Optical Fiber Cable Communication Systems

Part-I : Optical Fiber Cable Part-II : Optical Link Engineering

Part-I : Optical Fiber Cable

Contents The need for OFC OFC Propagation fundamentals Concept of Critical Angles Numerical Aperture Propagation Modes OFC Performance Windows Commercially available fibers Optical Fiber Cable Structure Optical Fiber Cable Splicing Connectors

The need for OFC

The need for OFC

More information carrying capacity
Free from EMI, ESI Low attenuation : 0.25 db/km at 1550 nm

Use of WDM
Switching / routing at Optical signal level

Self healing rings under NMS control

More information carrying capacity

According to Shannons information capacity theorem : C = BW. log2(1+SNR) where C = Information carrying capacity (bits/sec) BW = Bandwidth of the link SNR = Signal to noise power ratio

Information Carrying Capacities of various media : Examples

Medium / Link Copper Cable (short distance) Coaxial Cable (Repeater every 4.5 km) UHF Link
MW Link (Repeater every 40 km) OFC

Carrier 1 MHz 10 MHz

2 GHz 7 GHz 1550 nm

Information Capacity 1 Mb (ADSL Modem) 140 Mbps (BSNL)

8 Mbps (BSNL) 2 Mbps (Rly.) 140 Mbps (BSNL) 34 Mbps (Rly.) 2.5 Gbps(STM-16 Rly.) 10 Gbps (STM-64) 1.28 Tbps (128 Ch. DWDM) 20 Tbps (Possible)

Propagation Fundamentals

Bending of Light Ray

Rarer Medium RI = n2
Refracted Ray b a Denser Medium RI = n1 n1 > n2 Incident Ray a Reflected Ray Velocity of light in medium = c/RI Snells Law : n1 sin a = n2 sin b

Total Internal Reflection

Rarer Medium RI = n2

90 c

90oRefraction

Denser Medium RI = n1 n1 > n2

Incident Rays

Total Internal Reflection Velocity of light in medium = c/RI Snells Law : n1 sin a = n2 sin b

Concepts of Critical Angles

Critical Angle of Incidence

Rarer Medium RI = n2

90 c

90oRefraction

Denser Medium RI = n1
n1 > n2

Incident Ray

Snells Law : n1 sin a = n2 sin b n1 sin c = n2 sin 90 = n2 Critical Angle of incidence (c) = sin-1 (n2/n1)

How does Optical Fiber propagate light ?

Optical fiber propagates light for angle of incidence > critical angle

RI of Core > RI of cladding

Concept of Critical propagation angle

Critical angle of incidence c

Critical Propagation Angle p p = 90-c sin p = sin(90-c) = cos c = [1-sin2c]1/2 = [1- (n2/n1)2]1/2 p = sin-1[1- (n2/n1)2]1/2

Concept of Critical acceptance angle

Critical Propagation Angle p

Snells Law : na sin a = n1 sin p 1. sin a = n1 sin p ; a = sin-1(n1sin p)

2. Acceptance angle = 2a = 2 sin-1(n1sin p)

Numerical Aperture

Concept of Numerical Aperture

Ability of Optical Fiber to gather light from source & guide it inside through total internal reflection

Mathematical Expression for Numerical Aperture

Critical Propagation Angle p

NA = sin a = n1 sin p = n1 [1-(n2/n1)2]1/2 = [n12-n22]1/2 = (2.n.dn)1/2

Significance of Numerical Aperture

By varying Average RI & differential
RI, NA can be changed over a range ( Ex. 0.1 to 0.3 for Silica Fiber) NA = [Pin/Ps]1/2

Propagation Modes

What is meant by propagation mode

Even within propagating cone, optical fiber can sustain only part of the rays . The reasons are : Whenever a ray strikes core-cladding boundary, its phase (wtbz) has to be equal to 2pk all the time where k is an integer Rays that meet the above requirements only are sustained as stable pattern or mode In other words, rays which have integral number of wavelets between consecutive reflection points, only are sustainable The power of launched light is delivered by separate modes within the fiber. Total output power is the accrual of power carried by different modes

Multimode step-index fiber

Propagation through Multimode step-index fiber

Different light waves travel down the fiber.
One mode travels straight down the center of the core. Other modes travel at different steep angles and bounce back and forth by total internal reflection.

