Particle:Localized - definite position, momentum,

confined in space.
Wave:de-localized spread out in space
and time
How do we associate a wave nature to a particle?
What could represent both wave and particle?

Find a description of a particle which is consistent with our
notion of both particles and waves

Fits the wave description

Localized in space
A Wave Packet
3
of the group (envelope) is non-zero only in the neighbourhood
of the particle
A wave packet is localized a good representation for a
particle!
The spread of wave packet in wavelength depends on the required
degree of localization in space the central wavelength is given by


What is the velocity of the wave packet?
If several waves of different wavelengths (frequencies) and phases
are superposed together, one would get a resultant which is a
localized wave packet

A wave packet is a group of waves with
slightly different wavelengths interfering
with one another in a way that the amplitude
p
h
=
The velocities of the individual waves which superpose to
produce the wave packet representing the particle are
different - the wave packet as a whole has a different
velocity from the waves that comprise it

Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the wave
propagates in space

Group velocity: The rate at which the envelope of the wave
packet propagates


Here c is the velocity of light and v is the velocity of the particle .
v
c
v
p
2
=
v v
g
=
6
7
Suppose velocity of the De-Broglie wave associated with the moving particle
be v
p
then,




Since the velocity of the particle is always less than c , therefore v
p
should
always be greater than c which shows that De-Broglie wave associated with
particle would leave the particle far behind. This is against the wave concept
of the particle.
The above difficulty was overcome by considering that the moving particle is
associated with A WAVE PACKET rather than a single wave train.
The velocity with which this wave packet moves forward in the medium is
called GROUP VELOCITY. The average velocity of the advancement of
individual monochromatic wave in the medium with which a wave packet is
constructed is called WAVE VELOCITY OR PHASE VELOCITY.
p
2
p
v
c
v
v
= v
=
2
mc
: frequency
h
h h
: wavelength =
p mv
=
=
9
1
2
1 2
Group velocity
y Acos(kx t)
y Acos[(k dk)x ( d )t]
The resultant displacement 'y' at any time t and at any position x is
y=y y
y=Acos(kx t)
= e
= + e+ e
+
e + Acos[(k dk)x ( d )t]
(2k dk)x (2 d )t dkx d t
y=2A[cos cos( )]
2 2 2
Since d and dk are infinitesimally small quantities therefore,
2 d 2
2k+dk 2k
dk
y=2A[cos(kx t)cos(
+ e+ e
+ e+ e e

e
e+ e e

e
x d t
)]
2 2
e

Hence second term is the modified amplitude of the wavepacket which is modulated
in the space and time by a very slowly varying envelop of frequency de/2 and the
propagation constant dk/2 and has maximum value 2A. The effect of the modulation
is to produce successive groups
10
|(x,t) =kx-et
|=0, x=0, t=0
New position of |=0 at At
k Ax - e At = 0

1
y Acos(kx t) = e
x t
k
e
A = A
Phase velocity =The velocity with which the constant phase
moves
p
x
v
t k
A e
= =
A
dk d
y=2A[cos(kx t)cos( x t)]
2 2
e
e
Group velocity=The velocity with which the wave packet moves

g
d
v
k dk
as k 0
Ae e
= =
A
A
11
Superposition of Two Waves: Formulas
Add two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal e.
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 1 2 2
, cos cos
, c
2
s o co s
2
2
o o
o
y x t y k x
k
t y k x t
y x y x t t
kx t e
e e
e
A A
| |

|
+
.

\

=
=
Wave #1 Wave #2
Wave Envelope
(2) waves
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
where
and
,
2 2
,
k k
k
k k k
e e
e
e e e
+ +
= =
= =
Wave Envelope
13
Imp
2
g p
c
Show that v v and v
v
= =
Now, the angular frequency and the propagation constant of De-Broglie
waves associated with a body of mass m
o
and moving with velocity v are
2
2
2
2
o
2
2
2
E h ; E=mc
mc
h
2 mc
h
2 m c
= (1)
v
h 1
c
e= tu
= u
u =
t
e=
t
e

o
2
2
2
k
h h
=
p mv
2 mv
k=
h
2 m v
k= (2)
v
h 1
c
t
=

=
t

g
2
o
2
2
o
2
3
2
2
d
d
dv
v (3)
dk
dk
dv
From eq (1)
2 m c d d
dv dv
v
h 1
c
2 m v
= (4)
v
h(1 )
c
e
e
= =
| |
|
t e
|
=
|
|
\ .
t

o
2
2
o
2
3
2
2
and from eq(2)
2 m v dk d

dv dv
v
h 1
c
2 m
= (5)
v
h(1 )
c
| |
|
t
|
=
|
|
\ .
t

g
d dk
Substituting and in eq (3)
dv dv
v v
e
=
Thus de-Broglie wave group associated with a moving
body travels with the same velocity as the body. The
wave velocity v
p
of the de-Broglie waves evidently has no
simple physical significance. Hence a moving particle is
equivalent to a wave packet or a group of waves.
15
Relation between Phase and Group Velocities:
Wave Packet
For multiple waves, must define two velocities: Phase velocity v
p
:
Group velocity v
g
:
( )
and
only in non-dispersive media, i.e.

0
= =
= = +
= =
p g
p
g p p
p
g p
d
v v
k dk
dv
d
v kv v k
dk dk
dv
v v
dk
e e

d
dv
v v
p
p g
=
v
g
< v
p
Normal Dispersion
v
g
> v
p
Anomalous Dispersion
Show that
19
( )
( )
, 2 cos
2 2
cos
A A
| |

|
\ .
=
o
y x t y
kx
kx t
t e
e
vp > vg
t = 0
Normal Dispersion
t = 1
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 2
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 3
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 4
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 5
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 6
Normal Dispersion
vp > vg
t = 7
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 8
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 9
vp > vg
Normal Dispersion
t = 10
Normal Dispersion
vp > vg
vp < vg
t = 0
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 1
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 2
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 3
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 4
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 5
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 6
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 7
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 8
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 9
Anomalous Dispersion
vp < vg
t = 10
Anomalous Dispersion
vp = vg
t = 0
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 1
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 2
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 3
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 4
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 5
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 6
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 7
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 8
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 9
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
vp = vg
t = 10
only in non-dispersive media, i.e. 0 = =
p
g p
dv
v v
dk
scheme
Differences in speed cause spreading or
dispersion of wave packets
The group velocity is the speed of the wavepacket
The phase velocity is the speed of the individual waves
Phase velocity = Group Velocity
The entire waveformthe
component waves and their
envelopemoves as one. non-
dispersive wave.
Phase velocity = -Group Velocity
The envelope moves in the opposite
direction of the component waves.
Phase velocity > Group Velocity
The component waves move more
quickly than the envelope.
Phase velocity < Group Velocity
The component waves move more
slowly than the envelope.
Group Velocity = 0
The envelope is stationary while the
component waves move through it.
Phase velocity = 0
Now only the envelope moves over
stationary component waves.
56
Phase and Group Velocities: Dispersion
Dispersion occurs when the phase
velocity v
p
depends on k (or ),
i.e. group velocity does not equal the
phase velocity.
p g
p
v v
dk
dv
= = 0 or
= phase velocity v
p

Diagram shows a wave packet with a
group velocity less than the phase
velocity, i.e. v
g
<v
p
.
= group velocity v
g
For detailed explanation of fig See Modern Physics
by Stephen T. Thornton & Andrew Rex Pg no. 190.