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Quantum Mechanics
Lecture-8
Concept of Modern Physics
by A. Beiser
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Exercise: A Particle limited to the x-axis has the wave
function =ax between x=0 and x=1; =0 elsewhere.

(a)Find the probability that the particle can be found x=0.45
and x=0.55.

(b)Find the expectation value < x > of the particles position.



(a) 0.0251 a
2

(b) a
2
/4
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*
2 1
*
1 2
1 2
Condition for orthogonal wavefunction
d 0
or d 0
wavefunction and are mutually orthogonal

t =
t =

}
}
* *
1 1 2 2
1 2
Condition of normalized wavefunction
d 1 or d 1
and called normalized wavefunction.

t = t =

} }
*
i j
Condition of orthonormal function
d 0 if i j
= 1 if i = j

t = =
}
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A particle is confined to a one-dimensional
region of space between two impenetrable
walls separated by distance L
This is a one- dimensional box
The particle is bouncing elastically back
and forth between the walls
As long as the particle is inside the box, the
potential energy does not depend on its
location. We can choose this energy value to be
zero
V= 0, 0 < x < L, V , x 0 and x L
Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential) Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
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Since the walls are impenetrable, there is zero
probability of finding the particle outside the box.
Zero probability means that
(x) = 0, for x < 0 and x > L
The wave function must also be 0 at the walls (x = 0
and x = L), since the wavefunction must be
continuous
Mathematically, (0) = 0 and (L) = 0


In the region 0 < x < L, where V = 0, the
Schrdinger equation can be expressed in the form


Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
x
V x E x
2m x
c
+ =
c
( )
( )
2
2
2
x
E x
2m x
c
=
c
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We can re-write it as
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
x
2mE 2mE
x k
x
x
k x
x
c
=
c
c
=
c
Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
The most general solution to this differential equation is
(x) = A sin kx + B cos kx
A and B are constants determined by the properties of the
wavefunction as well as boundary and normalization conditions
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Since the particle cannot have infinite energy, it cannot exist outside the box.
Therefore, the wave function must be zero outside the box. must be also zero
at the walls, that is, at x = 0 and x = L, for otherwise there would be discontinuities
at the walls.
1. Sin(x) and Cos(x) are finite and single-valued functions
2. Continuity: (0) = (L) = 0
(0) = A sin(k0) + B cos(k0) = 0 B = 0
(x) = A sin(kx)
(L) = A sin(kL) = 0 sin(kL) = 0 kL = n, n =0, 1, 2

( n = 0 is not admissible because it yields zero everywhere which means that the
particle is no where).





Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
8 2 2
) (
2
n
mL
h
n
mL m
n
L
E
m
k
E n
L
k
n
n
n n
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
= =

t
t
t
Not admissible
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The particle can not have arbitrary energy , but
can have certain discrete energy corresponding
to n=1,2,3,



Each permitted energy is called eigen value of the
particle and constitute the energy level of the
system, and the integer n that specifies an energy
level E
n
is called its principal quantum number.
The wave function corresponding to each eigen
value is called eigen functions.
Lowest level n = 1, energy not
zero why ?
Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
2 2
n
2
n h
E
8mL
=
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2 2 2 2 2
n
2 2
n h n
E
8mL 2mL
t
= =
Thus the energy of the particle bounded in a box is quantized.
Another conclusion for the motion of particle in a box can also be drawn that the
particle can not have zero energy but has minimum energy and called as zero point
energy. The state corresponding to this energy is called ground state.

According to classical mechanics, when a particle is placed in a box, it can have
zero energy or continuous kinetic energy. Thus the quantization of energy is a
specific result derived from quantum mechanics.
If one assumes v = 0 for a particle in a box, the de-Broglie wave associated with it will
be =(h/mv) = , which ia an absurd result because there should be node at the
boundary for the bounded particle.
If the particle is bound in 1D box of width L. The particle can not have zero kinetic
energy, because from Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the uncertainty in position
of the trapped particle in a box is x = L, hence p as well as velocity of the particle
and their kinetic energy can not be zero.
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An e- is in a box 0.10 nm across, which is the order of magnitude of
atomic dimensions. Find its permitted energies.
A 10 g marble is in a box 10 cm across. Find its permitted energies.
2 2
n 2
2 34 2
18 2
n 31 10 2
2
n h
E
8mL
n (6.63 10 J.s)
E 6.0 10 n J
8(9.1 10 kg)(1.0 10 m)
38n eV

= =

=
The minimum energy of the e- can have 38eV, corresponding to n=1.the sequence of
energy levels continues with E
2
=152 eV, E
3
=342 eV, and so on. If such box existed, the
quantization of a trapped e-s energy would be a prominent feature of the system. ( and
indeed energy quatization is prominent in the case of an atomic election.)




The minimum energy of the marble can have 8.2810
-65
J, corresponding to n=1. A
marble with this K.E. has a speed of only 1.310
-31
m/s and therefore can not be
experimentally distinguished from a stationary marble.
For v=1/3 m/s----corresponding energy level of quantum number n=10
30
.

