Digital Transducers

Group 3
Souvik

Bhattacharya Noah Berhanu Binnu Mammen Vishal Raj Karunala

Introduction

Any transducer that presents information as discrete samples and that does not introduce an quantization error when the reading is represented in digital form may be classified as a digital transducer. Digital transducers generate discrete output signals such as pulse trains or encoded data that can be directly read by a control processor. When the output is a pulse signal, a counter is used.the count is first represented as a digital word,then it is read by a data acquisition and control computer.If the output is automatically available in a coded form,it can be directly read by a computer.

Shaft Encoders

Any transducer that generates a coded reading of a measurement can be termed as an encoder. Used for measurement of angular displacements and angular velocities.

Advantages of shaft encoders over their analog counterparts are:

High Resolution High Accuracy Relative ease of adoption in digital control systems Reduction in system cost Improvement in system reliability

Encoder Types

SHAFT ENCODERS can be classified into two categories:

1.Incremental Encoders 2. Absolute Encoders

Absolute Encoders

It has many pulse tracks on its transducer disk.when the disk rotates, several pulse trains equal to the number of tracks on the disk, are generated simultaneously. At a given instant, the magnitude of each pulse signal will have one of two signal levels (I.e binary state), as determined by level detector. This signal level corresponds to binary 1 or 0. Thus the set of pulse trains gives an encoded binary number. The pulse windows on the tracks can be organized into some pattern (code) so that each of these binary numbers corresponds to the angular position of the encoder disk at the time when the particular binary number is detected. It has several rows of tracks,equal in number to the bit size of the output data word. It needs at least as many signal pick off sensors as there are tracks. Commonly used to measure fractions of a revolution.

Incremental encoder

An incremental encoder disk requires only one primary track that has equally spaced and identical window areas. the window area is equal to the area of inter-window gap.

Signal Generation

There are four techniques of transducer signal generation

1.

2.
3. 4.

Optical (photo sensor) Method Sliding Contact (electrical conducting) Method Magnetic Saturation (reluctance) Method Proximity Sensor Method

For a given type of encoder ,the method of signal interpretation is identical for all the four types of signal generation

Optical Encoder

Optical Encoder uses an opaque disk (code disk) that has one or more circular tracks,with some arrangement of identical transparent windows (slit) in each track. A beam of light is projected to all the tracks from one side of the disk. The transmitted light is then picked off using a bank of photo sensors on the other side of the disk that typically has one sensor on each track. Since the light from the source is interrupted by the opaque areas of the track, the output signal from the probe is a series of voltage pulses. This signal is interpreted to obtain the angular position and angular velocity of the disk.

Representation of an Optical Encoder

Sliding Contact Encoder

The transducer disk is made up of electrically insulating material. Circular tracks on the disk are formed by implanting a pattern of conducting areas.these conducting regions correspond to the windows on an optical encoder disk.All conducting areas are connected to a common slip ring on the encoder shaft. A constant voltage Vref is applied to the slip ring using a brush mechanism. A sliding contact such as a brush touches each track,and as the disk rotates,a voltage pulse signal is picked off by it. The signal interpretation is done as it is for optical encoders.

Advantages

Simplicity of construction (low cost) High sensitivity (depending upon the supply voltage)

Disadvantages

It includes the familiar drawbacks related to contacting and communicating devices like friction, wear, brush bounce due to vibration, signal glitches and metal oxidation due to electrical arcing.

Schematic representation of sliding contact encoder

Magnetic Encoders

Magnetic encoder have high strength magnetic areas imprinted on the encode disk using techniques such as etching ,stamping or recording. These magnetic areas correspond to the transparent windows on an optical encoder disk. The signal pick off device is a micro transformer that has primary and secondary windings on a circular ferromagnetic core. A high frequency (typically 100khz) primary voltage induces a voltage in the secondary winding of the sensing element operating at the same frequency ,operating as a transformer.

Contd.

A magnetic field of sufficient strength can saturate the core ,however, thereby increasing the reluctance and dropping the induced voltage. By demodulating the induced voltage ,a pulse signal is obtained. This signal is interpreted in the usual manner. Advantage: They have non- contacting pick off sensors.

Disadvantage: they are more costly than the contacting devices.

Schematic representation of Magnetic Encoder

Proximity Sensor Encoder

These use proximity sensor as a signal pick off element.

