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Rashmi G K
USN No:1MS09TE041 B.E- Telecommunication Engg

Guides : Prof. P. Parimala Asst. Professor MSRIT, Bangalore

M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology

I would like to thank : My Guide Prof. P Parimala, for having agreed to provide his profound guidance and support through the course of the seminar My technical seminar Coordinator - Prof. Venu K N and our H.O.D Dr. K Natarajan, for their constant encouragement towards pursuing our interests in the premises of our esteemed institute to carrying out this seminar
M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology,

Introduction and History Data Representation Quantum physics approach Shors Algorithm

Conclusion
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According to Moore's law, the number of transistors on integrated circuits doubles approximately every two years- 18 months. In the coming years, the size of the logic gates will become comparable to the size of atoms

On the atomic scale matter obeys the rules of quantum mechanics, which is quite different from the classical rules that determine the properties of conventional logic gates. So if computers are to become smaller in the future, quantum technology must replace or supplement what we have now.
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What is a quantum computer? A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic level. Alternate definition: A quantum computer is a computation device that makes direct use of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. The basic unit of a quantum computer is a quantum bit or 'qubit', and their ability to be in two simultaneous states is what makes quantum computers so fast.
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Feynman proposed the idea of creating machines based on the laws of quantum mechanics instead of the laws of classical physics. David Deutsch developed the quantum turing machine, showing that quantum circuits are universal. (Turing machines are hypothetical computing device)

Peter Shor came up with a quantum algorithm to factor very large numbers in polynomial time.
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In the classical model of a computer, the most fundamental building block, the bit, can only exist in one of two distinct states, a 0 or a 1. In digital computers, the voltage between the plates in a capacitor represents a bit of information: a charged capacitor denotes bit value 1 and an uncharged capacitor bit value 0 In a quantum computer the rules are changed , we use an atom as a bit , qubit which exists in the classical 0 , 1 state and coherent superposition of both. Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons or electrons and their respective control devices are working together to act as computing memory and a processor
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A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.
Excited State Light pulse of frequency for time interval t

Ground State

State |0>

Electron

State |1>

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M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology

Computing And Quantum Computers

Classical bit:

0 or 1

Quantum bit: 0 1 Superposition of 0 and 1 (qubits) A quantum computer performs manipulations on information represented as quantum bits, just as a classical computer performs manipulations on information represented as classical bits.
If

we consider a register of 3 classical bits, it would be possible to represent the numbers from 0 to 7 at any one time.
000 , 001 , 010 , 011 , 100 , 101 , 110 , 111

Specifying general classical state requires three binary numbers

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Specifying general quantum state of N qubits requires 2N numbers:

processor that can use registers of qubits will be able to perform calculations using all the possible values of the input registers simultaneously. This phenomenon is called quantum parallelism, and is the motivating force behind the research being carried out in quantum computing.

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Coherent superposition of qubits is what gives quantum computers their inherent parallelism. According to physicist David Deutsch, this parallelism allows a quantum computer to work on a million computations at once, while our desktop PC works on one. A 30-qubit quantum computer would equal the processing power of a conventional computer that could run at 10 teraflops (trillions of floating-point operations per second). Today's typical desktop computers run at speeds measured in gigaflops (billions of floating-point operations per second).
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A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states denoted by the addition of the state vectors: |> = |0> + |1>
1 2

Where and are complex numbers and | | + | | = 1

A qubit in superposition is in both of the states |1> and |0 at the same time
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Quantum computers also utilize another aspect of quantum mechanics known as entanglement. One problem with the idea of quantum computers is that if you try to look at the subatomic particles, you could bump them, and thereby change their value. If you look at a qubit in superposition to determine its value, the qubit will assume the value of either 0 or 1, but not both (effectively turning quantum computer into a mundane digital computer). To make a practical quantum computer, scientists have devised ways of making measurements indirectly to preserve the system's integrity. Entanglement provides a potential answer.
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Entanglement is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit correlations between states within a superposition. In quantum physics, if you apply an outside force to two atoms, it can cause them to become entangled, and the second atom can take on the properties of the first atom. So if left alone, an atom will spin in all directions. The instant it is disturbed it chooses one spin, or one value; and at the same time, the second entangled atom will choose an opposite spin, or value. This allows scientists to know the value of the qubits without actually looking at them.
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Imagine two qubits, each in the state |0> + |1> (a superposition of the 0 and 1.) We can entangle the two qubits such that the measurement of one qubit is always correlated to the measurement of the other qubit. Superposition is essentially the ability of a quantum system to be in multiple states at the same time that is, something can be here and there, or up and down at the same time.

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Quantum computers encode information as a series of quantum-mechanical states such as spin directions of electrons or polarization orientations of a photon that might represent a 1 or a 0, might represent a combination of the two or might represent a number expressing that the state of the qubit is somewhere between 1 and 0, or a superposition of many different numbers at once.

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QUBIT CONTROL Computer scientists control the microscopic particles that act as qubits in quantum computers by using control devices. Ion traps use optical or magnetic fields (or a combination of both) to trap ions. Optical traps use light waves to trap and control particles. Quantum dots are made of semiconductor material and are used to contain and manipulate electrons. Superconducting circuits allow electrons to flow with almost no resistance at very low temperatures.
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Shors algorithm

Shors algorithm shows (in principle,) that a quantum computer is capable of factoring very large numbers in polynomial time.

