2 cos
)] ( 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
~
+ + =
) (t
n
|
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Output spectrum of oscillator
f fc f fc
Ideal oscillator
Actual oscillator
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Effect of phase noise (I):
On the transmitting path
f f1 f2
Transmitted signal
Adjacent
channel
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Effect of phase noise (II):
On the receiving path
f
fLO
LO output
Wanted
signal
Interferer
f
Downconverted
signals
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Single side-band phase noise:
Describe frequency stability in
frequency domain



PSSB: noise power in unit bandwidth
Pc: carrier power
Unit: dBc/Hz
C
SSB
P
P
f L log 10 ) ( = A
Describe frequency stability in
frequency domain



PSSB: noise power in unit bandwidth
Pc: carrier power
Unit: dBc/Hz
C
SSB
P
P
f L log 10 ) ( = A
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Example:
f
fc
f A
Carrier average power:-2dBm
Noise power: -70dBm
Bandwidth: 1 kHz
:1MHz
f A
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Typical value of SSB phase noise:
=10KHz

typical value: -80~-110 dBc/Hz
f A
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Summary:
Function of oscillator
Classification of oscillator
Principle of feedback oscillator
Characteristics of oscillator
Phase noise
SSB phase noise
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Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

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Modulation & Demodulation:
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Modulation & Demodulation:
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Where is modulator ?
BPF
IF RF
HPA
Antenna
Amplifier
LO
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
HPA: High-Power Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio transmitter architecture
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Where is demodulator ?
BPF
RF IF
Amplifier
Antenna
LNA
LO
BPF
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio receiver architecture
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What is modulation?
f
0
fRF fIF
Baseband signal
Passband signal
The process of converting a baseband
signal to a passband counterpart
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Why convert ?
For antenna design easy
For frequency multiplex
For efficiently transmit

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Modulation & Up-conversion (I):
Modulation
Baseband => IF
Linear or nonlinear conversion
Up-conversion
IF => RF
Linear conversion
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Modulation & Up-conversion (II):
May occur in the same circuit
Matching
Network

Power
amplifier
Baseband
I
Baseband
Q
t f
c
t 2 cos
t f
c
t 2 sin
antenna
Direct-conversion transmitter architecture
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Demodulation (detection):
The inverse of modulation

The process of extracting the original
baseband signal from the passband
counterpart with minimum noise,
distortion, etc
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Modulator & Demodulator:
A device that can perform modulation

A device that can perform demodulation

Modem
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Where is modulator?
BPF
IF RF
HPA
Antenna
Amplifier
LO
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
HPA: High-Power Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio transmitter architecture
modulator
IF
Baseband
signal
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Where is demodulator:
BPF
RF IF
Amplifier
Antenna
LNA
LO
BPF
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio receiver architecture
demodulator
IF
Baseband
signal
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Summary:
Definition of modulation & demodulation
The reasons for modulation
Modulation & up-conversion
Modem
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Modulation & Demodulation:
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Some basic concepts:
Baseband signal
Carrier
Sinusoidal wave
Pulse train
Modulated signal
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Classification of baseband signal:
Analog baseband
signal



Digital baseband
signal
t
A
t
A
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Classification of modulation (I):
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Classification of modulation (II):
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Classification of modulation (III):
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Classification of modulation (IV):
Linear modulation
AM, ASK,

Nonlinear modulation
FM, PM, FSK,
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Modulation characteristics:
The quality of the output of the
detector

Spectral efficiency
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Summary:
Some basic concepts
Classification
Modulation characteristics
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Modulation & Demodulation:
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Train of thought:
Mathematics model
Waveform in time domain
Spectrum/ Signal constellations
Implementation of modulation
The method of demodulation

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Basic parameters:
Carrier



Baseband signal
xBB(t)
) 2 cos( ) ( t f A t c
c
t =
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Amplitude modulation (AM)
Double-sideband amplitude modulation
(DSB-AM)
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t Ax t x
c BB AM DSB
t =

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AM in time domain:
t
t
t
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AM in frequency domain:
f
0
0
fc
-fc
f
*
0
fc
-fc
f
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Implementation of AM:
BPF
xBB(t)
) 2 cos( t f
c
t
xAM(t)
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Demodulation of AM signal:
LPF
xBB(t)
) 2 cos( t f
c
t
xAM(t)
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Basic parameters:
Carrier


:total phase
:excess phase
:total frequency
:excess frequency

)] ( 2 cos[ ) ( t t f A t c
c
u t + =
) ( 2 t t f
c
u t +
) (t u
dt d f
c
/ 2 u t +
dt d / u
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Frequency modulation (FM):
The excess frequency is linearly
proportional to the baseband signal
}

+ =
t
BB c FM
dt t x m t f A t x ] ) ( 2 cos[ ) ( t
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FM in time domain:
XBB(t)