Two types

Magnetic induction probe

Eddy current probe

Magnetic Induction Probe

In this type, the disk is made of ferromagnetic material. The encoder tracks have raised spots of the same material, serving a purpose analogous to that of the windows on an optical disk encoder. As a raised spot approaches a the probe, the flux linkage increases as a result of the associated decrease in reluctance ,thereby raising the induced voltage level. The output voltage is a pulse-modulated signal at the frequency of the supply voltage of the proximity sensor. This is then demodulated, and the resulting pulse signal is interpreted.

Eddy current probe

In this type, the pulse areas in the track are plated with a conducting material. A flat plate may be used in this case as the non-conducting areas in the disk do not generate eddy currents.

Incremental Optical Encoders

Circular motion measurement

Available in various sizes and resolutions Used in computer mouse rollers Circular disk with slots Diode and photo sensor Digital circuitry to process pulses

Components

Working mechanism

Light source, diode

1 full pinch is equivalent to one full cycle made by the transparent and opaque windows photo sensor

contd.
diode Logical 0 Photo sensor Rotating disk blocking light Photo sensor has a low logic output diode Logical 1 Photo sensor Rotating disk allowing light through Photo sensor has a high logic output

Continuous train of pulses formed as the photo sensor traverses between logic high and logic low in response to the rotation of the disk

Types

Two types

Offset sensor Single disk with opaque and transparent windows of same size Two photodiode sensors placed a quarter pinch apart and on the same side Offset track Two identical disks, each with windows and opaque region placed a quarter pinch apart facing each other

Additional reference pick up photo sensor near the center of the disk to initiate counting

Problems and solutions

Voltage supply may be unstable Sensor and environment noises may degrade the voltage level from sensors Solution An identical fixed disk, i.e. two disks one rotating another stationary are used Two photo sensors are used, both behind the stationary disk The output from the sensor aligned with the non rotating disk is always low logic, the output from the other disk depends on the windows orientation. Both outputs are fed to a differential amplifier

Direction detection

Two photo sensor/diode pairs, a quarter pinch apart are used A high frequency clock is used. Counting starts at rising edge of pulse from sensor 1
Quarter pinch Voltage output from sensor 1

Voltage output from sensor 2

1 full pinch / cycle Clock wise Anti Clock wise

..contd.

we define two counts n1 = number of clock cycles until second pair starts to rise n2 = number of clock cycles until first pair starts to rise again n1 > (n2 n1) for one direction (clock wise) n1 < (n2 n1) for opposite direction (anti clock wise)
Voltage output from sensor 1

Voltage output from sensor 2

n2 n1 n1

Angular Position and resolution

To determine we need the count of the pulse, n maximum count M, corresponding to highest displacement max = n max / M

If we use a digital counter of resolution r bits

M = 2 r-1, including 0 M= 2 r-1 1, excluding 0.

contd.

Resolution depends on N, number of windows and r, number of bits used to represent the counts

With two sensor/diode pairs and with a rising edge circuitry detection p = 3600/ 4N . Purely mechanical d = 3600 / 2r . Purely digital

Largest of the two governs the resolution

Angular velocity and resolution

Pulse counting

Number of pulses, n over the sampling period , T of the digital processor ( n has higher frequency) tav = T /n, trevl = NT/n, for N windows = / t = 2n / NT Not suitable for low speed measurement c =2/NT High N and T increases resolution

Controller sampling pulse (clock)

Resolution

tav=T/n

Pulse train

contd.

Pulse timing

m clock cycles for 1 pitch or for 1 count tsingle = m*t = m / f , where f is frequency of the clock (time for 1 pulse) trevl = Nm / f = / t = 2f / N Not suitable for high speed measurement c =N2/2f High N, and reduces resolution High clock frequency increases resolution

Pulse train

tsingle = m*t

Resolution

t m clock

Conclusion

Optical incremental encoder is used to measure Position Velocity Direction of rotation No need for other A/D circuits Outputs can be directly fed to microprocessor/microcontroller References www.renco.com www.opticalencoder.com www.usdigital.com

Absolute Optical Encoder

Absolute

Optical Encoder Gray Coding Encoder Error Digital Resolvers

Absolute Optical Encoder

Absolute Encoder directly generates Coded Data to Represent Angular positions using sequence of pulses. No pulse coding is involved in this case. Code pattern on an Absolute Encoder disk is direct binary code.

