Monroe L.

Weber-Shirk
School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
Fluid Mechanics
EIT Review

Shear Stress
change in velocity with respect to distance
A
F
= t
(

2
m
N
dy
du
t =
Tangential force per unit area
rate of shear
P
1
= 0
h
1

?
h
2

Manometers for High Pressures
Find the gage pressure in the center
of the sphere. The sphere contains
fluid with
1
and the manometer
contains fluid with
2
.
What do you know? _____
Use statics to find other pressures.
1
2
3
=P
3

2
For small h
1
use fluid with high density.
Mercury!
+ h
1

2
- h
2

1
P
1
Differential Manometers
h
1

h
3

Mercury
Find the drop in pressure
between point 1 and point
2.
p
1

p
2
Water
h
2

orifice
= p
2
p
1
- p
2
= (h
3
-h
1
)
w
+ h
2

Hg
p
1
- p
2
= h
2
(
Hg
-
w
)
p
1
+ h
1

w
- h
2

Hg
- h
3

w
Forces on Plane Areas: Inclined
Surfaces
q
A
B
O
O
x
y
c
y
c
x
R
x
R
y
A h F
c R
=
c
h
Free surface
centroid
center of pressure
The origin of the y
axis is on the free
surface
Statics
Fundamental Equations
Sum of the forces = 0
Sum of the moments = 0
A p F
c
=
p
c
is the pressure at the __________________ centroid of the area
y
A y
I
A y
A y I
y
x x
p
+ =
+
=
2
Line of action is below the centroid
Properties of Areas
y
c
b

a

I
xc
y
c
b

a

I
xc
A ab =
2
c
a
y =
3
12
xc
ba
I =
2
ab
A =
3
c
b d
x
+
=
3
36
xc
ba
I =
2
A R p =
4
4
xc
R
I
p
=
R

y
c
I
xc
0
xyc
I =
( )
2
2
72
xyc
ba
I b d = -
0
xyc
I =
3
c
a
y =
d

c
y R =
Properties of Areas
3
4
xc
ba
I
p
= A ab p =
4
3
c
R
y
p
=
a

y
c
b

I
xc
2
2
R
A
p
=
4
3
c
R
y
p
=
4
8
xc
R
I
p
=
y
c
R

I
xc
0
xyc
I =
0
xyc
I =
4
16
xc
R
I
p
=
2
4
R
A
p
=
R

y
c
c
y a =
Inclined Surface Summary
The horizontal center of pressure and the
horizontal centroid ________ when the surface
has either a horizontal or vertical axis of
symmetry
The center of pressure is always _______ the
centroid
The vertical distance between the centroid and
the center of pressure _________ as the surface
is lowered deeper into the liquid
What do you do if there isnt a free surface?
y
A y
I
y
x
p
+ =
A y
I
x x
xy
p
+ =
coincide
below
decreases
An elliptical gate covers the end of a pipe 4 m in diameter. If the
gate is hinged at the top, what normal force F applied at the
bottom of the gate is required to open the gate when water is 8 m
deep above the top of the pipe and the pipe is open to the
atmosphere on the other side? Neglect the weight of the gate.
hinge
water
F
8 m
4 m
Solution Scheme
Magnitude of the force
applied by the water
Example using Moments




Location of the resultant force
Find F using moments about hinge
Magnitude of the Force
A p F
c r
=
ab A t =
ab h F
r
t =
( ) ( )( ) m 2 m 2.5 m 10
m
N
9800
3
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
F
b = 2 m
a = 2.5 m
p
c
= ___
F
r
= ________
h = _____
hinge
water
F
8 m
4 m
F
r

h
10 m
Depth to the centroid
1.54 MN
Location of Resultant Force
4
3
ba
I
x
t
=
h y =
y
A y
I
y
x
p
+ =
ab y
ba
y y
p
t
t
4
3
=
y
a
y y
p
4
2
=
( )
( ) m 12.5 4
m 2.5
2
= y y
p
ab A t =
_______ = y y
p
________ = y
hinge
water
F
8 m
4 m
F
r

12.5 m
Slant distance
to surface
0.125 m __ =
p
x
x
b = 2 m
a = 2.5 m
cp
Force Required to Open Gate
How do we find the
required force?

= 0
hinge
M
F = ______
b = 2 m
2.5 m
l
cp
=2.625 m
( )( )
( ) m 5
m 2.625 N 10 x 1.54
6
= F
tot
cp r
l
l F
F =
l
tot
hinge
water
F
8 m
4 m
F
r

Moments about the hinge
=Fl
tot
- F
r
l
cp
809 kN
cp
Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
Find the resultant force (magnitude and location)
on a 1 m wide section of the circular arc.
F
V
=
F
H
=
A p
water
2 m
2 m
3 m
W
1

W
2

W
1
+ W
2
= (3 m)(2 m)(1 m) + p/4(2 m)
2
(1 m)
= 58.9 kN + 30.8 kN
= 89.7 kN
= (4 m)(2 m)(1 m)
= 78.5 kN
y
x
Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
The vertical component line of action goes through
the centroid of the volume of water above the surface.
2 1 V
W
3
) m 2 ( 4
W ) m 1 ( F x
t
+ =
water
2 m
2 m
3 m
A
W
1

W
2

( ) ( )
( ) kN 89.7
kN 30.8
3
) m 2 ( 4
kN 58.9 ) m 1 (
x
t
+
=
Take moments about a vertical
axis through A.
= 0.948 m (measured from A) with magnitude of 89.7 kN
Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
water
2 m
2 m
3 m
A
W
1

