ARCHITECTURE (STHAPATYA) IS CLASSIFIED AS ONE OF THE SILPA (CRAFTS) AND WAS FIRST PASSED DOWN TO MANKIND BY VISVAKARMAN, THE

FAMOUS DEMIGOD BUILDER OF THE UNIVERSE. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE HAS BEEN INFLUENCED BY FOREIGN INVADERS INCLUDING GREEKS, BACTRICIUS, PARTHIANS, KUSHANS AND SAKAS.

Glossary
A Jagati is a raised surface, platform or terrace upon which some hindu temples are built This feature is seen in isolated temples such as the temples of Khajuraho. It is usually not seen in temples enclosed by walls. The jagati lies on a base called Adhihna which adds to its height . The sides of the adhishthana are often ornated with sculptures.

 Antarala is a small antichamber or foyer between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.

Mandapa
Mandapa (or Mandapam) ( in Hindi/Sanskrit, also spelled mantapa or mandapam) is a term to refer to pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. Ardha Mandapam intermediary space between the temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum) or the other mandapas of the temple Asthana Mandapam assembly hall Kalyana Mandapam dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord with Goddess Maha Mandapam (Maha=big) When there are several mandapas in the temple, it is the biggest and the tallest. It is used for conducting religious discourses. Nandi Mandapam (or Nandi mandir) - In the Shiva temples, pavilion with a statue of the sacred bull Nandi, looking at the statue or the lingam of Shiva.

Sreekovil or Garbhagriha
Sreekovilor Garbhagriha the part in which the idol of the deity in a Hindu temple is installed i.e.Sanctum sanctorum. The area around is referred as to the Chuttapalam, which generally includes other deities and the main boundary wall of the temple. Typically there is also a Pradikshna area in the Sreekovil and one outside, where devotees can take Pradakshinas.

ikhara or Vimanam
ikhara or Vimanam literally means "mountain peak", refer to the rising tower over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temples. An Amalaka is a stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits atop a temple's main tower (Sikhara)

Gopuram
Gopuras (or Gopurams) are the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, not to be confused with Shikharas.

There are three styles of Hindu temple architecture.

Dravidian Vesara Nagara

Dravidian
(southern style) is found in the temples between the Krishna River and Cape Comorin. The gopuram (sculptured gateway) is the significant feature of this style of temple. The roof contains a vaulted octagonal or domical structure. The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions

Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed:

1.

The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell where the image of the god or his emblem is placed. 2. The porches or Mandapas (or Mantapams), which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell. 3. Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. 4. Pillared halls or Chaultrisproperly Chawadis -- used for various purposes, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. Besides these, a temple always contains temple tanks or wells for water (used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests), dwellings for all grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.

Vesara
The Vesara or mixed style found between the Krishna and Vindhyas, is circular in plan.

Nagara
The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped. In the North the Nagara style is found between the Vindhyas and Himalayas. This style has a square or cruciform plan. It includes a sikhara (tapering tower) over the shrine with a convex curve as it ascends. The summit is covered by a water pot.

Nagara temples have two distinct features :

In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of reentrant angles on each side. In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the Sikhara and, thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. The Nagara style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct varieties and ramifications in lines of evolution and elaboration according to each locality. An example of Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, the largest and loftiest temple of the Khajuraho, with its mature planning, designing and dimensions. It has superb sculptural embellishment and architectural elaboration and is amongst the most evolved and finished

Difference
Dravidian style of temple architecture is usually pyramid in shape. As the name itself indicates, these temples are located in southern India mostly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. The architecture basically consists of statues of kings, dancers, warriors,g ods(deities) etc.

Nagara style of architecture is mostly found in northern india and these temples are mostly in beehive shape. These temples are found in places like Orissa,Rajasthan, Gujarat etc. Puri Jagannath temple is the best example.

 The lower classes lived in gramas (villages) consisting of thatched huts made of earth, stucco and reed. The upper classes lived in wooden structures built by the well-honoured class of carpenterarchitects. Every house had a small sacred area called the agnisala intended for the sacred fire where the daily rites are performed.