Absolute Optical Encoder

Absolute Optical Encoder

working

A disc or a plate containing opaque and transparent segments passes between a light source (such an LED) and detector to interrupt a light beam. The electronic signals that are generated are then fed into the controller where position and velocity information is calculated based upon the signals received

Absolute Optical Encoder working

The number of tracks is n in this case. The disk is divided into 2n Sectors. Each partioned area of the matrix correspond to a bit of data.
Transparent area=1,Opaque area=0;

Each track has a pick off sensors arranged on radial line facing track on one side of the disk it is illuminated by a light source from the other side of the disk. As Disk rotates bank of pick up sensor generates a set of pulses. At a given instant coded data word will determine the position of the disk and the resolution angle

Absolute Optical Encoder

In the fig word size of data is 4bits. Outermost Element is LSB. Innermost Element is MSB. The Angular position is given as=360/24. The direct binary representation of the disk sector shown in the table

Absolute Optical Encoder

using gray coding

Why we use Gray Coding?

There is a data interpretation problem associated with using binary codes in absolute encoder.
For E.g.-:The transition from 0011 to 0100 requires three bit

switching. Here rotation was from angle 2 to angle 3 actually rotation was from angle 3 to angle 4 such errors can be avoided using gray coding.

If the sensors are not aligned properly manufacturing errors and printing on the disk have result large number of errors.

Encoder Error

Quantization error due to digital word size limitation. Assembly error (eccentricity) Coupling error (gear backash,belt slipage) Structural limitations (disk deformation) Manufacturing tolerances (error due to inaccurately imprinted code) Ambient effects (Vibration, temperature)

Eccentricity Error Eccentricity Error

Eccentricity is (denoted by e) of an encoder is distance between the center of rotation C of the code disk and geometric Center G The Primary contribution to eccentricity is Shaft eccentricity Assembly eccentricity Track eccentricity Radial play

Eccentricity Error Eccentricity Error

Shaft eccentricity results if the rotating shaft on which the code disk is mounted is imperfect. Assembly eccentricity is caused if the code disk is improperly mounted on the shaft so that the center of code disk doesnt fall on the shaft Track eccentricity comes from irregularities in the code track imprinting process. Radial play is caused by any looseness in the assembly in the radial direction.

Digital Resolvers

Digital Resolvers or Mutual Encoders. Somewhat act like analog Resolvers. A digital Resolvers has two disk facing each other one the stator and other the rotor

Digital Resolvers

The rotor has a fine electric conductor imprinted on it. The stator disk has two printed patterns which was identical to each other. The primary voltages in the rotor circuit induces voltage in the secondary at same freq When the foil pulse coincide the induced voltage is maximum When rotor foil has a half pitch offset from the stator foil then the induced voltage cancel each other

Digital Resolvers

If the Speed of rotation is constant the output voltages v1 and v2carrier frequency modulated by periodic and sinusoidal signals with a phase shift of 900 When the speed is not constant Pulse width will vary with time

Resolution up to 0.00050 can be obtained with this transducers

Digital Tachometer

A device that employs a toothed wheel to measure angular velocities

Magnetic induction tachometer of variable-reluctance type. Teeth -> Ferromagnetic material. The 2 magnetic induction proximity probes are placed facing the teeth radially, a quarter-pitch apart. When the toothed wheel rotates, the 2 probes generate output signals that are 90 degrees out of phase. One signal leads the other in one direction of rotation & lags the other in the opposite direction. Thus, directional readings are obtained. Speed is computed either by counting the pulses over a sampling period or by timing the pulse width. Eddy current Tachometer: The teeth of pulsing wheel are made of or plated with electricityconducting material & the probe emits a radio-frequency magnetic field. ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL (PULSE) TACHOMETERS OVER OPTICAL ENCODERS: Simplicity, robustness & low cost. DISADVANTAGES: Poor resolution (determined by the number of teeth, the speed of rotation, and the word size used for data transmission) and mechanical errors due to loading, hysteresis and manufacturing irregularities.

HALL EFFECT SENSORS (HES):

Used to detect the proximity, presence or absence of a magnetic object using a critical distance.

They function via an electrical potential that is developed across an axis transverse to an applied current flow in the presence of a magnetic field applied to the conductor.