Carrier



FM signal

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Implementation of FM:
VCO
xBB(t)
xFM(t)
VCO: Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator
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Demodulation of FM signal:
FMD
xBB(t)
xFM(t)
FMD: Frequency Modulation
Discriminator
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Summary:
DSB-AM
FM
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Modulation & Demodulation:
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Why digital?
Advantages
Process easily
Reproduce easily
Encrypt easily
Disadvantages
Synchronization
Wide bandwidth
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Binary & M-ary signaling
Binary data
4-Level data
t
0 1
01
10
00
11
01
10
0
1
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Basis functions:
A digital modulated waveform can be
represented by a linear combination of
orthogonal basis functions


where
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t t t t x
N N
| o | o | o + + + =
}
=
S
T
k m
dt t t
0
0 ) ( ) ( | |
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Signal constellations:
A
A
1
o
2
o
) , )( , (
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
2 2 1 1
| | o o
| o | o
=
+ = t t t X
A
1
o
0
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Correlation detector:
S0(t)
S1(t)
Sm-1(t)
r(t)
}
b
T
0
}
b
T
0
}
b
T
0
Tb
Tb
Tb
D
e
s
i
o
n
Baseband
signal
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Binary detector:
S1(t)
S2(t)
}
b
T
0
}
b
T
0
Tb
Tb
r(t)
+
-
Baseband
signal
S1(t)-S2(t)
}
b
T
0
Tb
r(t)
Baseband
signal
(a)
(b)
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Coherent & Noncoherent detection:
Coherent
need phase synchronization

Noncoherent
Dont need phase synchronization
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Binary Amplitude Shift Keying
(BASK):
t f t AX t X
c BB BASK
t 2 cos ) ( ) ( =
XBB(t)
XBASK(t)
carrier
K
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BASK in time domain:
XBB(t)
XBASK(t)
1 0 0 1
ASK is rarely used in RF applications
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Binary phase shift keying (BPSK):



where

) 2 cos( ) ( u t + = t f A t X
c BPSK
t u or 0 =
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BPSK in time domain:
XBB(t)
XBPSK(t)
1
0
0
1
0
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BPSK constellation:
A
1
o
0
-A
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Implementation of BPSK:
XBB(t)
XBPSK(t)
carrier
K
Phase
shift
0
t
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Coherent BPSK detector:
}
b
T
0
Tb
XBPSK(t)
Baseband
signal
t f A
c
t 2 cos 2
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Binary frequency shift keying
(BFSK):


where
t f t f t X
BFSK 2 2 1 1
2 cos 2 cos ) ( t o t o + =
] 0 [ ] 0 [ ] [
2 1
A or A = o o
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BFSK in time domain:
XBB(t)
XBFSK(t)
1 0 0 1
f1
f2
f2
f1
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BFSK constellation:
A
A
1
o
2
o
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Implementation of BFSK:
XBB(t)
XBFSK(t)
K
f1
f2
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Coherent BFSK detector:
}
b
T
0
}
b
T
0
Tb
Tb
XBFSK(t)
+
-
t f
1
2 cos t
t f
2
2 cos t
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Quadrature PSK (QPSK):




t f A b t f A b t X
c m c m QPSK
t t 2 sin 2 cos ) (
1 +
+ =
Where
(bm,bm+1): (+1,+1), (+1,-1),
(-1,+1), (-1,-1)
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QFSK constellation:
A
1
o
0
-A
2
o
A
-A
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Implementation of QPSK:
S/P
Coverter
t f
c
t 2 cos
t f
c
t 2 sin
Binary
baseband
data
XQPSK(t)
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Demodulation of QPSK signal:
}
b
T
0
}
b
T
0
Tb
Tb
XQPSK(t)
t f
c
t 2 cos
t f
c
t 2 sin
P/S
Coverter
Baseband
signal
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Summary of digital modulation:
Binary & M-ary signaling
Signal constellations
Correlation detector
Coherent & Noncoherent detection
BASK/BPSK/BFSK
QPSK
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Summary :
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification
Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Summary(1):
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

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Summary (2):
Radio transceivers functions
RF and Baseband
RF signal
RF section is bottleneck
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Summary (3)
The concepts of memoryless,
Time-invariance, linearity

Effects of nonlinearity
Harmonics
Gain compression
Desensitization and Blocking
Intermodulation
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Summary (4):
Basic blockings of transceivers
antenna
filter
mixer
oscillator
amplifier
Modem
Band & Channel
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Summary (5):
Superheterodyne receiver
Image frequency
Direct-conversion receiver

Direct-conversion transmitter
LO pulling
Two-step transmitter
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Summary (6):
High-Power Amplifiers (HPA)
Low-Noise Amplifiers (LNA)
Other special amplifiers
VGA
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Summary (7):
Frequency translation
The core of all mixers is a multiplication
of two signals in the time domain

Implementation of mixer
Passive / Active mixer
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Summary (8):
General considerations
Basic concepts & Classification

Analog modulation
Digital modulation
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Question and Answer
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Thank you !