How to find number of modes

Find V number or normalized cut-off frequency or characteristic waveguide parameter V = (pd/l)(n12-n22)1/2

No. of modes in step-index fiber are N= V2/2

Problems with Multi-mode Step-index fiber

Different modes travel different distances , resulting in different arrival times at the far end This causes distortion in the transmitted signal The disparity between arrival times of the different light rays is known as dispersion High dispersion is an unavoidable characteristic of multimode step-index fiber. Solutions are :
Use Graded Index Fiber Use Single Mode Fiber

Multimode graded-index fiber

Propagation through Multimode graded-index fiber

The cores refractive index is parabolic, being higher at the center ( na> nb) The light rays follow a serpentine path being gradually bent back toward the center by the continuously declining RI. The modes traveling in a straight line are in a higher refractive index, so they travel slower than the serpentine modes Thus, the arrival time disparity is removed , as all modes arrive at about the same time No. of modes in graded index fiber are N=V2/4

Single mode step-index fiber

Propagation through Single mode step-index fiber

Single mode fiber has a much smaller core that allows only one mode of light at a time to propagate through the core. Single-mode fiber exhibits no dispersion caused by multiple modes Single-mode fiber also enjoys lower fiber attenuation than multimode fiber Thus, more information can be transmitted per unit of time because it can retain the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances Like multimode fiber, early single-mode fiber was generally characterized as step-index fiber meaning the refractive index of the fiber core is a step above that of the cladding rather than graduated as it is in graded-index fiber.

Summary of propagation

Important Parameters of Single mode fiber

Parameter Attenuation Description Loss of signal strength Typical value 0.35 db/km at 1310 nm 0.25 db/km at 1550 nm

Core diameter
Cladding diameter Core-cladding RI ratio

Diameter of core
Diameter of cladding Ratio of RI of core to cladding

8 to 10 micro meter
125 micro meter Less than 0.37%

Cut-off wavelength Minimal wavelength at which fiber supports only one mode

> 1260 nm

Numerical aperture Ability of Optical Fiber to 0.10 to 0.3 gather light from source & guide it inside through total internal reflection

Important Parameters Single mode fiber (contd)

Parameter Mode field diameter Description Typical value MM fiber carries all light energy 9.3 micro meters for through core as core diameter is large. core diameter of 8.3 But, SM fiber carries 80% light energy micro meters through core and 20% through cladding as core diameter is small. Mode field diameter (MFD) is the effective diameter available for propagation. MFD is dependent on wavelength it reduces with wavelength. Shorter the wavelength, more focussed the beam is and more stringent confinement of beam to core , hence less MFD When 2 fibers are connected, not only core-cladding diameters to match but also MFDs to match

More on Cutoff Wavelength

Cutoff wavelength is the wavelength above which a singlemode fiber supports and propagates only one mode of light. In other words, an optical fiber that is single-moded at a particular wavelength may have two or more modes at wavelengths lower than the cutoff wavelength. The effective cutoff wavelength of a fiber is dependent on the length of fiber and its deployment The longer the fiber, the lower is the effective cutoff wavelength. The smaller the bend radius of a loop of the fiber , the lower is the effective cutoff wavelength. If a fiber is bent in a loop, the effective cutoff wavelength is lowered. If a fiber is cabled , the cutoff wavelength of a fiber is reduced The variations are predictable enough, so that fiber manufacturers can specify a maximum cable cutoff wavelength for the fiber.

OFC Performance Windows

Signal Attenuation in Optical Fiber

Attenuation has three components : - Bending loss (Macro / Micro) - Absorption loss - Scattering loss In bending loss, there are 2 categories - Macro bending loss (specified by manufacturer) - Micro bending loss (not specified but included in total attenuation accountal by manufacturer)

Macro-bending loss
Macro-bending loss is caused by bending of the entire fiber axis The bending radius shall not be sharper than 30d where d is diameter of cable One single bend sharper than 30d can cause loss of 0.5 dB If bending is even sharper, fiber may break

Micro-bending loss
Micro-bending loss is caused by micro deformations of fiber axis which leads to failures in achieving total internal reflection conditions Micro-bends are small-scale perturbations along the fiber axis, the amplitude of which are on the order of microns. These distortions can cause light to leak out of a fiber. Micro-bending may be induced at very cold temperatures because the glass has a different coefficient of thermal expansion from the coating and cabling materials. At low temperatures, the coating and cable become more rigid and may contract more than the glass. Consequently, enough load may be exerted on the glass to cause micro bends. Coating material is selected by manufacturers to minimize loss due to micro-bending. The linear thermal expansion coefficient of coating material shall be compatible with that of fiber

Factors causing absorption & attenuation

Scattering of light due to molecular level irregularities in the glass Light absorption due to presence of residual materials, such as metals or water ions, within the fiber core and inner cladding. These water ions that cause the water peak region on the attenuation curve, typically around 1380 nm.

