MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF SOLIDS

COURSE OUTLINE:

1. Stress and strain

Stress

Components of stress
Principal stresses
Equilibrium equations
Stress tensor
Mohr’s representation of state of
stress

12. Stress-strain relations

Elastic deformation

Hooke’s Law
Superposition principle
Elastic properties
 Plastic deformation

Yield criteria

Tresca criterion
Levy-von Mises criterion

Power Law
Constancy of volume
Plastic properties

3. Deformation mechanisms

Atomic basis of elastic behavior

Cordon-Morse curves

Atomic basis of plastic behavior

Slip and twinning

Dislocation theory of slip
4. Strengthening processes

Point defects and solute-hardening

Line defects and work hardening, annealing
Surface defects and grain refinement
Volume defects and particulate hardening

13. Response to service conditions

Fatigue properties

Fracture mechanics;

Shock and Impact properties

Creep properties

Instability

Dumping properties
 6. Deformation processing,

Forging
Rolling
Drawing

REFERENCES:

3. Cristescu AND Gioda. Visco-Plastic Behavior of Geomaterials. 1994.

4. Dieter. Mechanical Metallurgy
5. Haydn, Moffatt and Wulff. Structure and Properties of Materials.
Vol. III. 1964
10. Lubahn and Felgar. Plasticity and Creep of Metals.
11. Marin. Mechanical behavior of Engineering Materials.
12. Rowe. Principles of Industrial Metalworking Processes.
13. Thomsen, Yang and Kobayashi. Mechanics of Plastic Deformation in
Metal Processing.
More than 3,000 years ago, the engineers of the pharaohs
erected marvellous buildings and monuments virtually with no
materials to work with except stone and gypsum plaster.
They could go forward only so far because those are the only
materials at their disposal and they have no power except those
of men and animals.
Much later, when Caesar invaded Britain, he already had bronze
and steel, but still no power.
The situation had not changed much when Columbus discovered
America – nor when George Washington became president of the
US.
Although their cannons were cast, and their tools had improved
greatly
-- the only power that could be brought to a job was still that of
animals.
The extraordinarily show progress had not been due to lack of
mental ability of engineers through the centuries - - rather it was
due to lack of materials to work with.
For example, the idea of the steam engine had been in men’s
minds for centuries before James Watt.
James Watt outlined the engine in 1773. He was an excellent
instrument maker, yet it took him 25 years to produce an
engine that works satisfactorily.
Why did it take him that long to make his idea work?
During Watt’s time, there were no machines heavy enough to roll
or forge the materials needed to make engines and broilers. Nor
were there alloys capable of withstanding the high
temperatures and stress in the engine and in the broiler.
The development of the steam power had to wait until large
machine tools could be built
and large machine tools had to await the production of large
steel ingots
and large ingots could not be made until Bessemer invented his
steel – making process in 1856.
and Bessemer’s process had to wait the development of
refractories and alloys capable of withstanding the greatly
oxidizing conditions at high temperature.
Bessemer’s invention, then was the start of rapid development
of industrialization – but it came to be only because materials
were available to make it come true.
Today, a country without the proper materials, especially
tonnage iron or steel, cannot advance rapidly nor far enough.
That is true of the Philippines

When we think about materials, we think of them as things to be

used for making something.
Used as such we want them in the form of solids.
solids - - the successful building material
These solids are formed by many atoms tightly bound together.
 Consider the number of toms

Avogadro’s No., atoms/gram -

Number of Atoms = mole
Molecular Wt., grams/gram -
mole

For Copper ( AW = 63.54 )

6.02 x 10 23
= = 9.5 x 10 21 atoms/gram
63.54
materials are made up of small sub – units
house - - - roofs, walls , floors
walls - - - panels, doors, windows
panels - - - concrete, steel
concrete - - -sand, cement, water
cement - - - crystal grains of minerals
minerals - - - atoms of Ca, O, Ti, Fe, S, etc.

Democritus ( 5th century BC)

“ The only existing things are the atoms and empty
space; all else is mere opinion”
atoms – from Greek atomos
successfully discredited by Aristotle who rejected atomism.
components of solids – atoms tightly bound together
Binding forces between atoms:

a. Very high, ( can’t separate atoms easily )

can’t bite off a small piece from a steel sheet

b. Vary with the atoms involved

lead ------- very soft, malleable

aluminum -----soft, ductile
iron ------ hard, tough
tungsten ------ very hard, brittle

PROPERTIES DIFFER
Properties of Materials
------ the responses to external stress / conditions.
3. Mechanical Properties --- response to mechanical forces;
most common basis for selection
Strength – dominants design considerations
ductility ( and formability ) – influences manufacturing
procedures.
toughness – influences reliability
others --- considered after strength is satisfied
2. Electrical Properties – Response to electrical/electronic flow
stress
conductivity
capacitance
3. Chemical Properties – Response to chemical action
corrosion resistance
4. Thermal Properties – Response to applied heat
thermal conductivity
creep resistance
oxidation resistance
refractoriness

