Electromagnetic Theory

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
RECTANGULAR or Cartesian
CYLINDRICAL
SPHERICAL
Choice is based on
symmetry of problem
Examples:
Sheets - RECTANGULAR
Wires/Cables - CYLINDRICAL
Spheres - SPHERICAL
Vector Calculus
Cartesian Coordinates
P (x, y, z)
x
y
z
P(x,y,z)
Rectangular Coordinates Or
< <
< <
< <
z
y
x
A vector A in Cartesian coordinates can be written as
) , , (
z y x
A A A
or
z z y y x x
a A a A a A + +
where a
x
,a
y
and a
z
are unit vectors along x, y and z-directions.
Cylindrical Coordinates
P (, , z)
x= cos , y= sin , z=z
< <
< s
< s
z
t |

2 0
0
A vector A in Cylindrical coordinates can be written as
) , , (
z
A A A
|
or
z z
a A a A a A + +
| |
where a

,a

and a
z
are unit vectors along , and z-directions.
z z
x
y
y x = = + =

, tan ,
1 2 2
|
The relationships between (a
x
,a
y
, a
z
) and (a

,a

, a
z
)are
cos sin
sin cos
x
y
z z
a a a
a a a
a a
|
|
| |
| |
=
= +
=
z z
y x
y x
a a
a a a
a a a
=
+ =
+ =
| |
| |
|

cos sin
sin cos
or
Spherical Coordinates
P (r, , )
x=r sin cos , y=r sin sin , Z=r cos
t |
t u
2 0
0
0
< s
s s
< s r
A vector A in spherical coordinates can be written as
) , , (
| u
A A A
r
or
| | u u
a A a A a A
r r
+ +
where a
r
, a

, and a

are unit vectors along r, , and -directions.

x
y
z
y x
z y x r
1
2 2
1 2 2 2
tan , tan ,

=
+
= + + = | u
The relationships between (a
x
,a
y
, a
z
) and (a
r
,a

,a

)are
u
| u
| u
u u
| | u | u
| | u | u
a a a
a a a a
a a a a
r z
r y
r x
sin cos
cos sin cos sin sin
sin cos cos cos sin
=
+ + =
+ =
y x
z y x
z y x r
a a a
a a a a
a a a a
| |
u | u | u
u | u | u
|
u
cos sin
sin sin cos cos cos
cos sin sin cos sin
+ =
+ =
+ + =
or
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
Cartesian Coordinate system
Cartesian Coordinate System
1- Differential displacement is given by

2- Differential normal surface area is given by



3- Differential volume is given by-


x y z
dl dxa dya dza = + +
x
y
z
dS dydza
dS dxdza
dS dxdya
=
=
=
dv dxdydz =
Cylindrical Coordinate System
Cylindrical Coordinate System
1- Differential displacement is given by

2- Differential normal surface area is given by



3- Differential volume is given by-


z
dl d a d a dza
|
| = + +
z
dS d dza
dS d dza
dS d d a

|
|

|
=
=
=
dv d d dz | =
Spherical Coordinate System
Spherical Coordinate System
1- Differential displacement is given by

2- Differential normal surface area is given by




3- Differential volume is given by-


sin
r
dl dra rd a r d a
u |
u u | = + +
2
sin
sin
r
dS r d d a
dS r drd a
dS rdrd a
u
|
u u |
u |
u
=
=
=
2
sin dv r drd d u u | =
Scalar and Vector Fields
A scalar field is a function that gives us a single
value (of magnitude only) of some variable for
every point in space.
voltage, current, energy, temperature
A vector is a quantity which has both a magnitude
and a direction in space.
velocity, momentum, acceleration and force
Gradient, Divergence and Curl
Gradient of a scalar function is a
vector quantity.
Divergence of a vector is a
scalar quantity.
Curl of a vector is a vector
quantity.
The Laplacian of a scalar A
is a scalar quantity.