Kutira (ordinary huts)

The Kutira (ordinary huts) were made of twisted twigs interwoven with strips of palm-leaves fixed on bamboo uprights and plastered with mud and cow dung. Cow dung was used to plaster the floor, while grass was strewn across it. The roof was either flat or sloping and was upheld by poles set in earthenware jars to prevent dampness and insects entering.

 Social occasions such as marriages were celebrated in a pandal (pavilion) consisting of a coloured canopy cloth, supported by painted or striped wooden pillars. There were usually twelve of these, which symbolise the expanse of heaven, while the supporting pillars represent the outer ring of celestial hills. The entrance was decorated with leaves and branches. The central pillar was set up for puja (ritual offerings) and music. The central pole represents Mount Meru (an abode of Lord Shiva).

 South-Indian Hindu temples are often like miniature towns. The temple and mandapa (porch) are surrounded on all sides by a broad open courtyard (prakaram). The prakaram is enclosed by a high quadrilateral wall. A gopuram (sculptured gateway) stands to the side of this wall, while the main tower is raised over the entrance. The gopuram is usually oblong and becomes narrow as it rises. The summit of the gateway is flat, consisting of a long barrel-vaulted, gable-ended roof.

 In North-Indian temples, the mandapa (porch) is detached from the vimana (shrine), while a steeple houses the god, and worshippers stand in the pavilion. Attached to the mandapa is ardha-mandapa (half-mandapa) or the entrance hall. Between the mandapa and the shrine is the antarala (intermediate chamber). Usually all these parts have separate sikharas (tapering towers) with the one over the vimana (shrine) being the grandest.

 Within the North-Indian temple, there are several smaller buildings such as the nat-mandir (dancing hall), bhog-mandir (offering hall) and chaultri (pillared halls such as the Halls of Thousand Pillars). Indian architecture is well known for its intricate carvings and stone work. Despite contemporary technical advances, the architecture of many Hindu temples cannot be reproduced. This is due to the intricate carvings and detail demonstrated at each and every part of the building.

End of Lecture

LESSON 4: EARLY CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE

 After the reign of Ashoka the Great, there was an interregnum of relative anarchy, with the collapse of two powerful dynasties, the Kushanas (236 AD) in the north, and the Andhras (225 AD) in the south. Buddhism too suffered from a lack of political patronage during this period, leading to its slow decline, despite the valiant efforts of its monks. Also notable was a corresponding slowdown in the arts and literature. Thus, in its effects, this period in Indian history may be said to be analogous to the end of the Greek empire in Europe (which coincidentally was almost contemporaneous).

 However, the cyclic nature of history demands a renaissance after every Dark Age. It was no different in India - the age that followed has been described as the greatest intellectual awakening in the sub-continent. A large part of the country came under the political control of the Gupta dynasty, which reached its zenith around 400 AD. The culture of the Guptas and their innate Brahmanism gave a fillip to the arts, and in the field of architecture fundamental progress was made.

 The Chalukyas (c.450 AD to c.650 AD) constructed several stonebuilt shrines and temples at Aihole, which are mostly Hindu but a few are Jain. Aihole was the town of temples consisting of nearly seventy buildings. The temples had flat or slightly sloping roofs and were surmounted by a small shikhara. Later, a pillared assembly hall or mandapa was added to these structures, indicating a further evolution of temple architecture. So early, and so informative are they, especially at Aihole, that one is tempted to presume that here, on this relatively obscure site, the Hindu structural temple, not only took a introductory form, but, as far as this part of India is concerned, had its beginning. For in several of the example it is possible to see the first emergence of the temple structure if not its actual birth.

 The temples at Aihole consist of some seventy buildings: about thirty of which are contained inside a walled and bastioned enclosure, while the remainder, owing to want of space, are disposed within its vicinity. It is, in fact, a row of temples. Unlike the contemporary Gupta structure which are distributed over a wide area, the Early Chalukya group is confined to this one locality, so that it was a comparatively restricted movement

 The chief difference between the two types (Gupta and chalukyan) lies in the treatment of the structure in front of the sanctuary, which even in the earliest examples, assumed the character of a pillared assembly hall, or mandapa. The addition of this feature to the Aihole structures implies a step forward in the development of the completed temple design. Gupta temples those at Aihole have flat or slightly sloping roofs, but the latter in some instance are surmounted by a small upper story or tower ( sikhara) which appears to have been subsequently added.