Absorption loss & Scattering loss

Absorption Loss Scattering Loss

Low water peak fiber

Removal of water ions is of particular interest to fiber manufacturers as this water peak region has a broadening effect and contributes to attenuation loss for nearby wavelengths. Some manufacturers now offer low water peak single-mode fibers, which offer additional bandwidth and flexibility compared with standard single-mode fibers.

The three peaks & troughs

Three peaks in attenuation
1050 nm 1250 nm 1380 nm

Three troughs in attenuation

850 nm : 3 db/km 1310 nm : 0.35 db/km 1550 nm : 0.25 db/km
Performance windows

Dispersion in Optical Fiber

Dispersion phenomenon
Dispersion is the time distortion of an optical signal that results from the differences of time of travel for different components of that signal, typically resulting in pulse broadening As the distance travelled by the signal is more, broadening of pulse is more In digital transmission, dispersion puts a limit on the maximum data rate and the maximum distance i.e. the information-carrying capacity of a fiber link. The interference from broadened pulse in the next interval shall not lead to erroneous interpretation of received signal

Types of dispersion
There are 2 types of dispersion : - Inter-modal dispersion - Chromatic dispersion

Inter-modal dispersion in Multi-mode step-index fiber

The disparity between arrival times of the different modes is known as inter- modal dispersion Since pulse power is delivered by separate modes which travel different distances within fiber, fractions of power arriving at the end combine to cause spreading of pulse The amount of pulse spreading over distance L is given by dtmodal(SI) = [L/(2cn2)](NA)2 As already discussed, the solutions to modal dispersion problem are
Use Graded Index Fiber Use Single Mode Fiber

Inter-modal dispersion in Multi-mode Graded-index fiber

The amount of pulse spreading over distance L is given by Dtmodal(GI) = (LN1DRI2 )/(8c) where N1 is Core Group RI & DRI is differential RI

Chromatic dispersion
Individual mode has light of different wave lengths, each traveling along fiber with different velocity and resulting in dispersion. This is called Chromatic dispersion It has 2 components :
Material dispersion : The pulse spreading due to dispersive properties of material Waveguide dispersion : Dispersion resulting from the light waves traveling in the core and the inner cladding glasses at slightly different speeds.

Chromatic dispersion in MM Fiber

In MM(GI) fiber, wave guide dispersion is negligible Material dispersion in MM fiber is given by
Dtmat = D(l) .Dl where D(l) = (S0l)/[4{1-(l0/l)4}] l0 is zero dispersion wave-length S0 is slope of D(l) vs. l curve at zero dispersion point

Total dispersion in MM Fiber

In MM(GI) fiber, wave guide dispersion is negligible Total dispersion in MM fiber to be evaluated from
Dt2total = Dt2modal + Dt2mat

Dispersion in Single Mode Fiber

No Modal dispersion Chromatic dispersion exists

Chromatic dispersion vs. Wavelength in Single Mode Fiber

Fiber dispersion varies with wavelength The wavelength at which dispersion equals zero is called the zero-dispersion wavelength (0). This is the wavelength at which fiber has its maximum information-carrying capacity. For standard single-mode fibers, this is in the region of 1310 nm.

How about transmission at 1550 nm

Optical fibers also can be manufactured to have low dispersion wavelength in the 1550-nm region, which is also the point where silica-based fibers have inherently minimal attenuation. These fibers are referred to as dispersion-shifted fibers and are used in long-distance applications with high bit rates. For applications utilizing multiple wavelengths, it is undesirable to have the zero dispersion point within the operating wavelength range.

Evolution of Single mode fiber

Single-mode fiber has gone through a continuing evolution. There are three basic classes of single-mode fiber used in modern OFC Systems :
Non dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF) Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) Non zero-dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF).

Explanation about Classes of Single mode fiber

Non dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF) 1. The initially deployed type used for 1310 nm. 2. This fiber has high dispersion at 1550 nm, hence not suitable for 1550 nm systems Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) 1. To address the shortcoming of NDSF fiber, fiber manufacturers developed, dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) 2. This has moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550 nm region Non zero-dispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF) 1. Though DSF worked extremely well with a single 1550 nm wavelength, it exhibits serious nonlinearities when multiple, closely-spaced wavelengths in the 1550 nm were transmitted in DWDM systems. 2. To address the problem of nonlinearities, non zerodispersion-shifted fibers (NZ-DSF) were designed by manufacturers. The fiber is available in both positive and negative dispersion varieties and is rapidly becoming the fiber of choice in new fiber deployment.