f V
A . V
The Del Operator
A V
A
2
V
z y x
a
z
a
y
a
x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
Del Operator
Cartesian Coordinates
z y x
a
z
a
y
a
x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
Cylindrical Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
z
a
z
a a
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
|
|
1
| u
| u u
a
r
a
r
a
r
r
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
sin
1 1
The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents
both the magnitude and the direction of the space rate of
change of V.
Gradient of a Scalar
z y x
a
z
V
a
y
V
a
x
V
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
The divergence of a vector A at a given point P is the
outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about
P.
Divergence of a Vector
. divA A = V
z
A
y
A
x
A
A
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V.
Physical Significance:
The divergence measures how much a vector field ``spreads
out'' or diverges from a given point.
If the vector field lines are coming outwards from the given
point----- Divergence is positive.
If the vector field lines are coming in towards the point-----
Divergence is negative.


The curl of A is an axial vector whose magnitude is the
maximum circulation of A per unit area and whose
direction is the normal direction of the area.
Curl of a Vector
(
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
z y x
z y x
A A A
z y x
a a a
A
Physical Significance of Curl
The curl of a vector field measures the
tendency for the vector field to rotate around
the point.
If the value of curl is zero then the field is said
to be a non rotational field (in such condition,
divergence will have non-zero value)
The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux
of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the same
as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

Divergence Theorem or Gauss Theorem
} }
V =
V
Adv dS A . .
} }
V =
L S
dS A dl A ). ( .
Stokes Theorem
Stokess theorem states that the line integral of a vector field A
around a closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of
A over the open surface S bounded by L, provided A and are
continuous on S
A V
2
2 1
R
Q kQ
F =
It states that the force F between two point charges Q
1
and Q
2
is
Coulombs Law
In Vector form
Or
If we have more than two point charges
Q
F
E =
Electric Field Intensity is the force per unit charge when placed in the
electric field
Electric Field Intensity
In general, if we have more than two point
charges
If there is a continuous charge distribution say along a line, on a
surface, or in a volume
Electric Field due to Continuous Charge Distribution
The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to these charge
distributions can be obtained by
The electric field intensity due to each charge distribution
L
,
S
and

V
may be given by the summation of the field contributed by the
numerous point charges making up the charge distribution.
The electric field intensity E depends on the medium in which the
charges are placed.
Electric Flux Density
The electric flux in terms of D can be defined as
E D
o
c =
The vector field D is called the electric displacement vector or
electric flux density and is measured in coulombs per square meter.
s
Gauss Law
It states that the total electric flux through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.
enc
Q =
(i)
Using Divergence Theorem
(ii)
Comparing the two volume integrals in (i) and (ii)
It states that the volume charge density is the same as the
divergence of the electric flux density.
(This is also the first Maxwells equation.)
Electric Potential
The potential at a distance r from a point charge is the work done
per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a test charge
from infinity to that point (assuming zero potential at infinity) .
From Coulombs Law the force on point
charge Q is
E Q F =
The work done in displacing the charge
by length dl is
dl F dW . =
dl E Q . =
The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.
The total work done or the potential energy required in moving the
point charge Q from A to B is
dl E Q W
B
A
.
}
=
Dividing the above equation by Q-
dl E
Q
W
B
A
.
}
=
AB
V =
AB
V
is known as the potential difference between points A and B.
The potential at any point due to a point charge Q located at the origin
is
r
Q
V
o
tc 4
=
Assuming zero potential at infinity
l d E V
r
.
}

=
If the point charge Q is not at origin but at a point whose position
vector is , the potential at becomes
'
r
'
r
) (
'
r V
| ' | 4
) (
r r
Q
r V
o

=
tc
For n point charges Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
..Q
n
located at points with position
vectors the potential at is
If there is continuous charge distribution instead of point charges then
the potential at becomes
n
r r r r ..... , ,
3 2 1
r