The algorithm is dependant on

Modular Arithmetic
Quantum Parallelism Quantum Fourier Transform

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An important result from Number Theory: F(a) = xa mod N is a periodic function Choose N = 15 and x = 7 and we get the following:
7 0 mod 15 = 1 7 mod 15 = 7 7 2 mod 15 = 4
1

7 3 mod 15 = 13
7 4 mod 15 = 1

. . .

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To Factor an odd integer N (Lets choose 15) : 1. 2. 3. Choose an integer q such that N2 < q < 2N 2 lets pick 256 Choose a random integer x such that GCD(x, N) = 1 lets pick 7 Create two quantum registers (these registers must also be entangled so that the collapse of the input register corresponds to the collapse of the output register)

1. Input register: must contain enough qubits to represent numbers as large as q-1. up to 255, so we need 8 qubits
2. Output register: must contain enough qubits to represent numbers as large as N-1. up to 14, so we need 4 qubits
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4. Load the input register with an equally weighted superposition of all integers from 0 to q-1. 0 to 255 5. Load the output register with all zeros. The total state of the system at this point will be:
1
255

256

a=0

|a, 000>

Input Register

Output Register

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Note: the comma here denotes that the registers are entangled

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6. Apply the transformation x a mod N to each number in the input register, storing the result of each computation Note that we are using decimal numbers here in the output register.
only for simplicity.

Input Register |0> |1> |2> |3>

7a Mod 15 70 Mod 15 71 Mod 15 72 Mod 15 73 Mod 15

Output Register 1 7 4 13

|4> |5>
|6> |7>

74 Mod 15 75 Mod 15
76 Mod 15 77 Mod 15
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1 7
4 13

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7. Now take a measurement on the output register. This will collapse the superposition to represent just one of the results of the transformation, lets call this value c.
Our output register will collapse to represent one of the following: |1>, |4>, |7>, or |13 For sake of example, lets choose |1>

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Since the two registers are entangled, measuring the output register will have the effect of partially collapsing the input register into an equal superposition of each state between 0 and q-1 that yielded c. We now apply the Quantum Fourier transform on the partially collapsed input register. The fourier transform has the effect of taking a state |a> and transforming it into a state given by:
1
q-1

|c> * e
c=0

2iac / q

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64

aA

|a> , |1>

255 c=0

256

|c> * e 2iac / 256

Note: A is the set of all values that 7 mod 15 yielded 1. In our case A = {0, 4, 8, , 252}
So the final state of the input register after the QFT is:
1

64

aA

255
c=0

256

|c> * e 2iac / 256 , |1>

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The QFT will essentially peak the probability amplitudes at integer multiples of q/4 in our case 256/4, or 64.
|0>, |64>, |128>, |192>,

So we no longer have an equal superposition of states, the probability amplitudes of the above states are now higher than the other states in our register.
We measure the register, and it will collapse with high probability to one of these multiples of 64, lets call this value p. With our knowledge of q, and p, there are methods of calculating the period.
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10. Now that we have the period, the factors of N can be determined by taking the greatest common divisor of N with respect to x ^ (P/2) + 1 and x ^ (P/2) - 1. The idea here is that this computation will be done on a classical computer. We compute: Gcd(7 4/2 + 1, 15) = 5 Gcd(7 4/2 - 1, 15) = 3 We have successfully factored 15!
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The QFT comes up short and reveals the wrong period. This probability is actually dependant on our choice of q. The larger the q, the higher the probability of finding the correct probability. The period of the series ends up being odd

If either of these cases occur, we go back to the beginning and pick a new x.

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If functional quantum computers can be built, they will be valuable in factoring large numbers, and therefore extremely useful for decoding and encoding secret information. If one were to be built today, no information on the Internet would be safe. Our current methods of encryption are simple compared to the complicated methods possible in quantum computers. Quantum computers could also be used to search large databases in a fraction of the time that it would take a conventional computer. Other applications could include using quantum computers to study quantum mechanics, or even to design other quantum computers. M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology

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Once scientists can use atoms to complete complex computations, the day when a computer will be the size of 1 atom. These new machines can be deployed in ways that are not available today. For example, a nanomachine can be built and programmed to enter human cells to fight diseases or even resuscitate those who have just died. Yet, this approach will not be available until scientists can manipulate atoms using the quantum physics approaches of entanglement and superposition. In 2001, a 7 qubit machine was built and programmed to run Shors algorithm to successfully factor 15. What algorithms will be discovered next? M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum computer. http://www.howstuffworks.com/quantum-computer.htm. http://www.qubit.org http://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2013/03/quantumcomputing-photons http://iqc.uwaterloo.ca/welcome/quantum-computing-101 http://www.buzzfeed.com/willio/quantum-computing-explainedin-simple-terms-460x http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bO2hhupLFZI http://www.techradar.com/news/computig/the-mind-blowingpossibilities-of-quantum-computing-663261

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