5. Physical Properties --- innate properties wherein external

conditions do not alter anything or cause alteration of the
structure of the material.
color
weight/density
opacity
Types of properties of materials:
2. Structure – insensitive properties
- depend only on the major compositional aspect of a
material.
perfect lattice is adequate to explain them ;
- insensitive to small discontinuities in structure and
variations
in composition.
- can be calculated based on theory given a few
characteristics
of the constituent atoms.
Examples
Elastic constants Elastic modulus
Heat of sublimation Specific heat
Melting point Melting point
2. Structure - sensitive properties

- makes necessary the study of point defects

- sensitive to relatively minor changes in structure and/ or
composition
- difficult to predict based on present atomic theories which
are mainly qualitative.
- present theories can only provide useful correlation among
large numbers of mechanical, physical and chemical properties
- most properties of engineering interest fall under this
category.
- practically all mechanical properties are structure
sensitive.
Hence study of defects is accelerated.
 Examples :
Tensile strength
Ductility
Thermal conductivity
Creep resistance
Electrical conductivity
Semiconductor properties
Yield stress
fracture strength

Determinants of Properties of Substances:

1. Nature of fundamental building blocks
- atom structure
- individual hollow blocks
2. Arrangements of atoms relative to each other
- crystal structure
- arrangements of the hollow blocks
Both are direct consequences of nature of individual atoms.
Detailed knowledge about the structures of atoms involve
sophisticated and complex mathematics which are of interest
only to the theoretical physicist.
For us the simplified treatment is more useful. It gives us the
desirable mental picture of atomic structure and the
interactions among atoms.

All structure in use are subject to forces that

pull
push, or
twist
Upon application of these forces, the material responds by
changing its shape/dimensions.
The changes in dimensions may then be used as measure of
the response of the material to the external influence
( force ).
This measure of the response is referred to as the specific
property of the material.
Often it is not convenient to directly use the forces and
changes in dimension to determine the properties.
What we use instead are
stresses in lieu of - forces
strains - changes in dimensions
How do we measure the applied forces and the response of the
material. Answer: by
standardized tests like the uniaxial tension test
creep test, hardness test, etc.
Materials Testing

The results of these and more specialized test are often more
of empirical significance than of fundamental
significance.
nevertheless, they are extremely useful to the designer,
fabricator, and research worker.
Testing is an essential part of the life of an engineer.

Broad fields of testing:

1. determine various properties of a material under certain

environments or conditions
2. routine quality control to ascertain that the material fulfills
specs.
3. predict behaviour of actual part under actual conditions.
INFORMATION ON MATERIALS

large amounts of information are available today; but much

more still unknown

must have a firm grasp of underlying principles governing

the properties to be able to:

use them intelligently, and

keep abreast of new developments

Knowledge of these underlying principles is what we hope will

be acquired in this lecture series.
Application: jet plane landing gear strut.

Material = ?
Properties required = ?
strength
toughness
ductility
Tests required
 Factors in Materials Section

3. Performance (properties)

5. Processing

7. Price (cost)

Ideal material comprises the 3-Ps equally:

.
Performanc Performanc Performanc
e e e

. .
Price Processing Price Processing Price Processing

Ideal material High performance Low cost material

material
Performance factors:

3. Mechanical strength
2. Corrosion resistance
3. Reliability
4. Maintainability
5. Specification coverage
6. Compatibility with existing materials

Processing factors:

12. Weldability
2. Fabricability
3. Availability
18. Design Data

Price factors:

19. Mfg or factory cost

20. Delivery cost
21. Equipment/plant life
22. Cost of alternatives
23. Testing Costs
 6. Down time costs (lost productivity and sales)

8. Cost of pre-mature failure

MAKE YOUR OWN LIST

Difficulty is in assigning relative weights to the factors.

The properties of a material are dependent upon structure:

- Annealed copper is soft

- Cold work copper is hard

- Solutionized aluminum is soft

- Pptn hardened aluminum is hard.