Hence in the domain of everyday experience, quantum effects are unnoticeable, which
accounts for the success of Newtonian Mechanics in this domain.
2 34 2
65 2
n 2 1 2
n (6.63 10 J.s)
E 8.28 10 n J
8(1.0 10 kg)(1.0 10 m)

= =

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( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2
2
n
2
2
n
n n
2
2 2
n
2
x
2mE
x
x
x
k x
x
(x) Asin(kx) Bcos(kx)
(0) Bcos(0) 0
(L) Asin(kL) 0
k L n
2mE n
k n k
L L
n h
E
8mL
n
(x) Asin( x)
L
c
=
c
c
=
c
= +
= =
= =
= t
t t
| |
= = =
|
\ .
=
t
=
Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
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Let us now consider the eigenfunctions of the particle. Substituting B=0 and k=nt/L
in the equation of general solution.
Solutions of the Schrdinger equation are



To find the value of A, we use the normalization
condition









The normalized eignfunctions of the particle
Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
n
n x
(x) Asin
L
t
=
( )
2
n
L
2 2
0
2
| (x) | dx 1
n x
A sin dx 1
L
A L / 2 1
A 2 / L

=
t
=
=
=
}
}
n
2 n x
(x) sin
L L
t
=
Initial wavefunctions and Energy
for the first four states in
a one-dimensional particle in a box
E
4


E
3



E
2


E
1
E
4


E
3



E
2


E
1
2 2
n
2
n h
E
8mL
=
= L
2

=2L
3


=L


=2L

n
2L
n=1,2,3,...
n
=
2 2
n
2
n h
E
8mL
=
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Particle in a one dimensional Box (infinite square well potential)
n
2 n x
Wavefunctions (x) sin
L L
n=1,2,3,...
t
=
*
n n
Probability:
n=1,2,3,...
Note particle most likely
to be found in the middle
for n=1

2 2
2
Energy:
n h
E= n=1,2,3,...
8mL
(a) The first two wavefunctions, (b) the corresponding
probability distributions, and (c) a representation of the
probability distribution in terms of the darkness of
shading.
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No. of antinodes in eigenfunction = n, No. of nodes =No. of antinodes+1
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Electron in the 10nm Wide Well with Infinite Barriers
Calculate E
1
=?



Assume that a photon is absorbed, and
the electron is transferred from the
ground state (n = 1) to the second
excited state (n = 3)
What was the wavelengths of the photon?
2 2
2
1 1
2
2
n
E n E , where E
mL
t
= =
2 34 2
1
31 9 2
22
1
3.14 (1.05 10 )
E
2 9.1 10 (10 10 )
E 6 10 J 0.00375 eV 3.75 meV

=

~ = =
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Electron in the 10nm Wide Well with Infinite Barriers
E
1
= 3.75 meV
1
0 00375
ground
E E . eV
3
2
3 1
3 9 0 00375
Third excited state is E
E E . eV 0.0338 eV = = ~
3 1
34 8
19
0 00375 0 030
6 63 10 3 10
0 030
0 030 1 6 10
1240
41333 41
0 03
(h ) E E 0.0338 . . eV
c .
h . eV,
. .
nm m
.
v

= = ~

= =

= ~ ~
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2 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
th
n
n
n
For the n state
x
sin n
L L
E n
mL
E n E
t

t
| |
=
|
\ .
=
=
Probability to Find particle in the Right Half of the Well
Particle in the Infinite Potential Well
L L
2 2
L/2 L/2
L
2
L/2
2
| (x) | dx [ sinkx] dx
L
2 2 L 1 1
sin (kx)dx [ ]
L L 2 2 2
+ =
= = =
} }
}
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Some trajectories of a particle in a box according to
Newton's laws of classical mechanics (A), and according
to the Schrdinger equation of quantum mechanics (B-
D). In (B-D), the horizontal axis is position, and the
vertical axis is the real part (blue) or imaginary part (red)
of the wave function. The states (B,C,D) are energy
eigenstates.
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Problems: Normalization.
1. Determine normalization constant










( )
t
t t

t
o

t
3
8
:
2 2
, cos ) ( )
1
:
2
2
exp ) ( )
2 : 0 , exp ) ( )
2
: 0 ), / sin( ) ( )
2
2
= < < =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
= < < =
= < < =
N Ans x x N x iv
a
N Ans x i
a
x
N x iii
k N Ans x kx N x ii
L
N Ans L x L x n N x i
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Problems: Particle in a box.
1. An electron is confined to an one-
dimensional infinity potential well of width
0.2 nm. It is found that when the energy of
the particle is 230 eV, its eigenfunction has 5
antinodes. Find the mass of the particle and
show that it can never have energy equal to
1 keV.
Answer

m =9.1 x10E-31 Kg
n = 10.4
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Problems: Particle in a box.

1. Find the probability that a particle trapped in a box L wide can
be found between 0.45L and 0.55L for the ground and first
excited state.
2. Write down Schrdinger equation for a one dimensional box,
obtain the expression for eigen function and eigen values. If
length of the box ix 25, calculate the probability of finding
the particle with in an interval of 5 at the centre of the box
when it is in the state of least energy.
3. A particle is in a cubic box with infinitely hard walls whose
edges are L long. The wave function of the particle is given by
by

Find the normalization constant A.

3
8
: sin sin sin ) , , (
L
A Ans
L
z n
L
y n
L
x n
A z y x
z
y
x
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
t
t