Intro

CHAPTER I.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Let R denote the set of real
numbers. A complex number is an
ordered pair of real numbers :
z  ( x, y ) ; x, y  R.
The real numbers x and y are
called the real part and the
imaginary part of z, respectively.
In symbols,
x  Re z, y  Im z.
We denote by C the set of all
complex numbers.
Complex numbers
z1  ( x1 , y1 ) and z2  ( x2 , y2 )
are said to be equal iff
x1  x2 and y1  y2 .
Operations of addition and
multiplication are defined as:
z1  z2  ( x1  x2 , y1  y2 )
z1 z2  ( x1 x2  y1 y2 , x1 y2  x2 y1 ).
If x and y are real numbers, then
the following properties hold:
(1) ( x, 0)  ( y, 0)  ( x  y, 0)
(2) ( x, 0)( y, 0)  ( xy, 0).
Thus, if we identify (x,0) with x,
then R can be considered as a
subset of C.
We introduce i = (0,1), and
identify (x,0), (y,0) with x, y
respectively, then
x  iy  ( x, 0)  (0,1)( y, 0)
 ( x, 0)  (0, y )
 ( x, y ).
Observe that
i  (0,1)(0,1)
2
 ( 1, 0)  1.
In view of the expression
x  iy  ( x, y )
definitions of addition and
multiplication of complex
numbers become
( x1  iy1 )  ( x2  iy2 )  ( x1  x2 )  i( y1  y2 )
( x1  iy1 )( x2  iy2 )  ( x1 x2  y1 y2 )  i( x1 y2  x2 y1 ).
Basic Algebraic Properties of
Complex Numbers
(1) Commutativity w.r.t. addition
and multiplication.
(2) Associativity w.r.t. addition
and multiplication.
(3) Multiplication is distributive
over addition.
(4) Unique additive identity and
unique multiplicative identity.
(5) Unique additive inverse and
unique multiplicative inverse. The
multiplicative inverse of z is
1  x y 
z   2 2 , 2 2 .
 x y x y 
(6) Product of two complex
numbers is zero if and only if one
of them is zero.
Interpretations of Complex
Numbers
There are two natural

interpretations of complex
numbers.
(A) The complex number z = x+iy
= (x,y) can be interpreted as the
point (x,y) in the coordinate
plane. We call this plane complex
plane C. Coordinate axes are
called real axis and imaginary
axis.
(B) The complex number z = x+iy
can be interpreted as the directed
line segment, or vector, from the
origin to the point (x,y)
representing z in the coordinate
plane.
The modulus or absolute value of
a complex number z = x+iy is
defined as the non-negative real
number
x y
2 2
and is denoted by |z|. If we

interpret z geometrically, the
number |z| is the distance
between the point (x,y) and the
origin.
The complex conjugate or simply
the conjugate of a complex
number z = x+iy is defined as the
complex number z = x-iy and is
denoted by z .
The concepts of conjugate and
modulus have the following
properties:
(1) z  z.
(2) z  z.
(3) z1  z2  z1  z2 .
(4) z1 z2  z1 z2 .
(5)  
z1
z2
z1
z2 ( z2  0).
2
(6) zz  z .
Let z = x+iy = (x,y) be a nonzero
complex number. Let (r,θ) be
polar coordinates of (x,y). Then
z  r (cos   i sin  ).
This is called polar form of z.
Note: We don’t allow r to be
negative.
It is clear that r = |z|, and θ
represents the angle that z (when
interpreted as radius vector)
makes with the positive real axis.
Each value of θ is called an
argument of z, and the set of all
such values is denoted by arg z.
The principal argument Arg z of z
is that unique value Θ such that
     .
Note that:
(1) arg z = Arg z + 2nπ (n integer).
(2) If z is a negative real number,
then Arg z = π .
The symbol eiθ or exp(iθ) is used
for cos θ + i sin θ. Thus
i
z  re  r exp(i ).
This is called exponential form of

the complex number z.
i1 i 2
Let z1  r1e and z2  r2 e .
Using simple trigonometric
results, we have
i1 i 2 i (1  2 )
e e e .
Thus
i (1  2 )
z1 z2  r1 r2 e (1).
z1 r1 i (1 2 )
 e ( z2  0) (2).
z2 r2
1 1  i
z r e ( z  0) (3).
Expression (1) implies
arg (z1z2) = arg z1 + arg z2. (4)
Equation (4) is interpreted by

saying that if two of these three
values are specified, then there is
a value of the third such that the
equation holds.
Statement (4) need not be true
when arg is replaced by Arg. Thus
Arg (z1z2) = Arg z1 + Arg
z2 is not always true.
Using mathematical induction, it
is easily verified that if z = reiθ,
then
n in
z  r e ; n  1, 2,3,K
n
If we define z0 = 1, and zn = (z-1)m

when n = -m is a negative integer,
then
n in
z  r e ; n  Z.
n
Consider a point z = reiθ, lying on
a circle centered at the origin with
radius r. As θ is increased, z
moves around the circle in the
counterclockwise direction. In
particular, when θ is increased by
2π, we arrive at the original point;
and the same is true when θ is
decreased by 2π.
Thus two nonzero complex
numbers z1 = r1eiθ1 and z2 = r2eiθ2
are equal if and only if r1 = r2 and
θ1 = θ2+2kπ ; k integer.
Let z0 = r0eiθ0 be a nonzero
complex number and let n be a
natural number. A nonzero
complex number z = reiθ is called
an nth root of z0 if zn = z0.
Thus the nth roots of z0 are
   2 k   
z  n r0 exp  i  0
   ; k  Z.
  n n 
The distinct nth roots of z0 are
   2 k   
z  n r0 exp  i  0
   ; 0  k  n  1.
  n n 
The set |z – z0|< ε consisting of all
points z lying inside (but not on)
the circle centered at z0 with
positive radius ε, is called an
ε-neighborhood of z0.
The set 0 < |z – z0|< ε is called a
deleted ε-neighborhood of z0.
A point z0 is called an interior
point of a set S if there exists an
ε-neighborhood of z0 that
contains only points of S.
A point z0 is called an exterior

point of a set S if there exists an
ε-neighborhood of z0 containing
no points of S.
A point z0 which is neither an
interior nor an exterior point of S,
is called a boundary point of S.
A boundary point is therefore a
point all of whose neighborhoods
contain points in S and points not
in S.
The set of all boundary points of S
is called the boundary of S.
A set is open if it contains none of
its boundary points.
Equivalently, a set is open if it

contains all of its interior points.
A set is closed if it contains all of
its boundary points.
The set consisting of all points of

S together with its boundary
points is called the closure of S.
There are sets which are neither

open nor closed and there are sets
which are both open and closed.
An open set is connected if each
pair of points z1 and z2 in it can be
joined by a polygonal line,
consisting of a finite number of
line segments joined end to end,
that lies entirely in S.
For example, the circle |z|<1 and
the annulus 1<|z|<2 are connected
but {z| |z|<1 or 2<|z|<3} is not a
connected set.
An open connected set together
with some, none, or all of its
boundary points is referred to as
a region.
A set S is called a bounded set if

every point of S lies inside some
circle |z|=a ; otherwise it is called
an unbounded set.

Intro

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Intro

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CHAPTER I.

There are two natural

and is denoted by |z|. If we

This is called exponential form of

Equation (4) is interpreted by

If we define z0 = 1, and zn = (z-1)m

A point z0 is called an exterior

Equivalently, a set is open if it

The set consisting of all points of

There are sets which are neither

A set S is called a bounded set if

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