10-1 Quality Control

Operations Management

William J. Stevenson

8th edition
10-2 Quality Control
10-3 Quality Control

Phases of Quality Assurance

Figure 10.1

Inspection and
Inspection corrective Quality built
before/after action during into the
production production process

Acceptance Process Continuous

sampling control improvement

The least The most

progressive progressive
10-4 Quality Control

Inspection
Figure 10.2
• How Much/How Often
• Where/When

• Centralized vs. On-site

Inputs Transformation Outputs

Acceptance Process Acceptance

sampling control sampling
10-5 Quality Control

Inspection Costs
Figure 10.3
Cost

Total Cost
Cost of
inspection

Cost of
passing
defectives

Optimal
Amount of Inspection
10-6 Quality Control

Where to Inspect in the Process

• Raw materials and purchased parts

• Finished products
• Before a costly operation
• Before an irreversible process
• Before a covering process
10-7 Quality Control

Examples of Inspection Points

Table 10.1
Type of Inspection Characteristics
business points
Fast Food Cashier Accuracy
Counter area Appearance, productivity
Eating area Cleanliness
Building Appearance
Kitchen Health regulations
Hotel/motel Parking lot Safe, well lighted
Accounting Accuracy, timeliness
Building Appearance, safety
Main desk Waiting times
Supermarket Cashiers Accuracy, courtesy
Deliveries Quality, quantity
10-8 Quality Control

• Statistical Process Control:

Statistical evaluation of the output of a process
during production
• Quality of Conformance:
A product or service conforms to
specifications
10-9 Quality Control

Control Chart

• Control Chart
• Purpose: to monitor process output to see if
it is random
• A time ordered plot representative sample
statistics obtained from an on going process
(e.g. sample means)
• Upper and lower control limits define the
range of acceptable variation
10-10 Quality Control

Control Chart
Figure 10.4

Abnormal variation Out of

due to assignable sources control
UCL

Mean
Normal variation
due to chance
LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
10-11 Quality Control

Statistical Process Control

• The essence of statistical process control is

to assure that the output of a process is
random so that future output will be random.
10-12 Quality Control

Statistical Process Control

• The Control Process

• Define
• Measure

• Compare

• Evaluate

• Correct

• Monitor results
10-13 Quality Control

Statistical Process Control

• Variations and Control

• Random variation: Natural variations in the
output of a process, created by countless
minor factors
• Assignable variation: A variation whose
source can be identified
10-14 Quality Control

Sampling Distribution
Figure 10.5

Sampling
distribution

Process
distribution

Mean
10-15 Quality Control

Normal Distribution
Figure 10.6

σ = Standard deviation

−3σ −2σ +2σ +3σ

Mean
95.44%

99.74%
10-16 Quality Control

Control Limits
Figure 10.7
Sampling
distribution

Process
distribution

Mean

Lower Upper
control control
limit limit
10-17 Quality Control

SPC Errors

• Type I error
• Concluding a process is not in control when
it actually is.
• Type II error
• Concluding a process is in control when it is
not.
10-18 Quality Control

Type I Error
Figure 10.8

α/2 α/2

Mean

α = Probability LCL UCL

of Type I error
10-19 Quality Control

Observations from Sample Distribution

Figure 10.9
UCL

LCL

1 2 3 4
Sample number
10-20 Quality Control

Control Charts for Variables

Variables generate data that are measured.
• Mean control charts
• Used to monitor the central tendency of a
process.
• X bar charts
• Range control charts
• Used to monitor the process dispersion
• R charts
10-21 Quality Control

Mean and Range Charts

Figure 10.10A

(process mean is
shifting upward)
Sampling
Distribution

UCL

x-Chart Detects shift

LCL

UCL

Does not
R-chart
detect shift
LCL
10-22 Quality Control

Mean and Range Charts

Figure 10.10B

Sampling
Distribution (process variability is increasin

UCL

Does not
x-Chart
LCL
reveal increase

UCL

R-chart Reveals increase

LCL
10-23 Quality Control

Control Chart for Attributes

• p-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the

proportion of defectives in a process
• c-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the
number of defects per unit

Attributes generate data that are counted.

10-24 Quality Control

Use of p-Charts
Table 10.3
• When observations can be placed into two
categories.
• Good or bad
• Pass or fail
• Operate or don’t operate
• When the data consists of multiple samples
of several observations each
10-25 Quality Control

Use of c-Charts
Table 10.3
• Use only when the number of occurrences per
unit of measure can be counted; non-
occurrences cannot be counted.
• Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
• Cracks or faults per unit of distance

• Breaks or Tears per unit of area

• Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume

• Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

10-26 Quality Control

Use of Control Charts

• At what point in the process to use control

charts
• What size samples to take
• What type of control chart to use
• Variables
• Attributes
10-27 Quality Control

Run Tests

• Run test – a test for randomness

• Any sort of pattern in the data would suggest
a non-random process
• All points are within the control limits - the
process may not be random
10-28 Quality Control

Nonrandom Patterns in Control charts

Figure 10.11
• Trend
• Cycles

• Bias

• Mean shift

• Too much dispersion

10-29 Quality Control

Counting Runs

Figure 10.12 Counting Above/Below Median Runs (7 runs)

B A A B A B B B A A B

Figure 10.13 Counting Up/Down Runs (8 runs)

U U D U D U D U U D
10-30 Quality Control

Process Capability

• Tolerances or specifications
• Range of acceptable values established by
engineering design or customer requirements
• Process variability
• Natural variability in a process
• Process capability
• Process variability relative to specification
10-31 Quality Control

Process Capability
Figure 10.15
Lower Upper
Specification Specification

A. Process variability
matches specifications
Lower Upper
Specification Specification

B. Process variability
Lower Upper
well within specifications Specification Specification

C. Process variability
exceeds specifications
10-32 Quality Control

Process Capability Ratio

specification width
Process capability ratio, Cp =
process width

Cp = Upper specification – lower specification

6σ
10-33 Quality Control

3 Sigma and 6 Sigma Quality

Lower Upper
specification specification

1350 ppm 1350 ppm

1.7 ppm 1.7 ppm

Process
mean
+/- 3 Sigma

+/- 6 Sigma
10-34 Quality Control

Improving Process Capability

• Simplify
• Standardize

• Mistake-proof

• Upgrade equipment

• Automate
10-35 Quality Control

Taguchi Loss Function

Figure 10.17

Traditional
cost function
Cost

Taguchi
cost function

Lower Target Upper

spec spec
10-36 Quality Control

Limitations of Capability Indexes

• Process may not be stable

• Process output may not be normally
distributed
• Process not centered but Cp is used