Job Analysis and design

Introduction

Job analysis is vital to any HRM program and answers such questions as:
How

long does it take to complete important tasks? Which tasks are grouped together as a job? How can a job be designed or structured so that employee performance can be enhanced? What behaviors are needed to perform the job? What kind of person, in terms of traits and experience, is best suited for the job? How can the information acquired by a job

The Vocabulary of Job Analysis

Position: the responsibilities and duties performed by an individual. There are as many positions in an organization as there are employees Job: group of positions that are similar in their duties, such as computer programmer Job analysis: a purposeful, systematic process for collecting information on the important work-related aspects of a job

Job description: the principal product of a job analysis. It represents a written summary of the job as an identifiable organizational unit
Job specification: a written explanation of the knowledge, skills, abilities, traits, and other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary for effective performance on a given job Tasks: Coordinated and aggregated series of work elements used to produce an output

LINKAGE BETWEEN ORGANISATION & JOBS

Jobs are therefore:

the basic units of an organizational structure (The Building Blocks)

the link between an individual and the organization (Employee/Employer) the bridge between people and what is expected of them (Their Work) designed independent of the person doing the job at that point in time Help evaluate the job for identifying compensatory specifications

JOB ANALYSIS IS .
NOT

A personal analysis A performance appraisal

Job Analysis
Job analysis is the process of gathering information about the job and

evaluating such information in terms of what is necessary and relevant.

Essentially, job analysis involves three questions: 1. What is a job?

2. What should be analyzed?

3. What methods of analysis should be used?

The Uses of Job Analysis

Job analysis is critical to assessments of discrimination under most employment-related laws

It is linked to these laws through court rulings

For job analysis to be viewed favorably by the courts, it must:

Yield a thorough, clear job description Assess the frequency and importance of job behaviors Allow for an accurate assessment of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and KSAOs required by the job Clearly determine which KSAOs are important for each job duty

The Steps in Job Analysis

Step 1 Examine the total organization and the fit of each job Step 2 Determine how job analysis information will be used Step 3 Select jobs to be analyzed Step 4 Collect data by using acceptable job analysis techniques Step 5 Prepare job description Step 6 Prepare job specification

Use information from Steps 16 for: Job design Planning Recruitment Selection and training Performance evaluation Compensation and benefits EEO compliance Follow-up evaluations

Fig 6-1

Nuts and Bolts

Who is involved in the job analysis?

Management Supervisors

Job

analysts Job incumbent Unions Consultants

JOB ANALYSIS
TWO BASIC RULES:
We

will not analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the incumbent holding the job

We

will analyse the value contribution of the job to the organisation, as if it is being performed at the normal level

The Use of Charts

Before beginning analysis, an overview of the organization and its jobs is required

This provides a better understanding of work flow

An organization chart presents the relationships among departments and units of the firm, as well as:
Line

and staff functions Number of vertical levels in the organization Number of functional departments Formal reporting relationships

Methods of Data Collection

When collecting job data, these basic methods can be used separately or in some combination:
Observation

Interview
Questionnaires Job

incumbent diaries or logs

In each method, job information is:

Collected Studied

in terms of tasks completed by the job incumbent (job oriented analysis)

Methods of Data Collection

When collecting job data, these basic methods can be used separately or in some combination:
Observation

Interview
Questionnaires Job

incumbent diaries or logs

In each method, job information is:

Collected Studied

in terms of tasks completed by the job incumbent (job oriented analysis)

Methods of Data Collection

A job can also be analyzed in terms of behaviors (work-oriented analysis)

What

the job incumbent does to perform the job

Both orientations are acceptable under the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures
They

must identify job duties and behaviors that are critical to performing the job

Because time and cost are considerations, managers must collect comparable, valid

Methods of Data Collection

The job analysis information format (JAIF) provides core information for any job analysis method
The

questionnaire provides a thorough picture of the job, job duties, and requirements Questionnaire answers are used to structure the data collection technique that will be implemented

Incumbents and supervisors may not view a job in the same way
Collect

information from a variety of incumbents Dont assume everyone has the same amount

Observation

Direct observation is used for jobs that require manual, standardized, and short-job-cycle activities
Direct

observation is not usually appropriate when the job involves significant mental activity

Job analysts must be trained to:

Observe relevant job behaviors Be as unobtrusive as possible

Interviews

Interviewing job incumbents is often done in combination with observation

This

is the most widely used technique It allows the job analyst to talk with job incumbent

Interviews can be conducted with a:

