Modern Database Management 8th Edition

Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Mary B. Prescott, Fred R. McFadden

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2007 by Prentice Hall FAROOQ

Chapter 6: Physical Database Design and Performance

Objectives
Definition of terms Describe the physical database design process Choose storage formats for attributes Select appropriate file organizations Describe three types of file organization Describe indexes and their appropriate use Translate a database model into efficient structures Know when and how to use denormalization

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Physical Database Design

Purposetranslate the logical description of data into the technical specifications for storing and retrieving data Goalcreate a design for storing data that will provide adequate performance and insure database integrity, security, and recoverability

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Physical Design Process

Inputs
Normalized
Volume

relations

Decisions
Attribute data types

estimates

Response time Data

expectations
Leads to File

(doesnt always match logical design) organizations database architectures

security needs

Backup/recovery needs Integrity expectations DBMS

Indexes and

technology used

Query optimization

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Attribute definitions

Physical record descriptions

Figure 6-1 Composite usage map (Pine Valley Furniture Company)

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Figure 6-1 Composite usage map (Pine Valley Furniture Company) (cont.)

Data volumes
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Figure 6-1 Composite usage map (Pine Valley Furniture Company) (cont.)

Access Frequencies (per hour)

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Figure 6-1 Composite usage map (Pine Valley Furniture Company) (cont.) Usage analysis:
140 purchased parts accessed per hour 80 quotations accessed from these 140 purchased part accesses 70 suppliers accessed from these 80 quotation accesses

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Figure 6-1 Composite usage map (Pine Valley Furniture Company) (cont.) Usage analysis:
75 suppliers accessed per hour 40 quotations accessed from these 75 supplier accesses 40 purchased parts accessed from these 40 quotation accesses

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Designing Fields
Field: smallest unit of data in database Field design
Choosing data type Coding, compression, encryption Controlling data integrity
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Choosing Data Types

CHARfixed-length character VARCHAR2variable-length character (memo) LONGlarge number NUMBERpositive/negative number INEGERpositive/negative whole number DATEactual date BLOBbinary large object (good for graphics, sound clips, etc.)
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Figure 6-2 Example code look-up table (Pine Valley Furniture Company)

Code saves space, but costs an additional lookup to obtain actual value

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Field Data Integrity

Default valueassumed value if no explicit value Range controlallowable value limitations (constraints or validation rules) Null value controlallowing or prohibiting empty fields Referential integrityrange control (and null value allowances) for foreign-key to primary-key matchups
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) legislates importance of financial data integrity

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Handling Missing Data

Substitute an estimate of the missing value (e.g., using a formula) Construct a report listing missing values In programs, ignore missing data unless the value is significant (sensitivity testing)

Triggers can be used to perform these operations

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Physical Records
Physical Record: A group of fields stored in adjacent memory locations and retrieved together as a unit Page: The amount of data read or written in one I/O operation Blocking Factor: The number of physical records per page

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Denormalization
Transforming normalized relations into unnormalized physical record specifications Benefits: Costs (due to data duplication)
Wasted storage space Data integrity/consistency threats
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Can improve performance (speed) by reducing number of table lookups (i.e. reduce number of necessary join queries)

Common denormalization opportunities

One-to-one relationship (Fig. 6-3) Many-to-many relationship with attributes (Fig. 6-4) Reference data (1:N relationship where 1-side has data not used in any other relationship) (Fig. 6-5) Chapter 6

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Figure 6-3 A possible denormalization situation: two entities with oneto-one relationship

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Figure 6-4 A possible denormalization situation: a many-to-many

relationship with nonkey attributes

Extra table access required

Null description possible

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Figure 6-5
A possible denormalization situation: reference data

Extra table access required

Data duplication 19

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Partitioning
Horizontal Partitioning: Distributing the rows of a table into several separate files
Useful for situations where different users need access to different rows Three types: Key Range Partitioning, Hash Partitioning, or Composite Partitioning

Vertical Partitioning: Distributing the columns of a table into several separate relations
Useful for situations where different users need access to different columns The primary key must be repeated in each file

