Programming Logic and Design Sixth Edition

Chapter 1

An Overview of Computers and Programming

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Programming Logic & Design, Sixth Edition

Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about: Computer systems Simple program logic The steps involved in the program development cycle Pseudocode statements and flowchart symbols Using a sentinel value to end a program Programming and user environments The evolution of programming models

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Understanding Computer Systems

Computer system
Combination of all the components required to process and store data using a computer

Hardware
Equipment associated with a computer

Software
Computer instructions Tell the hardware what to do Programs
Instructions written by programmers

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Understanding Computer Systems (cont.)

Programming
Writing software instructions

Computer hardware and software accomplish three major operations

Input
Data items enter into computer

Processing
By central processing unit (CPU)

Output
Display the results

Input

Processing

Output

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Understanding Computer Systems (cont.)

Programming language
Use to write computer instructions Examples
Visual Basic, C#, C++, or Java

Syntax
Rules governing its word usage and punctuation

Computer memory
Volatile, Computers temporary, internal storage

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Understanding Computer Systems (cont.)

Permanent storage devices
Nonvolatile (Permanent storage)

Compiler or an interpreter
Translates program code into machine language (binary language) Checks for syntax errors

Program executes or runs

Input will be accepted, some processing will occur, and results will be output

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Understanding Simple Program Logic

Program with syntax errors cannot execute 1. Logical errors
Errors in program logic Produce incorrect output as a result

2. Logic of the computer program

Sequence of specific instructions in specific order

3. Variable
Named memory location whose value can vary

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Understanding the Program Development Cycle

Program development cycle
1. 2. 3. 4. Understand the problem Plan the logic Code the program Use software (a compiler or interpreter) to translate the program into machine language 5. Test the program 6. Put the program into production 7. Maintain the program

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Understanding the Program Development Cycle (continued)

Figure 1-1 The program development cycle

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1. Understanding the Problem

One of the most difficult aspects of programming Users or end users
People for whom program is written Programmers are providing a service to these users Programmers must first understand what the users want. When a program runs, think of the logic as a cycle of inputprocessing-output operations When you plan a program, think of the output first. After understanding what the desired result is, then you can plan what to input and process to achieve it.

Documentation Supporting paperwork for a program to help the programmer for understanding the problem.

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2. Planning the Logic

Heart of the programming process (Programming Logic and Design) During this phase of the process, the programmer
Most common planning tools Desk-checking
1. 2. Flowcharts Pseudocode plans the steps of the program, deciding what steps to include and how to order them.

Programmer focus on figuring out what sequence of events will lead from the available input to the desired output. Planning the logic includes thinking carefully about all the possible data values a program might encounter and how you want the program to handle each scenario. The process of walking through a programs logic on paper before you actually write the program is called desk-checking.

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3. Coding the Program

After the logic is developed, only then the programmer write the program. The logic developed to solve a programming problem can be executed using any number of languages. Hundreds of programming languages are available
Choose based on features Alike in their basic capabilities each language can handle input operations, arithmetic processing, output operations, and other standard functions.

Coding is easier than planning step

Coding concerned with proper punctuation and the correct spelling of commandsin other words, using the correct syntax.

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4. Using Software to Translate the Program into Machine Language

Why we need software (program coding) to translate?
Translator program
Each computer knows only one language: its machine language, which consists of 1s and 0s.

Syntax error

Called Compiler or interpreter Changes the programmers English-like high-level programming language into the low-level machine language Produces the executable program only when the code is free of syntax errors. Misuse of a languages grammar rules Programmer corrects listed syntax errors Might need to recompile the code several times to get the executable program

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4. Using Software to Translate the Program into Machine Language (continued)

Figure 1-2 Creating an executable program

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5. Testing the Program

A program that is free of syntax errors is not necessarily free of logical errors. Logical error
Use a syntactically correct statement but use the wrong one for the current context The process of finding and correcting program errors is called debugging.

Testing
Execute/run the program with some sample data to see whether the results are logically correct

Programs should be tested with many sets of data

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6. Putting the Program into Production

Once the program is tested adequately, it is ready for use. Putting the program into production might mean simply running the program once, if it was written to satisfy a users request for a special list. Process depends on programs purpose
May take several months

Conversion
Entire set of actions an organization must take to switch over to using a new program or set of programs For example,
data-entry people must be trained to prepare the input for the new program; users must be trained to understand the output; or existing data in the company must be changed to an entirely new format to accommodate this program.