W
2

The location of the line of action of the horizontal
component is given by
y
A y
I
y
x
p
+ =
12
3
bh
I
x
=
b
h
=
x
I
= y
( ) ( )( ) | |
( ) m 4.083 m 4
m 1 m 2 m 4
m 0.667
4
= + =
p
y
y
x
(1 m)(2 m)
3
/12 = 0.667 m
4
4 m
Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
78.5 kN
89.7 kN
4.083 m
0
.
9
4
8

m

119.2 kN
horizontal
vertical
resultant
C
(78.5kN)(1.083m) - (89.7kN)(0.948m) = ___ 0
0.948 m
1.083 m
89.7kN
78.5kN
Cylindrical Surface Force Check
All pressure forces pass
through point C.
The pressure force
applies no moment about
point C.
The resultant must pass
through point C.
Curved Surface Trick
Find force F required to open
the gate.
The pressure forces and force F
pass through O. Thus the hinge
force must pass through O!
All the horizontal force is
carried by the hinge
Hinge carries only horizontal
forces! (F = ________)
water
2 m
3 m
A
W
1

W
2
F
O
W
1
+ W
2

11.23
Dimensionless parameters
Reynolds Number
Froude Number
Weber Number
Mach Number
Pressure Coefficient
(the dependent variable that we measure experimentally)

Vl
= R
gl
V
= F
2
2
C
V
p
p

A
=
o
l V
W
2
=
c
V
M =
A V
d
2
Drag 2
C

=
Model Studies and Similitude:
Scaling Requirements
dynamic similitude
geometric similitude
all linear dimensions must be scaled identically
roughness must scale
kinematic similitude
constant ratio of dynamic pressures at corresponding
points
streamlines must be geometrically similar
_______, __________, _________, and _________
numbers must be the same

Mach Reynolds Froude Weber
C f
p
= M, R, F, W, geometry a f
Froude similarity
Froude number the same in model and
prototype
________________________
define length ratio (usually larger than 1)

velocity ratio
time ratio
discharge ratio
force ratio
gl
V
= F
p m
F F =
p p
2
p
m m
2
m
L g
V
L g
V
=
p
2
p
m
2
m
L
V
L
V
=
m
p
r
L
L
L =
r r
L V =
r
r
r
r
L
V
L
t = =
2 / 5
r r r
L L L
r r r r
L A V Q = = =
3 3
r
r r r r r r
2
r
L
F M a L L
t
r = = =
difficult to change g
11.33
Control Volume Equations
Mass
Linear Momentum
Moment of Momentum
Energy

Conservation of Mass
} }

c
c
=
cv cs
d
t
d A v
0
2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
= +
} }
cs cs
d d A v A v
0
2 2 2 1 1 1
= + A V A V
m A V A V = =
2 2 2 1 1 1

1
2
Q A V A V = =
2 2 1 1
v
1

A
1

V = spatial average of v
If mass in cv
is constant
[M/t]
If density is constant [L
3
/t]
Area vector is normal to surface and pointed out of cv
Conservation of Momentum
F M M

1 2
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
V A Q r r = - = - M V V
M V V
2 2 2 2 2 2
V A Q a f a f
F V V

Q Q a f a f
1 2
F V V

Q
2 1
a f
ss p p
F F F W F + + + =

2 1
Energy Equation
l t p
h H
g
V
z
p
H
g
V
z
p
+ + + + = + + +
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
1 1
1
1
o

g
V
K h
l
2
2
=
g
V
D
L
f h
f
2
2
=
R
64
f =
laminar turbulent
Moody Diagram
z
Example HGL and EGL
z = 0
pump
energy grade line
hydraulic grade line
velocity head
pressure head
elevation
datum
2g
V
2
o

p
2 2
2 2
in in out out
in in P out out T L
p V p V
z h z h h
g g
a a
g g
+ + + = + + + +
Smooth, Transition, Rough
Turbulent Flow
Hydraulically smooth
pipe law (von Karman,
1930)
Rough pipe law (von
Karman, 1930)
Transition function for
both smooth and rough
pipe laws (Colebrook)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
51 . 2
Re
log 2
1 f
f
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
D
f
7 . 3
log 2
1
g
V
D
L
f h
f
2
2
=
(used to draw the Moody diagram)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f
D
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
log 2
1 c
Moody Diagram
0.01
0.10
1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
R
f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

laminar
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001
0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
smooth
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
D
C
p
f
D
c
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
find head loss given (D, type of pipe, Q)
find flow rate given (head, D, L, type of pipe)
find pipe size given (head, type of pipe,L, Q)
Solution Techniques
Q D
gh
L D
D
gh
L
f
f
= +
F
H
G
G
G
I
K
J
J
J
2 22
37
178
5 2
2 3
. log
.
.
/
/
c v
D
LQ
gh
Q
L
gh
f f
=
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
0 66
1 25
2
4 75
9 4
5 2
0 04
.
.
.
.
.
.
c v
h f
g
LQ
D
f
=
8
2
2
5
t
f
D
=
+
F
H
I
K
L
N
M
O
Q
P
0 25
37
574
0 9
2
.
log
.
.
Re
.
c
Re =
4Q
D t v
Power and Efficiencies
Electrical power

Shaft power

Impeller power

Fluid power
=
electric
P
=
water
P
=
shaft
P
=
impeller
P
IE
Te
Te
QH
p

Motor losses
bearing losses
pump losses
Manning Formula
1/2
o
2/3
h
S R
1
n
V =
The Manning n is a function of the boundary roughness as well
as other geometric parameters in some unknown way...
R
A
P
h
=
A bh =
P b h = +2
R
bh
b h
h
=
+ 2
Hydraulic radius for wide channels
Drag Coefficient on a Sphere
0.1
1
10
100
1000
0.1 1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7

Reynolds Number
D
r
a
g

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

Stokes Law
24
Re
D
C =
2
2
U
A C F
d d

=