HALL EFFECT:

Refers to the potential difference (Hall voltage) on opposite sides of a thin sheet of conducting or semiconducting material in the form of a 'Hall bar' or an element through which an electric current is flowing, created by a magnetic field applied perpendicular to the Hall element. The ratio of the voltage created to the amount of current is known as the Hall resistance, and is a characteristic of the material in the element.

Hall effect diagram, showing electron flow:

1. Electrons 2. Hall element, or Hall sensor 3. Magnets 4. Magnetic field 5. Power source

In drawing "A", the Hall element takes on a negative charge at the top edge (symbolised by the blue color) and positive at the lower edge (red color).
In "B" and "C", either the electric current or the magnetic field is reversed, causing the polarization to reverse.

Reversing both current and magnetic field (drawing "D") causes the Hall element to again assume a negative charge at the upper edge.

The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the current flow in the conductor. Current consists of many small charge-carrying "particles" (typically electrons) which experience a force due to the magnetic field. Some of these charge elements end up forced to the sides of the conductors, where they create a pool of net charge. This is only notable in larger conductors where the separation between the two sides is large enough. One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it differentiates between positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite.

By measuring the Hall voltage across the element, one can determine the strength of the magnetic field applied. This can be expressed as

where

VH is the voltage across the width of the plate I is the current across the plate length B is the magnetic field d is the depth of the plate e is the electron charge n is the bulk density of the carrier electrons.

Consider a semiconductor element subject to a DC voltage V-ref. If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of this voltage, a voltage V-o will be generated in the third orthogonal direction within the semiconductor element. This is known as Hall Effect.
Can be used for motion sensing in many ways. Ex. As an analog proximity sensor, a digital limit switch or a digital shaft encoder.

PROXIMITY AND HALL EFFECT

Since O/P voltage increases as the distance from the magnetic source to the semiconductor element decreases, O/P signal Vo can be used as a measure of proximity. Alternatively, a certain threshold level of output voltage Vo can be used to activate a digital switch or to create a digital output hence forming a digital limit switch.

MODERN DAY EXAMPLES:

HALL EFFECT CURRENT SENSOR WITH INTERNAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT AMPLIFIER

HALL EFFECT SPEED SENSOR

Applications include Sensors; Reed switch electrical motors, valve position, level detection, process control, machine control, security, etc. are some of them.
ADVANTAGES: Hall Effect devices when appropriately packaged are immune to dust, dirt, mud, and water. These characteristics make Hall effect devices better for position sensing than alternative means such as optical and electromechanical sensing.

HALL EFFECT SHAFT ENCODER:

The semiconductor element and the magnetic source are fixed relative to one another in a single package. By moving the ferromagnetic member into the air gap between the magnetic source and the semiconductor element, the flux linkage can be altered. This changes Vo. Suitable both as an analog proximity sensor and as a limit switch. The relationship between the output voltage Vo and the distance of a Hall effect sensor measured from the moving member is non linear. Linear Hall effect sensors use calibration to linearize their outputs.

DIGITAL TACHOMETER

WHERE USED:

DIGITAL TACHOMETER AS A MEASUREMENT DEVICE

MEASUREMENT OF TRANSLATORY MOTIONS: Sensors are used to determine the rectilinear motions which are produced from a rotary motion. The sensors convert rectilinear motion to rotary motion within the sensor itself. 1. 2. Cable Extension Sensors. Moir Fringe Displacement Sensors.

CABLE EXTENSION SENSORS:

CABLE EXTENSION SENSOR

Suitable for measuring motions that have large excursions. Uses an angular motion sensor with a spool rigidly coupled to the rotating part of the sensor and a cable that wraps around the spool. Other end of cable is attached to object whose rectilinear motion is to be sensed. Housing of rotary sensor is firmly mounted on a stationary platform so that the cable can extend in the direction of motion. When the object moves, cable extends causing spool to rotate. This angular motion is measured by the rotary sensors. A spring is used to maintain tension and to re-wind the spool. When the spool is connected to a potentiometer, the output is an analog signal representing the absolute position of the spool. Proper calibration. These sensors provide an indication of motion by sensing light, a magnetic field, or simply the presence of an object. Disadvantages: Mechanical loading of the moving object, time delay in measurements, errors caused by the cable including irregularities, slack & tensile deformation.