Usage of MM and SM Fiber

Multimode fiber is used primarily in systems with short transmission distances (under 2 km), such as premises communications, private data networks, and parallel optic applications. Single-mode fiber is typically used for longerdistance and higher-bandwidth applications . Its tremendous information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss have made single-mode fiber the ideal transmission medium for a multitude of applications.

Commercially Available Fibers

Optical Fiber Sizes

To ensure compatibility among splices/connectors, sizes of core & cladding have been standardized International standards for SM fiber
Cladding diameter : 125 microns (micro meter) Cladding + coating : 245 microns (micro meter) Core diameter : 7 to 10 micro meter

International standards for MM fibers

Cladding diameter : 125 microns (micro meter) Cladding + coating : 245 microns (micro meter) Core diameter : 50 to 62.5 micro meter

Types of Commercially Available Fibers

S N Type ITU T Rec. G.651 Description Indoor/ Outdoor Outdoor Application

MM50

Multi Mode Fiber with 50 micro m. of Core dia

Short-Reach Optical Transmission for LAN in Offices and Premises

MM62.5

G.651

Multi Mode Fiber with 62.5 micro m. of Core dia

Outdoor

Short-Reach Optical Transmission for LAN in Offices and Premises

MM10G

G.651

Multi Mode Fiber with 50 micro m. of Core dia

Outdoor

10Gigabit Ethernet Optical Transmission for LAN in Offices and Premises

Types of Commercially Available Fibers

SN Type ITU T Rec. G.652B Description Indoor/ Outdoor Outdoor Application

SM

Single-Mode Fiber

Large-Capacity & LowLoss Transmission in 1550nm Windows WDM Optical Transmission for Metropolitan Networks Optical cord and cable for FTTH / LAN / Premises

LWP

G.652D

Low-Water-Peak Single-Mode Fiber BendingInsensitive Small Bending Proof and High Reliability Single-Mode Fiber

Outdoor

SR15

G.652B

Indoor

Types of Commercially Available Fibers

S N Type 7 SR15E ITU T Rec. G.652D Description Indoor/ Outdoor Application

Bending-Insensitive Outdoor Long-Distance Optical Small Bending Transmission in Proof and High 1550nm Windows Reliability LowWater-Peak Single-Mode Fiber Dispersion-Shifted Single-Mode Fiber Large-EffectiveArea NZ-DSF Outdoor Long-Distance Optical Transmission in 1550nm Windows Outdoor Long-Distance DWDM Optical Transmission in the C-&L-Bands

DS

G.653

LA

G.655

Types of Commercially Available Fibers

SN Type ITU T Rec. Description Indoor/ Outdoor Application

10

SS

G.656

Small-DispersionSlope NZ-DSF

Outdoor

Long-Distance DWDM Optical Transmission in the C-&L-Bands

Long-Distance DWDM Optical Transmission Utilizing the S-, C- & L-Bands DWDM Optical Transmission Utilizing the S-, C- & L-Bands for Metro Networks

11

ULA

G.655

Ultra LargeEffective-Area NZ-DSF

Outdoor

12

USS

G.656

Ultra SmallDispersionSlope NZ-DSF

Outdoor

Optical Fiber Cable Structure

Basic structure of Optical Fiber Cable

Optical fiber cable consists of one or more protective enclosures, each having one or more bare fibers and the entirety packaged with a strength member in an outer jacket. Basic elements in OF cable are :
Bare fiber Buffer tube Strength member Outer jacket

Bare fiber categories

Single mode
NDSF DSF NZ-DSF

Multi-mode
Step index Graded index

Bare fiber description

Two different types of highly pure, solid glass, composed to form the core and cladding. RI profile :
Step index for SM and MM (Step index) { RI of core > RI of cladding} RI profile : Parabolic for MM (Graded index) {Decreases from centre of core to outer of core}

A protective acrylate coating surrounds the cladding This is applied to the glass fiber as the final step in the manufacturing process. This is colour coded for identification of fiber This coating protects the glass from dust and scratches This protective coating comprises of two layers: A soft inner layer that cushions the fiber and allows the coating to be stripped from the glass mechanically A hard outer layer that protects the fiber during handling, particularly the cabling, installation, and termination processes.