Combinations of Horizontal and Vertical Partitions often correspond with User Schemas (user views)
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Partitioning (cont.)
Advantages of Partitioning:
Efficiency: Records used together are grouped together Local optimization: Each partition can be optimized for performance Security, recovery Load balancing: Partitions stored on different disks, reduces contention Take advantage of parallel processing capability

Disadvantages of Partitioning:
Inconsistent access speed: Slow retrievals across partitions Complexity: Non-transparent partitioning Extra space or update time: Duplicate data; access from multiple partitions

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Data Replication
Purposely storing the same data in multiple locations of the database Improves performance by allowing multiple users to access the same data at the same time with minimum contention Sacrifices data integrity due to data duplication Best for data that is not updated often

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Designing Physical Files

Physical File:
A named portion of secondary memory allocated for the purpose of storing physical records Tablespacenamed set of disk storage elements in which physical files for database tables can be stored Extentcontiguous section of disk space

Constructs to link two pieces of data:

Sequential storage Pointersfield of data that can be used to locate related fields or records

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Figure 6-4 Physical file terminology in an Oracle environment

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File Organizations
Technique for physically arranging records of a file on secondary storage Factors for selecting file organization:
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Fast data retrieval and throughput Efficient storage space utilization Protection from failure and data loss Minimizing need for reorganization Accommodating growth Security from unauthorized use

Types of file organizations

Sequential Indexed Hashed
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Figure 6-7a Sequential file organization

1
2

every insert or delete requires resort

If not sorted
Average time to find desired record = n/2
n

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Records of the file are stored in sequence by the primary key field values

If sorted

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Indexed File Organizations

Indexa separate table that contains organization of records for quick retrieval Primary keys are automatically indexed Oracle has a CREATE INDEX operation, and MS ACCESS allows indexes to be created for most field types Indexing approaches:
B-tree index, Fig. 6-7b Bitmap index, Fig. 6-8 Hash Index, Fig. 6-7c Join Index, Fig 6-9

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Figure 6-7b B-tree index

uses a tree search

Average time to find desired record = depth of the tree 28

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Leaves of the tree are all at same level consistent access time

Figure 6-7c Hashed file or index organization

Usually uses divisionremainder to determine record position. Records with same position are grouped in lists

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Hash algorithm

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Figure 6-8 Bitmap index index organization

Bitmap saves on space requirements

Rows - possible values of the attribute Columns - table rows Bit indicates whether the attribute of a row has the values

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Figure 6-9 Join Indexesspeeds up join operations

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Clustering Files
In some relational DBMSs, related records from different tables can be stored together in the same disk area Useful for improving performance of join operations Primary key records of the main table are stored adjacent to associated foreign key records of the dependent table e.g. Oracle has a CREATE CLUSTER command

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Rules for Using Indexes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Use on larger tables Index the primary key of each table Index search fields (fields frequently in WHERE clause) Fields in SQL ORDER BY and GROUP BY commands When there are >100 values but not when there are <30 values

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Rules for Using Indexes (cont.)

Avoid use of indexes for fields with long values; perhaps compress values first 7. DBMS may have limit on number of indexes per table and number of bytes per indexed field(s) 8. Null values will not be referenced from an index 9. Use indexes heavily for non-volatile databases; limit the use of indexes for volatile databases
6.
Why? Because modifications (e.g. inserts, deletes) require updates to occur in index files

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RAID
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks A set of disk drives that appear to the user to be a single disk drive Allows parallel access to data (improves access speed) Pages are arranged in stripes

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Figure 6-10 RAID with four disks and striping

Here, pages 1-4 can be read/written simultaneously

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Raid Types (Figure 6-10)

Raid 0
Maximized parallelism No redundancy No error correction no fault-tolerance

Raid 3
Error correction in one disk Record spans multiple data disks (more than RAID2) Not good for multi-user environments,

Raid 1
Redundant data fault tolerant Most common form

Raid 2
No redundancy One record spans across data disks Error correction in multiple disks reconstruct damaged data

Error correction in one disk Multiple records per stripe Parallelism, but slow updates due to error correction contention

Raid 5

Rotating parity array Error correction takes place in same disks as data storage Parallelism, better performance than 38 Raid4

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Raid 4

Database Architectures
(Figure 6-11)

Chapter 6 Legacy Systems Data Warehouses

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Current Technology
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