Methods of attaining desired structure:

11. Chemical composition control phase diagram;

type and amount of phases

2. Mechanical treatment ; dislocations

 3. Thermal treatment ;
- type and amount of phases
- distribution of phases

STANDARD RECOMMENDATIONS, SPECS, CODES

(represent accumulated experience)

ASTM – standardization of specs and methods of testing

ASME – standard specs for materials for specific applications

API - purchase specs in the petroleum industry

USAS – American Standards Association

TEMA (Tube Exchanger Mafucturers Association)

Selection based on the above are generally satisfactory,

But it could not cover new situations or new materials.
UNIAXIAL TENSILE TEST
- probably the most useful test to evaluate mechanical
properties F

L1
L gage marks

F=δA
F

F ( δ c Ac )

Pc
Material internally resist external load & undergoes
physical deformation
Load - assumed uniformly distributed over the entire cross
sectional area

2- D differential element

δy’y
y
xx’
B C
xy
x’y
δx’x δxx

X
A y’x D

δy’y
Stress = intensity of internal forces acting between particles of
a body across imaginary internal surfaces

unimaginary section
f1 F F
Stress =
A
f2
f4

f3 f5 = δave over the whole

A section
F

f Stress at point 0
f = f1+ f2 + …….

A δave= f

A
F as A 0 f fo
δave δo
 δ= lim
A 0 f
A

δ r = df along resultant force

dA

Value of δ r depends on orientation of plane

Stress has an arbitrary inclination to the surface

- can be resolved into 2 components

d. δ normal stress, external to A
  shear stress, lying along the plane
 n

δ r
P

P
c = cos
z 0  A
P
Ø = sin
y A

P = resultant force along r

 = P ( or r ) makes with the normal n ( or

Z)
r = direction of resultant
The shear stress can be further resolved into
a. component // to X
b. component // to Y

P
x= cos
A
P
y= sin
A

Description requires 3 stress

components:
1 normal & 2 shear
Can be resolved into 3 components parallel to axes of a
Cartesian coord system

dA z

n ZZ

ZY  ZY
z x
o
ZX 

y y

x, y, z – components of stress vector at the point

under
consideration.
Orientation of surface dA is determined by the external
force
normal to the surface
n = normal unit vector whose components are
l = cos ( n,x ) = lx = cos
m = cos ( n,y ) = ly = cos
n = cos ( n,z ) = lz = cos
(angle makes with x-axis)
α= n,x
β= n,y
= n,z
Rule of subscripts:
1st subscript – identifies face on which the stress acts
2nd subscript – identifies direction along which the stress acts
e.q.  xy acts on x face along + y direction
 indicates shear stress
xx acts on x face along + x direction
indicates normal stress.

Rule of signs:
stresses on front faces are positive in the + direction of
the axes
of coordinates
State of stress
many problems can be simplified by considering it to exist in
2–D

A dy B
dx
C
D
 yx 
dz y



3 – D differential element
 GENERAL STATE OF STRESSES:

At. Equil

Z z Mz = 0

 yz
= ( xy dy dz ) dx –

y ( yx dx dz ) dy
y  xy =  yx
 yz
similarly
yz = zy
 yx
x dir zx = xz
x  xy
face

Stress state completely defined by only 6 independent stres

components:
x y z xy yz zx
2 – D Mhor`s Circle
The distribution of stress on an oblique plane as is varied is
given by :

xx + yy xx - yy eq 2.5 (Dieter)
 = + cos 2  at  xy sin 2 
2 2
yy - xx eq 2.7 (Dieter)
 = sin 2  +  xy cos 2
2

By putting the 1st term of the 1st eqn on the left, then squaring the eqns and adding,
the relationship between  &   is found as:

² ²
² xx - yy ²
xx + yy +   = + xy
 -
2 2

+ y² =
x² r²
The circle is called Mohr’s circle for stresses:

-is a circle in the - 


- center displaced x + y to right of origin
2
- radius equal to  max
To make Mohr`s circle in 2 – D
given: x1, y1, xy can be


1. Plot x1 y & xy (numerically
xy )

y x
Draw xy above horiz axis
if it causes cw rotation
about any point in the
physical element
i.e., draw xy on y if yx = xy numerically )
2. Draw the other xy on x & join their 2

x+
The diagonal & the y 2
axis locate the center xy Center of circle
of the circle
y x
xy


3. Now draw the circle

in physical element is xy 2

represented by 2 in Mohr`s x
y
circle

cw rotation in physical element

is also cw in Mohr`s circle x-axis

Diagonal = x-axis
 y=
+ xy = +

x=+

xy
(( yy, 1Ĵyx
xy ) )
 max

0 + xy 1’
0
- 2’
+
yy
xx the principal
xy axis
 =0
2 ( x ,xy )

1 represents the x
axis
A point on Mohr`s circle gives the magnitude + direction of
the normal + shear stresses on any plane in the physical
element.

Obtain 1
2
2 1

 max
2
= cos from x
2
x
From Mohr`s circle, can see that
x+ y
= + x - y²
max 2 + xy
2

= 1

²
x+ x- y
+ xy ²
min = y - 2
2

= 2

x - y² the radius of
 = + xy² the Mohr circle
max 2

= 1 - 2

2
“WE PLANT THE SEED….

BUT GOD GIVES THE HARVEST”