Buffer tube description

Buffer tube is the first shield protecting fiber from damage It can have one fiber or more It can be tight buffer or loose buffer It is colour coded for identification

Features of loose buffer tube

Buffers inner diameter is more than fibers outer diameter Force applied on buffer does not affect the fiber until the force is large enough to straighten the fiber inside the buffer Loose buffer tube can be filled with gel to prevent entry of moisture Preparation for and providing connectors/splicing is laborious It cannot be installed vertically Loose buffer tube fiber cables are used out-door

Features of tight buffer tube

Tight buffers inner diameter is same as fibers outer diameter It can keep the fiber operational despite break, as the fiber is held in position firmly. Each buffer can hold one fiber only. Easy to prepare for and provide connectors / splicing Can be installed vertically Normal tight buffer tube cables are used in-door Very strong tight buffer tube cables are used in military / under-sea applications as small separation of fiber ends due to break does not interrupt services completely.

Features of strength member

Purpose is to release fiber from mechanical stress during installation / operation Following materials are used as strength members :
Flexible aramid yarn (Ex. Du pont Kevlar widely used) Flexible fiber glass roving Fiber glass rod Metal wire Metal rope made from twisted steel wires

Features of outer jacket

Surrounds the entire assembly of buffer tube or tubes and strength member Purpose is to provide environmental protection to fibers Made of PE Steel armour is provided for armoured cables

Single Fiber Cable Structure

CONSTRUCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF 24 FIBRE ARMOURED OPTIC CABLE (TC. 55. 2006 Rev.1)
TWO SUITABLE RIP CARDS UNDER THE ARMOUR HDPE OUTER JACKET (2.0 mm minimum) CORRUGATED A ISI-304 0R 305 STAINLESS STELL ARMOUR [0.125 MM (maximum) ] INNER P.E.SHEATH (1.5 mm minimum) SECONDARY COATING TUBE (OUTER DIA 2.4 mm +/- 0.1 mm) NON-HYGROSCOPIC DIELECTRIP TAPE (POLYSTER TAPE) PRIMARY COATED FIBRE CENTRAL STRENGTH MEMBER (2.5mm +/- 0.05mm) WRAPPING ARMIDE YARN(IF REQUIRED) WATER BLOCKING JELLY WATER BLOCKING THIXOTROPIC JELLY ONE SUITABLE RIP CARD UNDER THE INNER SHEATH

CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF ARMOURED OPTIC FIBRE CABLE

CABLE CORE INNER P.E.SHEATH CORRUGATED A ISI-304 0R 305 STAINLESS STELL ARMOUR HDPE OUTER JACKET

RIP CARD

CORRUGATED STAINLESS STELL ARMOUR CABLE CORE

HDPE OUTER JACKET

INNER P.E.SHEATH

Multiple Fiber Cable Structure

Structure details of 24 fiber cable used in Railways

6 tubes & 4 fibers per tube Colour coded

Strength of Optical Fiber Cable

One common misconception about optical fiber is that it must be fragile because it is made of glass. While traditional bulk glass is brittle, the ultrapure glass of optical fibers exhibits both high tensile strength and extreme durability. Tensile strength is of the order of 44000 to 60000 kg per sq.cm (For copper it is only 7500 kg per square cm.)

Bending Parameters
Optical fiber and cable are easy to install because it is lightweight, small in size, and flexible. Precautions are needed to avoid tight bends, which may cause loss of light or premature fiber failure. Bending radius shall be > 30 d (where d is dia. of cable) Splice trays and other fiber-handling equipment, such as racks, are designed to prevent fiber-installation errors such as this.

Fiber geometry parameters

Splice yields and system losses have a profound impact on the quality of system performance and the cost of installation / maintenance Splice-loss requirement is typically around 0.1 dB. The three fiber geometry parameters that have the greatest impact on splicing performance include the following:
Cladding diameter Core/clad concentricity (or core-to- cladding offset) Fiber curl

These parameters are controlled during the fibermanufacturing process

Cladding Diameter
The cladding diameter tolerance controls the outer diameter of the fiber, with tighter tolerances ensuring that fibers are almost exactly the same size. During splicing, inconsistent cladding diameters can cause cores to misalign where the fibers join, leading to higher splice losses.

Core/clad concentricity
How well the core is centered in the cladding glass region Tighter core/clad concentricity tolerances help ensure that the fiber core is centered in relation to the cladding. This reduces the chance of cores that do not match up precisely when two fibers are spliced together. Core/clad concentricity is determined during the first stages of the manufacturing process.

Fiber Curl
Fiber curl is the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber that is exhibited to some degree by all fibers. It is a result of thermal stresses that occur during the manufacturing process. Tighter fiber-curl tolerances reduce the possibility that fiber cores will be misaligned during splicing, thereby impacting splice loss.