LADH KHAN TEMPLE

The Ladh Khan temple is noteworthy, as it does not seem to have been originally intended for use as a shrine, but instead was probably the village assembly hall. This is borne out by the fact that it fulfils very few of the conditions necessary for a ritualistic Brahminical temple. Mainly on account of its primitive appearance the temple known as Ladh Khan is considered to be the oldest building of the Aihole group, and has accordingly been assigned to the middle of the fifth century. Partially obscured and defaced by modern accumulations, the general appearance of this structure as it now stands, is unimpressive.

 In shape it is a comparatively low, flat-roofed building, its plan being a square of fifty feet side, and over all rises a small supplementary story of later date. Three of its sides are completely enclosed by walls, two of which are relieved by perforated stone grilles, but from its fourth side, forming its eastern front, there is projected an open-pillared porch.

 The interior consists of a hall, which resembles a pillared pavilion as it contains two square groups of columns, one within the other, thus providing a double aisle all round. A large stone effigy of a bull (nandi) almost fills the central bay while at the far end is the cella, not, as is usual, a chamber leading off the main hall, but built within it, and against the back wall. With the exception of the Siva symbol of the nandi, it is clear that, as far as the body of the structure is concerned, this arrangement is original, no part of it is a afterthought, none of it was subsequently added.

Temple Consists of a shrine with two mandapas in front of it. The shrine bears a Shiva lingam. The mukha mandapa in front of the sanctum has a set of 12 carved pillars. The sabhamandapa in front of the mukha mandapa has pillars arranged in such a manner as to form two concentric squares. There are also stone grids on the wall carrying floral designs. The temple is built in a Panchayat hall style, indicating a very early experiment in temple construction. The windows are filled with lattice style which is a north Indian style. The temple was built in late 7th or early 8th century.

plain square shaft and bracket capital is a characteristic of its style, an elaboration of this occurs in the pilasters placed at each of the exterior angles of the building. The shafts of these taper slightly at their upper ends, above which is a "cushion" capital with an expanded floral abacus supporting the bracket. This is probably the first appearance of a particular form of capital of great importance, because it afterwards became almost universal in the architecture of Southern India, representing, as it does, the "order" of the Dravidian style.

 Another element in the temple, is the stone seat of the portico, with its sloping back-rest. Here is seen the beginning of the asana, which developed into an ornamental feature used with considerable effect in the entrance halls of many mediaeval temples.

End of Lecture

Rock-cut temples at Badami

 Badami, a corrupted form of the ancient "Vitapi", was a stronghold of the founders of the Chalukyan kingdom early in the sixth century. Picturesquely nestling at the foot of steep cliffs and by the side of a small lake, it contains several buildings of an early date, but what is most interesting is a series of four pillared halls excavated in the scarp of a hill overlooking the south-east side of the town. Three of these are Brahmanical, and one is Jain; in three brahmanical ones there is an inscription to the effect that it was prepared in A. D. 578 in the time of Mangalisa, the son of Pulakesi I, who selected the site for his capital. Such a precise and authentic date not only provides a valuable landmark in the history of rock-architecture as a whole but also denotes that this particular series of pillared galleries was among the earliest of its kind.

 These four temples are connected by a causeway inclined up the face of the cliff, and each appears originally to have had an open court in front; in addition to the forecourt, that of the largest is enclosed by a structural retaining wall, the approach being by means of a flight of steps and through a doorway composed of excellent ashlar masonry, the whole carried out with a simple dignity recalling a good classical model. In their general appearance and interior arrangements these excavated temples are all of the same type, as each includes three features, a pillared verandah, a columned hall, and a small square cella cut deep into the rock. There is no outstanding architectural effect attempted in the exterior, the facade showing merely the range of pillars forming the verandah, save that a running border of grotesque figures in the form of rollicking urchins ( gana), probably gnomes or earth-spirits, is carved in relief on the stylobate of each.

 In their general appearance and interior arrangements these excavated temples are all of the same type, as each includes three features, a pillared verandah, a columned hall, and a small square cella cut deep into the rock. There is no outstanding architectural effect attempted in the exterior, the facade showing merely the range of pillars forming the verandah, save that a running border of grotesque figures in the form of rollicking urchins ( gana), probably gnomes or earth-spirits, is carved in relief on the stylobate of each. In contrast to this unassuming, yet serviceable frontage, is the treatment of the interior, on the enrichment of which the rockcarver has concentrated his utmost skill.