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7. Maintaining the Program

Maintenance
Making changes after program is put into production

Common first programming job

Maintaining previously written programs

Make changes (or) add new functions to existing programs

Repeat the development cycle

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MCTS Guide to Microsoft Windows Server 2008 Network Infrastructure Configuration

Which statements are true?

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MCTS Guide to Microsoft Windows Server 2008 Network Infrastructure Configuration

Which statements are true?

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MCTS Guide to Microsoft Windows Server 2008 Network Infrastructure Configuration

Which statements are true?

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MCTS Guide to Microsoft Windows Server 2008 Network Infrastructure Configuration

Step 1 : Understanding the Problem Step 2 : Planning the Logic

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Using Pseudocode Statements and Flowchart Symbols

1. Pseudocode
English-like representation of the logical steps it takes to solve a problem

2. Flowchart
Pictorial representation of the logical steps it takes to solve a problem

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Writing Pseudocode
Pseudocode representation involves
writing down all the steps you will use in a program. Pseudocode representation of a number-doubling problem
start input myNumber set myAnswer = myNumber * 2 output myAnswer stop

beginning statement like start and end it with a terminating statement like stop

Flexible because it is a planning tool

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Drawing Flowcharts
Flowcharts allow programmers
to visualize more easily how the program statements will connect.

Create a flowchart
Draw geometric shapes that contain the individual statements Connect shapes with arrows

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Drawing Flowcharts
Input symbol
Indicates input operation Parallelogram Processing statements such as arithmetic Rectangle Represents output statements Parallelogram Because the parallelogram is used for both input and output, it is often called the input/output symbol or I/O symbol.

Processing symbol

Output symbol

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Drawing Flowcharts (continued)

Flowlines
Arrows that connect steps

Terminal symbols
Start/stop symbols Shaped like a racetrack Also called lozenge

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Drawing Flowcharts (continued)

You can draw a flowchart
by hand or use software, such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft PowerPoint, that contains flowcharting tools. can use several other software programs, such as Visio and Visual Logic, specifically to create flowcharts.

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Drawing Flowcharts (continued)

Figure 1-6 Flowchart and pseudocode of program that doubles a number

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Which statements are true?

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Declaring and Using Variables and Constants

Data items program has to deal with
All the text, numbers, and other information that are processed by a computer Stored in variables in memory

Three Different forms of data storage in memory

1. Variables 2. Literals, or unnamed constants 3. Named constants

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Working with Variables

Variablies
Named memory locations to store the user input value or calculated value Contents can vary or differ over time

Declaration
Statement that provides a data type and an identifier for a variable Identifier is a variables name A data items data type is a classification that describes the following:
What values can be held by the item How the item is stored in computer memory What operations can be performed on the data item

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MCTS Guide to Microsoft Windows Server 2008 Network Infrastructure Configuration

Declaration
Computers deal with two basic types of datatext and numeric. Two data types will be used:

1. 2.

num string.
Identifier (variable name) Value (a starting value) initializing

For example, a valid declaration: Data Type

num mySalary num yourSalary = 14.55 string myName string yourName = "Juanita"

The process of naming program variables and assigning a type to them is called making declarations, or declaring variables. Declaring a starting value is known as initializing the variable.

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Working with Variables (continued)

Initializing a variable
Declare a starting value for any variable

Garbage
Variables unknown value before initialization declare a variable and do not initialize a value, the variable contains an unknown value until it is assigned a value. A variables unknown value is commonly called garbage.

Variables must be declared before they are used in a program for the first time.

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Working with Variables (continued)

Figure 2-1 Flowchart and pseudocode for the number-doubling program

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Declare Variable before they are used in the program

Variable contains garbage value

Figure 2-2 Flowchart and pseudocode of number-doubling program with variable declarations

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Naming Variables
Programmer chooses reasonable and descriptive names for variables Programming languages have rules for creating identifiers
Most languages allow letters and digits
for example, j89

Some languages allow hyphens

for example, hourly-wage

Some languages allow dollar signs or other special characters

for example, hourly$

Different limits on the length of variable names

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Naming Variables (continued)

Camel casing
the variable starts with a lowercase letter and any subsequent word begins with an uppercase letter, is called camel casing hourlyWage

Pascal casing
When the first letter of a variable name is uppercase, as in HourlyWage, the format is known as Pascal casing.