Splicing of fibers

What is splicing
Splicing is permanent connection of two pieces of fiber Two types of splices :
Mid-span splicing of two fibers
Fibers from two cables are spliced after laying drum by drum Cuts in fiber run are attended by splicing certain minimum length cable piece at either end

Pig-tail splicing
Pig-tail is fiber with factory installed connector at one end The free fiber of pig-tail is spliced connected to cable

Two techniques of splicing

Mechanical splicing Fusion splicing

Mechanical Splicing
Mechanical splicing is of slightly higher losses (about 0.2 db) and less-reliable performance System operators use mechanical splicing for emergency restoration because it is fast, inexpensive, and easy. Mechanical splices are reflective and non-homogenous

Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing provides a fast, reliable, low-loss, fiber-to-fiber connection by creating a homogenous joint between the two fiber ends. The fibers are melted or fused together by heating the fiber ends, typically using an electric arc. Fusion splices provide a high-quality joint with the lowest loss (in the range of 0.01 dB to 0.10 dB for single-mode fibers) and are practically non-reflective.

Connectors

Basics about connectors

Fiber optic connector facilitates re-mateable connection i.e. disconnection / reconnection of fiber Connectors are used in applications where Flexibility is required in routing an optical signal from lasers to receivers Reconfiguration is necessary Termination of cables is required Connector consists of 4 parts : Ferrule Connector body Cable Coupling device Typical connector is shown in figure

Parts of connector and their description

The Ferrule The fiber is mounted in a long, thin cylinder, the ferrule, which acts as a fiber alignment mechanism. The ferrule is bored through the center at a diameter that is slightly larger than the diameter of the fiber cladding. The end of the fiber is located at the end of the ferrule. Ferrules are typically made of metal or ceramic, but they may also be constructed of plastic. Also called the connector housing, the connector body holds the ferrule. It is usually constructed of metal or plastic and includes one or more assembled pieces which hold the fiber in place. The details of these connector body assemblies vary among connectors, but bonding and/or crimping is commonly used to attach strength members and cable jackets to the connector body. The ferrule extends past the connector body to slip into the coupling device. The cable is attached to the connector body. It acts as the point of entry for the fiber. Typically, a strain-relief boot is added over the junction between the cable & the connector body, providing extra strength Most fiber optic connectors do not use the male-female configuration common to electronic connectors. Instead, a coupling device such as an alignment sleeve is used to mate the connectors. Similar devices may be installed in transmitters & receivers to allow these devices to be mated via a connector. These devices are also known as feedthrough bulkhead adapters.

The Connector Body

The Cable

The Coupling Device

Characteristics of connectors
Parameter Description Insertion loss 1. Loss due to use of connector (unavoidable) 2. Manufacturers specify typical value 3. Use of strain relief boot over the junction between the cable & connector body and attaching strength member to the connector minimize the insertion loss Repeatability Connector is re-useable (up to 500 (loss) times). The increase in loss shall be less than the repeatability loss Suitability Suitable to SM / MM fiber Return loss Important factor for SM fibers (shall be less than 60 db)

FC Connector

Insertion loss 0.5 to 1.0 db

Repeatability
0.20 db

Fiber type
SM / MM

Application
Transmission NW

FDDI Connector

Insertion loss 0.2 to 0.7 db

Repeatability 0.20 db

Fiber type SM / MM

Application FDDI LAN (Fiber distributed data interface)

LC Connector

Insertion loss
0.15 db (SM) 0.10 db (MM)

Repeatability
0.20 db

Fiber type
SM / MM

Application
High density interconnection

MT Array Connector

Insertion loss 0.3 to 1.0 db

Repeatability
0.25 db

Fiber type
SM / MM

Application
Ribbon fiber cables

SC Connector

Insertion loss Repeatability

0.2 to 0.45 db 0.10 db

Fiber type
SM / MM

Application
Transmission NW

SC Duplex Connector

Insertion loss Repeatability

0.2 to 0.45 db 0.10 db

Fiber type
SM / MM

Application
Transmission NW

ST Connector

Insertion loss
0.40 db (SM) 0.50 db (MM)

Repeatability Fiber type

0.40 db (SM) SM / MM 0.20 db (MM)

Application
Inter/Intra Building

Steps in attaching connectors to fiber

1.

2.

Cut the cable one inch longer than the required finished length. Carefully strip the outer jacket of the fiber with no nick fiber strippers. Cut the exposed strength members, and remove the fiber coating. The fiber coating may be removed two ways: by soaking the fiber for two minutes in paint thinner and wiping the fiber clean with a soft, lint-free cloth, or by carefully stripping the fiber with a fiber stripper. Be sure to use strippers made specifically for use with fiber rather than metal wire strippers as damage can occur, weakening the fiber.