=
=
n
k
k
o
r r
Q
r V
1 | |
4
1
) (
tc
r
Relationship between E and V
The potential difference across a closed path is zero, i. e.
l d E V
B
A
AB
.
}
=
BA AB
V V =
and
l d E V
A
B
BA
.
}
=
0 . = = +
}
l d E V V
BA AB
0 . =
}
l d E
It means that the line integral of along a closed path must be zero. E
(i)
Physically it means that no net work is done in moving a charge along
a closed path in an electrostatic field.
0 ). ( . = V =
} }
S d E l d E
Equation (i) and (ii) are known as Maxwells equation for static
electric fields.
(ii)
Applying Stokess theorem to equation (i)
0 = V E
Equation (i) is in integral form while equation (ii) is in differential
form, both depicting conservative nature of an electrostatic field.
Also
It means Electric Field Intensity is the gradient of V.
V E V =
The negative sign shows that the direction of is opposite to the
direction in which V increases.
E
An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal
magnitude but of opposite sign are separated by a small distance.
The potential at P (r, , ) is
Electric Dipole
If r >> d, r
2
- r
1
= d cos
and r
1
r
2
= r
2
then
But where
The dipole moment is directed from Q to +Q.
r
a d d . cos = u
If we define as the dipole moment, then d Q p =
z
a d d =
p
if the dipole center is not at the origin but at then ' r

A dielectric substance is an electrical insulator that
can be polarized by an applied electric field.
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric
charges do not flow through the material (as they do in
a conductor), but they only slightly shift from their
average equilibrium positions causing dielectric
polarization.
Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are
displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in
the opposite direction.
This creates an internal electric field which reduces the
overall field within the dielectric itself.
Polarization in Dielectrics
Consider an atom of the dielectric substance, consisting of an electron
cloud (-Q) and a positive nucleus (+Q).
When an electric field is applied, the positive charge is displaced
from its equilibrium position in the direction of by while
the negative charge is displaced by in the opposite direction.
E
E
E Q F =
+
E Q F =

In polarized atom the electron cloud is distorted

by the applied electric field
d Q p =
If there are N dipoles in a volume v of the dielectric, the total dipole
moment due to the electric field
This distorted charge distribution is equivalent to the original
distribution plus the dipole whose moment is
And the dipole moment of this dipole is
P
For the measurement of intensity of polarization, we define
polarization as dipole moment per unit volume (Unit: coulomb per
square meter)
The major effect of the electric field on the dielectric is the creation of
dipole moments that align themselves in the direction of electric field.
This type of dielectrics are said to be non-polar. eg: H
2
, N
2
, O
2
Other types of molecules that have in-built permanent dipole
moments are called polar. eg: H
2
O, HCl

When electric field is applied to a polar material then its permanent
dipole experiences a torque that tends to align its dipole moment in
the direction of the electric field.

Consider a dielectric material consisting of dipoles with Dipole
moment per unit volume.
Field due to a Polarized Dielectric
'
dv P
P
The potential dV at an external point O due to
where R is the distance between volume
element dv and the point O, i.e.
R
2
= (x-x)
2
+(y-y)
2
+(z-z)
2

But
(Vector Identity)
= -
(i)
Here primed quantities are having primed del operator
Now, since
or
Put this in (i) and integrate over the entire volume v of the dielectric
Applying Divergence Theorem to the first term
where a
n
is the outward unit normal to the surface dS of the dielectric
The two terms in (ii) denote the potentials due to surface and
volume charge distributions with densities. Further we can write-
(ii)
where
ps
= Bound surface charge density
and
pv
= Volume charge density.
Bound charges are those which are not free to move in the dielectric
material.
Free charges are those that are capable of moving over macroscopic
distance.
The total positive bound charge on surface S bounding the dielectric is
Whenever, polarization occurs, an equivalent volume charge density,

pv
is formed throughout the dielectric while an equivalent surface
charge density,
ps
is formed over the surface of dielectric.
while the charge that remains inside S is
Total charge on dielectric remains zero.
Total charge =
Now, let us take the case when dielectric contains free charge
If
v
is the free volume charge density then the total volume charge
density