Variable names used throughout book

Must be one word
for example, finalBalance

Should have some appropriate meaning

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Understanding Unnamed, Literal Constants and their Data Types

Numeric constant (or literal numeric constant)
Specific numeric value that does not change
Example: 43

String constant (or literal string constant)

String of characters enclosed within quotation marks
Example: Amanda

Unnamed constants
Do not have identifiers like variables do

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Understanding the Data Types of Variables

1. Numeric variable
Holds digits Can perform mathematical operations on it

2. String variable
Can hold text Letters of the alphabet Special characters such as punctuation marks

Assign data to a variable

Only if it is the correct type

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Declaring Named Constants

Named constant
Similar to a variable Can be assigned a value only once Assign a useful name to a value that will never be changed during a programs execution For example, if a program uses a sales tax rate of 6%, to declare a named constant as follows: num SALES_TAX = 0.06 Then use SALES_TAX in a program statement again as in the following: set taxAmount = price * SALES_TAX Unnamed constant Purpose is not immediately apparent Avoid this

Magic number

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Assigning Values to Variables

Assignment statement
set myAnswer = myNumber * 2

Assignment operator
Equal sign Always operates from right to left

Valid
set someNumber = 2 set someNumber = someOtherNumber set totalScore = test1 + test2

Not valid
set 2 + 4 = someNumber

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Performing Arithmetic Operations

Standard arithmetic operators:
+ (plus sign)addition (minus sign)subtraction * (asterisk)multiplication / (slash)division

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Performing Arithmetic Operations (continued)

Rules of precedence
Also called the order of operations Dictate the order in which operations in the same statement are carried out 1. Expressions within parentheses are evaluated first 2. Multiplication and division are evaluated next 3.
From left to right
From left to right

Addition and subtraction are evaluated next

For example

firstAnswer = 2 + 3 * 4 14 secondAnswer = (2 + 3) * 4 20 average = score1 + score2 / 2 average = (score1 + score2) / 2 totalPriceWithTax = price + price * TAX_RATE totalPriceWithTax = price + (price * TAX_RATE)

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Performing Arithmetic Operations (continued)

Left-to-right associativity
Operations with the same precedence take place from left to right For example, answer = a + b + c * d / e f Multiplication and division have higher precedence than addition or subtraction, so the multiplication and division are carried out from left to right as follows:
c is

Therefore, the statement becomes: answer = a + b + (temporary result just calculated) f Then, addition and subtraction are carried out from left to right as follows:
a and b are

multiplied by d, and the result is divided by e, giving a new result.

Another way to say this is that the following two statements are equivalent: answer = a + b + c * d / e f answer = a + b + ((c * d) / e) f

added, the temporary result is added, and then f is subtracted. The final result is then assigned to answer.

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Performing Arithmetic Operations (continued)

Table 2-1 Precedence and associativity of five common operators

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Programming Logic & Design, Sixth Edition

Summary
Computer programming
Programmers job
Requires specific syntax Must develop correct logic Understanding the problem, planning the logic, coding the program, translating the program into machine language, testing the program, putting the program into production, and maintaining it

Procedural and object-oriented programmers approach problems differently

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Exercises
(1) Draw a flowchart and write pseudo code to represent the logic of a program which will calculate area of the circle using the formula area=pi * radius * radius (pi = 3.142) (2) Draw a flowchart and write pseudo code to represent the logic of a program for the square and cube of any number input. (3) Draw a flowchart and write pseudo code to represent the logic of a program to input two sides of a rectangle. Calculate the area of the rectangle and print out the answer. (4) Draw a flowchart and write pseudo code to represent the logic of a program that allows the user to enter a value. The program multiplies the value by 10 and outputs the result.

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MCTS Guide to Microsoft Windows Server 2008 Network Infrastructure Configuration

Exercises
(5) Draw a flowchart or write pseudocode to represent the logic of a program that allows the user to enter two values. The program outputs the sum of the two values. (6) Draw a flowchart or write pseudocode to represent the logic of a program that allows the user to enter three values. The values represent hourly pay rate, the number of hours worked this pay period, and percentage of gross salary that is withheld. The program multiplies the hourly pay rate by the number of hours worked, giving the gross pay. Then, it multiplies the gross pay by the withholding percentage, giving the withholding amount. Finally, it subtracts the withholding amount from the gross pay, giving the net pay after taxes. The program outputs the net pay.