Steps in attaching connectors to fiber (contd..)

3. Thoroughly clean the bared fiber with isopropyl alcohol poured onto a soft, lint-free cloth such . NEVER clean the fiber with a dry tissue. Note: Use only industrial grade 99% pure isopropyl alcohol. Commercially available isopropyl alcohol is for medicinal use and is diluted with water and a light mineral oil. Industrial grade isopropyl alcohol should be used exclusively. The connector may be connected by applying epoxy or by crimping. If using epoxy, fill the connector with enough epoxy to allow a small bead of epoxy to form at the tip of the connector. Insert the clean, stripped fiber into the connector. Cure the epoxy according to the instructions provided by the epoxy manufacturer.

4.

Steps in attaching connectors to fiber (contd)

5. Anchor the cable strength members to the connector body. This prevents direct stress on the fiber. Slide the back end of the connector into place (where applicable).
Prepare the fiber face to achieve a good optical finish by cleaving and polishing the fiber end. Before the connection is made, the end of each fiber must have a smooth finish that is free of defects such as hackles, lips, and fractures. These defects, as well as other impurities and dirt change the geometrical propagation patterns of light and cause scattering.

6.

Part-II: Optical Link Engineering (Single Mode Fiber Systems)

Contents Considerations in Optical Link Engineering (Single Mode Fiber Systems) Selection of Components Link Power Budget Rise time budget

Considerations in Optical Link Engineering

Starting point : Point to point link Understanding System performance criteria Choice of components available Link Power Budget analysis
To determine OFC link meets the attenuation requirement or amplifiers are to be added

System rise time analysis

To verify that the dispersion is within tolerable limits

System performance vis--vis cost constraints

Point to Point Link

The simplest transmission link is a point to point line having transmitter at one end and receiver on the other.
Data source Optical Tx Optical Fibre Optical Rx Data User

This type of link forms the basis for engineering more complex system architectures. The design of an optical link involves many interrelated variables among the fiber, source, photo detector,, so that the actual link design and analysis may require several iterations before they are finalized.

System performance criteria

System performance criteria : Desired transmission distance. Data rate - channel band width. Bit Error Rate (BER) System performance should be ensured over the expected system life time.

Choice of components
To fulfil these requirements, the designer has a choice of the following components and their associated characteristics :
Multimode or single-mode optical fiber
Core size Core refractive index profile Bandwidth or dispersion Attenuation Numerical aperture or mode field diameter

Choice of components (contd)

LED or laser diode optical source Emission wavelength. Spectral line width. Output power Effective radiating area Emission pattern Number of emitting modes Pin or avalanche photodiode Responsivity Operating wave length Speed Sensitivity

Link power & Rise-time Budget Analysis

Two analysis are usually carried out : Link power budget Rise time budget The link power budget analysis, power margin between transmitter and receiver sensitivity required for specified BER. The power margin is then distributed to connectors, splice, fiber loss + any other additional margins including degradation of components due to aging. Once the link power budget has been established, the rise time budget (analysis) is to be carried out to ensure that over all system performance has been met.

Selection of components

Decide the wavelength

To carry out link power budget, first decide the wave length of operation, short distance - 800 900 nm, longer distance of 1300 - 1550 nm. Once the wave length is decided the system performance is interrelated to 3 major components namely, receiver, transmitter and fiber. Generally, characteristics of two of these elements are chosen and then the characteristics of the 3rd one is computed to meet the system performance requirement.

Decide the detector & source

If the components have been over / under specified, a design iteration may be needed. Generally, to start with a suitable photo detector is chosen which can detect successfully the optical signals at the highest operating speed, i.e, suitable for the desired band width. Then suitable optical source is chosen to suit the transmission speed (band width) Optical power level is estimated using a particular fiber. Introduction of booster amplifier is also examined at this stage.

Pin Photo Diode Vs. APD

The minimum optical power level that must fall on the photo detector to satisfy the BER requirement at the specified data rate. Cost of components. Complexity of the receiver design / maintenance for eg. Pin photo diode receiver is simpler, more stable with variation in the temperature and less expensive than APD.

Pin Photo Diode Vs. APD (contd)

Pin photo diode bias voltages are normally less than 5 V and APDs bias voltage ranges from 40 V to several hundred V. APDs are more sensitive to low optical power levels.

LED Vs. LD
The system parameters involved in deciding between LED and LD are :
Signal dispersion. Data rate. Transmission distance. Cost.