Single

incumbent Group of incumbents Supervisor who is familiar with the job

A structured set of questions is used so answers

Interviews

Interviews are difficult to standardize

Different

interviewers may ask different questions The same interviewer might ask different questions of different respondents Information may be unintentionally distorted by the interviewer

Interviewing costs can be high, especially if group interviews arent practical

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are the least costly data collection method

They

can collect large amounts of data in a short

time A structured questionnaire includes specific questions about the job, working conditions, and equipment An open-ended format permits job incumbents to use their own words and ideas to describe the job

The format and structure of a questionnaire are debatable issues

Questionnaires

To make a questionnaire easier to use:

Keep

it as short as possible Explain what the questionnaire is being used for Keep it simple Test the questionnaire before using it

Job Incumbent Diary or Log

The diary or log is a recording by incumbents of:

Job

duties Frequency of the duties When the duties are accomplished

Most people are not disciplined enough to keep a log

Kept

properly, the log permits an examination of routine duties and exceptions The diary or log is useful when analyzing jobs that are difficult to observe

Which Method to Use?

There is no agreement about which methods of job analysis yield the best information
Interviews

should not be the sole data collection

method Certain methods may be better for a given situation

Most organizations base their choice on:

The

purpose of the analysis Time and budget constraints

Which Method to Use?

Many organizations use a multi-methods job analysis approach

The

analyst interviews incumbents and supervisors in conjunction with on-site observation A task survey based on expert judgments is constructed and administered A statistical analysis of the responses is conducted

Using a comprehensive process is relatively expensive and time-consuming

Specific Quantitative Techniques

Three of the more popular quantitative techniques:

Functional

job analysis Position analysis questionnaire Management position description questionnaire

Job Analysis for Staffing

4-25

A job analysis that produces a valid selection system identifies worker characteristics that:
Distinguish superior from average and unacceptable workers;

Future-oriented job analysis: job analysis technique for analyzing new jobs or analyzing how jobs will look in the future

The ELEMENTS OF JOB DESCRIPTION

Job Purpose
Job Context & Major Challenges Principal Accountabilities Organizational Relationships

Person Specification
4-27

Person specification: summarizes the characteristics of someone able to perform the job well Essential criteria: job candidate characteristics that are critical to adequate new hire performance and for which candidates should be screened Desirable criteria: job candidate criteria that may enhance the new hires job performance, but that are not essential to adequate job performance

Outcomes of Job Analysis

4-28

Figure 4-1

Specific Quantitative Techniques

Three of the more popular quantitative techniques:

Functional

job analysis Position analysis questionnaire Management position description questionnaire

Functional Job Analysis

Functional job analysis (FJA) is the result of 60 years of research on analyzing and describing jobs
Conceived

in the late 1940s Developed to improve job classifications in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)

DOT descriptions helped job analysts learn what was involved in a particular job
FJA

could then be used to elaborate and more thoroughly describe the content of a job The goal was creating a common language for

Functional Job Analysis

FJA assumes jobs can be described in terms of three basic relationships the worker has with the work:
Physically

relating to things Using mental resources to process data Interacting with people

Using behavioral terms, each relationship can be organized along a continuum of complexity
Lowest

to highest

Functional Job Analysis

Experience Requirements Training Experience Licensing

W orker Requirements Basic skills Cross-functional skills General knowledge Education O* NET

Occupational Requirements Generalized work activities W ork context Organizational context

W orker Characteristics Abilities Interests and work values W ork styles

Occupational Specific Requirements Occupational skills, tasks, and knowledge Machines, tools, and equipment

Occupational Characteristics Labor market information Occupational outlook W ages

Functional Job Analysis

Typical users of O*NET:

Human

resource professionals Career counselors Recruiters Trainers and educators

Position Analysis Questionnaire

The position analysis questionnaire (PAQ):

Was

developed by researchers at Purdue University Contains 195 items Requires considerable experience and a high level of reading comprehension to complete properly Is often filled out by a trained job analyst, who must decide whether each item applies to a particular job

Position Analysis Questionnaire

PAQ items are divided into six major sections:

Information

input Mental processes Work output Job context Other job characteristics

Position Analysis Questionnaire

Computerized scoring of the PAQ is based on seven dimensions:

Decision

making Communication Social responsibilities Performing skilled activities Being physically active Operating vehicles or equipment Processing information

The scores permit development of job profiles and job comparisons

Position Analysis Questionnaire

PAQ advantages:
Has

been widely used and researched Is an effective tool for a variety of purposes Is reliable, with little variance among job analysts ratings of the same jobs Is an effective way to establish differences in the abilities required for jobs Is valid; jobs rated higher with the PAQ prove to be those compensated at higher rates