t

Hence
Where
If
v
is the free volume charge density then the total volume charge
density

t

Hence
Where
Dielectric Constant and Strength
Here = Charge density arising due to polarization (bound charges)
No dielectric is ideal. When the electric field in a dielectric is
sufficiently high then it begins to pull electrons completely out of the
molecules, and the dielectric starts conducting.
The effect of the dielectric on electric field , is to increase
inside it by an amount .
P
D
E
Further, the polarization would vary directly as the applied electric
field. So one can write-
Where is known as the electric susceptibility of the material
e
_
It is a measure of how susceptible a given dielectric is to electric fields.
We know that
or
where is the permittivity of the dielectric,
o
is the permittivity of the
free space and
r
is the dielectric constant or relative permittivity.
and
Thus
where
r o
c c c =
and
When a dielectric becomes conducting then it is called dielectric
breakdown. It depends on the type of material, humidity, temperature
and the amount of time for which the field is applied.
The minimum value of the electric field at which the dielectric
breakdown occurs is called the dielectric strength of the dielectric
material.
or
The dielectric strength is the maximum value of the electric field that a
dielectric can tolerate or withstand without breakdown.
Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
According to principle of charge conservation, the time rate of
decrease of charge within a given volume must be equal to the net
outward current flow through the closed surface of the volume.
The current I
out
coming out of the closed surface
where Q
in
is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface.
Using divergence theorem
But
(i)
Equation (i) now becomes
This is called the continuity of current equation.
Effect of introducing charge at some interior point of a
conductor/dielectric
or
According to Ohms law
According to Gausss law
(ii)
Equation (ii) now becomes
Integrating both sides
or
This is homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation. By
separating variables we get
where
(iii)
Equation (iii) shows that as a result of introducing charge at some
interior point of the material there is a decay of the volume charge
density
v
.
The time constant T
r
is known as the relaxation time .
Relaxation time is the time in which a charge placed in the interior of a
material to drop to e
-1
= 36.8 % of its initial value.
For Copper T
r
= 1.53 x 10
-19
sec (T
r -
short for good conductors)
For fused Quartz T
r
= 51.2 days (T
r -
large for good dielectrics)
Boundary Conditions
If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the
conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface separating the
media are called boundary conditions
These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the
boundary when the field on other side is known.
We will consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating
1. Dielectric (
r1
) and Dielectric (
r2
)
2. Conductor and Dielectric
3. Conductor and free space
For determining boundary conditions we will use Maxwells equations
and
Also we need to decompose E to the
interface of the interest-

Where and are the normal and
tangential components of E to the
interface of the medium

t n
E E E = +
n
E
t
E
Boundary Conditions
Dielectric- Dielectric boundary conditions
Let us consider the E field exists in a region that consists
of two different dielectrics characterized by and
as shown below-
1 0 1 r
c c c =
2 0 2 r
c c c =
In media 1 and 2, Electric field can be decomposed as
Using Maxwell Equation along the closed path abcda-
As h0, above equation becomes
Thus the tangential components are the same on the two sides of the boundary,
i.e is continuous across the boundary.
t
E
----------------- (i)
Since
n t
D E D D c = = +
Thus, undergoes some change, hence it is
said to be discontinuous across the interface.
t
D
We can also apply first
Maxwell equation, to the
Cylindrical Gaussian
Surface of the adjacent
figure.

The contribution due to
curved sides vanishes.

Allowing h0 gives
or
here is the free charge
density at boundary
----------------- (ii)
If = 0 (if there is no free charge at the interface,
the above equation become-


Thus the normal component of D is continuous
across the interface. Further since , we can
write-

Showing that the normal component of the E is
discontinuous at the boundary.
Equations (i), (ii) and (iii) are known as -
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS. (They must be satisfied at
the dielectric- dielectric boundary)

D E c =
----------------- (iii)