LED source in 800 - 900 nm region can work up to data rate - distance of 150 mbps - km

LED Vs. LD (contd)

Single mode fiber with LD source can provide ultimate bit rate at data rate distance product of over 500 Gbps - km with 1550 nm. Laser diodes are capable of coupling 10 - 15 dB more optical power into a fiber than an LED which enables greater repeater less transmitter distance with a laser. The disadvantages of LD are its cost and its complexity of transmitter circuitry.

Selection of Fiber
Choice between single and multimode fiber. Choice depends on type of light source and the amount of dispersion that can be tolerated. Light emitted diodes (edge emitting type) with multimode fibers data rates of greater than 500 Mb/s over several kilometers are possible. Loss (attenuation) characteristics of a cabled fiber, excess loss that results from the cabling process must be considered in addition to the basic attenuation of the fiber. Connector, splice, loses also to be considered.

Link Power Budget

Constituents of Link
An optical power loss model for a point-topoint link is shown below :
Optical Fibre Optical Tx Optical Rx

Connector

Splice ( Joints)

Connector

Power received on photo detector PR

= Power output of the source PS loss PT Total power

Example-I
The data speed is 2.5 Gb/s.

BER - 10 -9
Source 1550 nm laser diode. Power output level into a fiber flylead = + 3dBm. Detector, InGaAs APD of sensitivity - 32dBm at 2.5 Gb/s. Optical cable of loss 0.3 dB/km. Distance = 60 km.

Illustration of Link Loss Budget Ex.-II

System Requirement : Data rate 20 Mb/s BER - 10 -9 Selected detector is silicon pin photo diode operating on 850 nm. For 20 MB/s data rate, the required receiver input level is 42 dBm. (Receiver sensitivity varies with data rate) GaAlAs LED is chosen which can couple - 13 dBm average optical power level into a fiber flylead with 50 m core diameter.

Cable length 20 km, attenuation 1dB /km

Receiver Sensitivity
Pr = 11.5 log B - 71.0 dBm For InGaAs APD = 11.5 log B 60.5 dBm For InGaAs pin diode B is the bandwidth in Mbps

Table for calculation of Power Budget

Component / Loss Parameter Optical output Detector Type, sensitivity Allowed loss Source connector loss Jumper + Connector Loss Cable attenuation Jumper + Connector loss Receiver connector loss Output / sensitivity / loss Ex. I Laser ,+3 dBm APD, -32 dBm at 2.5 Gbps 35 dB 1 dB 3 + 1 dB 18 dB (60 km , @ 0.3 dB /km) 3 +1 dB 1 dB Ex. II LED, -13dBm PIN diode -42dBm at 20 Mbps 29 dB 1dB 3+1dB 20 dB (20 km, @ 1dB/km) 3+1dB 1dB Power margin (dB) Ex. I Ex. II -

35 34 30 12 8

29 28 24 4 0

7 (final) 0 (final )

Rise time budget

RISE TIME
Rise Time budget analysis is a means for ensuring the minimum permissible data rate over an optical fiber link. Total system rise time is given by equation below : t = t12 + t22 + t32 +t42 + .

The following are the 3 commonly encountered rise time elements in link designing : Transmitter Rise Time. Dispersion Rise Time of the fiber. Receiver Rise Time.

Limits for Rise-time

Conventionally, the total transition time degradation of a digital link should not exceed 70% of an NRZ bit period or 35 percent of a bit period for RZ bit rate. The transmitter rise time are primarily due to light source and its drive circuitry. The receiver rise time results from the band width of the receiver front end.

How to compute trx

Rise time of the receiver is time interval between 10% and 90% of the rise of output. This is related to the bandwidth with the following empirical formula

trx = 350 / Brx ( Brx is Rx bandwidth)

The fiber rise time is the total dispersion time down the fiber. In case of single mode fiber multimodal dispersion is not present and hence the total dispersion is due to chromatic dispersion only.

Example of rise time budget

Optg. Wavelenth =1310 nm. Laser Source rise time = 25 psec Spectral width of laser = 1 nm. Fibre dispersion = 2 psec/nm-km Total lenth =60km Therefore, material dispersion related rise time =2x 1 x 60 = 120 psec.

 Receiver band width = 2.5 GHz Receiver rise time = 350/2500 = 0.14 n sec. Substituting all these values we get the total rise time = (25 +120 +140 ) =186 p sec This value is less than the maximum allowable 70 % of bit interval time for 2.5 Gbps NRZ data string. ( which is 280 nsec.) Thus, we can finalise this design to be adequate.

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