Position Analysis Questionnaire

PAQ disadvantages:
Requires

time and patience to complete No specific work activities are described, so behavioral activities performed in jobs may distort actual work task differences
Example: A typist

and a ballet dancer may have similar profiles because both require fine motor skills

Ratings

might represent the job analysts stereotype about the work, rather than actual differences among jobs

Management Position Description Questionnaire

Conducting a job analysis for managerial jobs is challenging because of:

The

disparity across positions Levels in the hierarchy The type of industry

An attempt to systematically analyze managerial jobs was conducted at Control Data Corporation
The

result is the management position description questionnaire (MPDQ)

Management Position Description Questionnaire

The MPDQ is:

A

checklist of 208 items related to the concerns and responsibilities of managers A comprehensive description of managerial work Intended for use across most industrial settings

Management Position Description Questionnaire

General

The latest version of the MPDQ has 15 information Decision making sections: Planning, organizing Administering
Controlling Consulting, innovating Coordinating Monitoring business indicators Knowledge, skills, abilities Comments, reactions Supervising Contacts Representing Overall ratings Organization chart

Management Position Description Questionnaire

The common metric questionnaire (CMQ) is another method of quantitative job analysis
It

is completed by a job incumbent Questionnaire items require a lower reading level It is more behaviorally concrete, making it easier for incumbents to rate their jobs It is applicable to exempt and nonexempt positions

Much research on job analysis is being conducted in Europe, focusing on alternative quantitative methods

Job Descriptions and Specifications

The job description is one of the primary outputs of a systematic job analysis
It

is a written description of what the job entails It is hard to over-emphasize how important thorough, accurate, and current job descriptions are to an organization

Job Description- for the understanding of the perspective employee

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A written description of the duties and responsibilities of the job itself based on a job analysis. Job descriptions usually include:

The size and type of organization The department and job title The salary range Position grade or level To whom the employee reports and for whom the employee is responsible Brief summary of the main duties and responsibilities of the job Brief summary of the occasional duties and responsibilities of the job Any special equipment used on the job Any special working conditions (e.g. shift or weekend work, foreign travel, etc.) Purpose and frequency of contact with others The statement, Other duties as assigned to accommodate job changes and special projects

Job Analysis & Employee Competencies

Competency modeling reflects an organizations desire to:

Communicate

job requirements in ways that extend beyond the job itself Describe and measure the organizations workforce in more general, competency-based terms Design and implement staffing programs focused around competencies, rather than specific jobs, as a way to increase staffing flexibility

Job Design

Approaches to the design of work:

Perceptual-motor
Biological Mechanistic

Motivational

The perceptual-motor and biological approaches are based on human factors engineering
They

emphasize equipment design and matching machines to operators

Scientific Mgmt & the Mechanistic Approach

Job design was a central issue in F. W. Taylors model of scientific management

The

work of every workman is fully planned out by management at least one day in advance Each man receives complete written instructions The instructions specify what is to be done, how it is to be done, and the time allowed for doing it

The goal was to break jobs into simple, repetitive tasks that could be done quickly and efficiently

Scientific Mgmt & the Mechanistic Approach

Recommendations from scientific management:

Work

should be studied scientifically It should be arranged so workers can be efficient Employees should be matched to the demands of the job They should be trained to perform the job Monetary compensation should be tied directly to performance

Job Enrichment: A Motivational Approach

Job enrichment tries to design jobs in ways that help incumbents satisfy their need for:
Growth Recognition

Responsibility

The job is expanded vertically

Employees

are given responsibility that might previously have been part of a supervisors job

According to Herzberg, employees are motivated by jobs that enhance their feelings of self-worth

Job Enrichment: A Motivational Approach

A job must possess core job dimensions to lead to desired outcomes:

Skill

variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback

Work-Family Balance and Job Design

Work-family tension is driven by changing workforce demographics

Women

and single parents entering the workforce Dual-career couples The aging population

Some organizations meet employees needs through flexible work arrangements:

Job

sharing Flextime Telecommuting

Work-Family Balance and Job Design

Benefits of family-friendly arrangements:

Higher recruitment and retention rates Improved morale Lower absenteeism and tardiness Higher levels of employee productivity

Telecommuting allows employees to work at home part- or full-time

Communication is through phone, fax, computer Often resisted by managers who fear loss of control and subordinate accessibility