 The sculpture and decoration generally, that their forms emphasize the progress that had been made in the plastic art of the time, in comparison with that of architecture. Moreover the wealth of carving conceals to some extent the shortcomings of the plan. For there is an uncertainty and indecision in the design of these sanctuaries as a whole, which can only be explained by the fact that the arrangements of the Brahmanical temple were still unevolved, the correct shape and disposition of its parts having not yet been assured.

 In these excavated temples the pillar is the most important element in the composition, and on their design depends much of the architectural effect. Most of the shafts of the columns are square in section. Of the capitals to the pillars two kinds predominate, one in which the bracket is the chief feature, and another which is cushion-shaped. There are massive entablatures, while cross-beams supported by gryphons, having a curious resemblance to Gothic gargoyles, divide the ceilings into sunk panels like coffers each containing a carved pattern replete with symbolical devices.

TEMPLES OF ORISSA
Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar Konark Sun Temple

Introduction
The temples of Orissa exhibit a majestic grandeur. An Orissan temple (deul) usually consists of a sanctum, one or several front porches (jagamohana) usually with pyramidal roofs, a dancing hall (nata mandir) and a hall of offerings (bhog mandir). The Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar boasts of a 150 foot high deul while the Jagannath Temple at Puri is about 200 feet high and it dominates the skyline of the town. Only a portion of the Sun Temple at Konark, the largest of the temples of the Golden triangle exists today, and it is still staggering in size. It stands out as a masterpiece in Orissan architecture.

 Orissa's history dates back to the days of the Mahabharata. It was under the rule of the Nanda Kings in the pre Christian era and then under the Mauryan rule. Rock edicts of Emperor Ashoka are found in the State. The impact of the invasion of the Guptas is seen in the early temples of Bhubaneswar. The Matharas ruled Orissa from the later half of the 4th century AD. The Sailodbhavas who followed constructed several shrines the ruins of which can be seen today. (600-750 AD). The period of the Bhaumakaras and Somavamsis (8th to 11th centuries AD) played a major role in the cultural life of the State. Saivism dominated the religious scene although Budhist, Jain and Vaishnavite monuments also came into being.

Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar

 Lingaraj Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Harihara, another name for Shiva and is one of the oldest temples of Bhubaneswar, a revered pilgrimage center and the capital of the state of Orissa, India. The temple of Lingaraja, the biggest of all at Bhubaneswar, is located within a spacious compound wall of laterite measuring 520 feet by 465 feet. The wall is 7 feet 6 inches thick and surmounted by a plain slant coping. Alongside the inner face of the boundary wall there runs a terrace probably meant to protect the compound wall against outside aggression.

 The Lingaraj temple - the largest of these is an outstanding specimen of the Orissa style of temple building. It is about a thousand years old. Bhubaneswar, Konarak and Puri constitute the Golden triangle of Orissa, visited in large numbers by pilgrims and tourists.

Bhubaneshwar is also a revered pilgrimage center, referred to in the Bhrama Purana. The Bhrama Purana refers to Bhubaneshwar as the Ekamra Kshetra enshrining a crore Shiva Lingas. The Lingaraja temple is said to have been built first by the ruler Yayati Kesari in the 7th century who shifted his capital from Jaipur to Bhubaneshwar.

 Structurally, the Parasurameswara temple at Bhubaneshwar is the oldest, dating back to the middle of the 8th century, and the Lingaraja temple is assigned to the 10th century. The nata mandir and the bhog mandir of the Lingaraja temple are of later origin.

 The vast Bindu Sagar lake is the center around which are located the multitude of temples of Bhubaneshwar. The Lingaraja temple is located in a spacious courtyard covering over 250000 sq feet and is bounded by fortified walls. Its tower rises up to 180 feet and is elaborately carved.

The Shivalingam in the sanctum of the Lingaraja temple rises to a height of 8 inches above the floor level, and is 8 feet in diameter. The Bhagawati temple is located in the northwest corner of the courtyard. There are several other shrines and temples in this vast courtyard.