MODERN DAY EXAMPLE:

MOIRE FRINGE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS:

FIGURE REPRESENTING A MOIRE FRINGE DISPLACEMENT SENSOR

Mask Plate (fixed)

Moving Plate

Light Source

Photo Sensor

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A MOIRE FRINGE DISPLACEMENT SENSOR

BLACK CLOUD

MOON

MOIRE FRINGE EFFECT

Both of the strips are transparent (or reflective), with black lines at measured intervals. The spacing of the lines determines the accuracy of the position measurements. The stationary strip is offset at an angle so that the strips interfere to give irregular patterns. As the moving strip travels by a stationary strip the patterns will move up, or down, depending upon the speed and direction of motion. The initial application of the moir technique in metrological applications was for measurement of in-plane deformations and strains.

MASK PLATE: Stationary transparent plate with opaque lines arranged in parallel in transverse (crosswise) direction. MOVING PLATE: Second moving transparent plate with identical set of ruled lines. Lines are evenly spaced and line width is equal to the spacing between adjacent lines. Light source placed on moving plate side and light transmitted through the common area of the 2 plates is detected on the other side by using one or more photo sensors. When the lines on 2 plates coincide, max. light will pass through the common area of the 2 plates. When lines on one plate fall on transparent spaces of other plate, virtually no light passes though the plates. As one plate moves relative to the other, a pulse train is generated by the photo sensor & it can be used to determine the rectilinear displacement & velocity. Moir fringes are the shadow patterns formed in this manner. Very small resolutions of ex. 0.0002 in can be realized. Provides improved sensitivity over a basic optical encoder & provides increased resolution. Also used to detect deformations of one body with respect to the other. Some transparent lines of one plate will be completely covered by the opaque lines of the other plate and some other transparent lines of first plate will have coinciding lines with second plate. Thus observed image will have dark lines (moir fringes) corresponding to the regions with clear/opaque overlaps of the 2 plates and bright lines corresponding to the clear/clear overlaps of 2 plates.

LIMIT SWITHCES:

Limit Switch is a mechanical device that requires the physical contact of an object with the switchs actuator to make the contacts change state. OR

A limit switch is a mechanical device which can be used to determine the physical position of equipment.

LIMIT SWITCH

WORKING PRINCIPLE

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4

Actuator: Mechanism within the limit switches to operate the contacts.

Overtravel: The movement of the actuator beyond the contact trip position without damage occurring to the switch. Pre-travel: The distance or angle through which the actuator moves before reaching the point at which the contacts are tripped. The actuator is at its initial position. The limit switch contacts are in their normal untriggered position. Contact is made with the target object and the actuator moves its Pre-travel distance. Contacts are still in their normal untriggered position. The actuator reaches its operating point where the contacts change from their normal untriggered position to their triggered position. In the case of a lever actuator, there is some Overtravel allowing the lever to move beyond the operating point. On plunger actuators, the Overtravel distance is a safety margin for the sensor to avoid breakage.

The actuator begins the return to its initial position. The contacts return to their normal untriggered position as the actuator reaches its release point and resets the contacts.
The differential is the difference between the operating and release point. Differential is engineered into the switch to guard against the effects of vibration and rapid on/off oscillations of the switch right at the operating point. Only 2 states are used: On/off, present/absent, go/no-go etc. Can be represented by 1 bit & thats why it is considered as Digital Transducer.

Additional logic needed for direction of contact. LS available for both rectilinear and angular motion.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES:

APPLICATIONS:

Limit switches can be used to turn off a washing machine if the load becomes unbalanced. In automobiles, they turn on lights when the door is opened. In industry, limit switches are used to limit the travel of machine parts, sequence operations or to detect moving items on a conveyor system. Industrial Refrigerators Military Equipment Assembly Equipment Medical Equipment Transportation Equipment Fitness Equipment Farming Equipment Construction Equipment

MICROSWITCHES:

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2

TYPES OF MICROSWITCH

Snap Action Switches, also called Micro switches, are switch devices that can open and/or close an electrical circuit at a rapid speed. These snap action Micro switches are characterized by small and closely definable movements, good repeat accuracy and long mechanical life. These Micro switches are called snap action switches because of the rapid movement of spring-assisted moving contacts from one stable position to another, the speed being basically independent of the actuator speed.

Typical Applications areas include:

Security Medical Process Controls Business machines HVAC Material Handling Vending Gaming Circuit Breakers Household Appliances