PRINCIPLES OF COOKING

Principles of Cooking
Cooking can be defined as the transfer of energy from a heat source to a food Energy alters the foods molecular structure, changes its texture, flavor, aroma, and appearance When food is cooked, the process destroys microorganisms and makes food easier to ingest and digest

Cooking Methods
Broiling Poaching Grilling Simmering Roasting Boiling Baking Steaming Sauting Braising Pan-frying Stewing Deep-frying

Heat Transfer
Conduction Convection
Natural Mechanical

Radiation
Infrared cooking Microwave cooking

Heat Patterns

Effects of Heat
Proteins coagulate Starches gelatinize Sugars caramelize Water evaporates Fats melt

Cooking Methods
Dry-heat Moist-heat Combination

Dry-Heat Cooking Methods

Broiling Grilling Roasting Baking Sauting Stir-frying Pan-frying Deep-frying

Dry Heat Cooking Methods

DefinitionAny cooking method that does not use moisture as a cooking medium Methods:
Roasting Sauteing Grilling Deep-frying

Deep Frying

Oils for Deep-frying

In the past, chefs used rendered beef suet for deep fat frying. Today, commercially manufactured shortenings specifically for deep-frying are recommended. Most of these shortenings are vegetable based , the most popular types are made from soy bean oil and canola oil.

Smoke point
Smoke Point - the temperature at which an oil or fat visibly begins to smoke and chemically begins to break down Canola Oil - smoke point - 425 F Many commercial fryer shortenings are fully or partially hydrogenated. Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen to oil, which makes it solid (fully hydrogenated) or creamy (partially hydrogenated) and resistant to oxidation and chemical breakdown.

Enemies of Fat
Fat can be damaged by: Salt (oxidation) Corrosive metals (oxidation) Water (hydrolysis) Heat (polymerization) Burnt Food Particles

Maintaining Fat
1. Store in tightly sealed containers away from light. Cover fryer when not in use. 2. Skim food particles during frying. 3. Dont salt food over the fryer. 4. Food to be fried should be free of excess moisture. 5. Dont pre-heat fryer too soon before frying. Turn off when done frying. The longer fat is exposed to heat the shorter its life. 6. Dont mix fats, saturated fats break down more quickly. ( dont fry bacon in the deep fryer)

Deep fryers
Fuel can be gas or electric Fryers are classified by the amount of shortening they can hold.
Capacities range between 15 - 82 #

Temperature Range : 200 - 400 F

Most deep- frying is done between 325 and 375F

Most fryers are designed to maintain a ratio of 8# fat to 1# food product being fried. This ratio is key to a quick recovery time
Recovery time is the length of time it takes for fat to return to desired cooking temperature after food is submerged in it.

Coating Methods
la Francaise - dredged in flour lAnglaise Standard Breading Procedure: Flour Egg Wash Bread Crumbs lOrly - battered (beer batter, tempura, egg batter) The purpose of coating or breading food to be deep fried is twofold:
1. To keep the moisture in the product. 2. To keep the fat out of the product.

Frying Methods
1. Basket method - Product is placed in the basket and lowered into the fat in the basket. 2. Double basket method- Same as 1., but a second basket is placed over the the product to keep it from floating. 3. Swimming method- product is dropped directly into the fat and allowed to float freely; usually done with with battered foods that might stick to the basket

Grilling and Broiling

Grilling and Broiling

Grill - to cook with heat from below Broil - to cook with heat from above Both utilize very hot - radiant heat, therefore only tender cuts should be used.

Grilling and Broiling

Fuels used: Broilers and Salamanders - Gas and Electric Grills - Electric (closed) - Gas with metal; heat deflectors - Gas with lava rock - Charcoal-compressed and natural - Wood-hard woods

Grilling Procedures
1. Preheat the grill. 2. Clean the grill with a wire brush. 3. Brush item to be grilled with oil or clarified butter. Season product. 4. Place the item on a hot area of the grill. Allow grill marks to form. 5. Turn the product 90 and allow cross marks to form.

Grilling Procedures
6. Flip the product* and finish cooking over moderate heat. After searing the second side larger or pieces to be more well done may be finished in the oven. * Some fish and other delicate products may be seared on only one side and then finished in the oven.

Grilling Fish
- The most important consideration in factor in

grilling fish is the texture of the product to be grilled. - Firm fleshed fish with an adequate oil content are best: Salmon Swordfish Tuna Sturgeon Mahi Mahi Redfish Shark Halibut Wahoo Grouper Catfish

Grilling Fish
- Fish filets or steaks are most commonly grilled - Smaller whole dressed fish may also be grilled Mackerel Sardines Sole Snapper Sea bass - Shellfish and crustaceans can also be grilled Lobster Shrimp Sea Scallops Abalone Octopus

Broiling Fish
Any fish regardless of texture can be broiled 1. Place fish filet on a buttered sizzle plate 2. Season and brush with butter 3. Cook under broiler until filet is flaky.

- Generally oilier fish hold up best in the dry heat of the broiling process.

Roasting

Roasting
- Dry heat method of cooking use tender cuts
- Method of heat transfer convection

Roasting
Two Methods: A. Searing method - Red meats are seared first to seal in the juices and give color by means of: 1. Browning in a small amount of fat on top of the stove 2. Starting the roast at a high temp. (450-500) in the oven then finished at lower temperature.

Advantage - meat is well caramelized - good appearance Disadvantage - higher shrinkage - less yield

Roasting
B. Low temperature or constant heat method - Meat is cooked at a moderate temperature throughout Advantage - Better yield - less shrinkage Disadvantage - Longer cooking time; caramelization may not be as pronounced

Roasting
Determining Doneness:
A. Touch - experience needed B. Time / Weight / Temperature C. Insert a metal skewer 1. Temperature of skewer (vs. body temperature) 2. Observing the color of juice that flows out D. Thermometer

Roasting
Carry-over Cooking - the cooking that occurs after a food has been removed from the heat source. It is accomplished by the residual heat remaining in the food. In roasting, the larger the piece of meat, the more heat energy it holds. Therefore the larger the piece of meat the more carry-over cooking will take place. Carry-over cooking can account for as much as 20F.

Roasting
Resting - after removing them from the oven, roasted meats should be allowed to rest 20 min. before carving to: 1. Finish carry-over cooking 2. Allow meat fibers to relax. Juice will flow back to outer tissue from the center of the roast. Meat carved too soon will lose its color, moisture and flavor; and will appear to be overcooked.

Roasting
Pan Gravies Principle - to dissolve drippings left in roasting pan (fond) to make a sauce A. Apply low heat to roasting pan to clarify fat. Meat drippings that are suspended in the fat will cling to the bottom of the pan. B. Fat is removed from the pan or degreased C. Deglaze roasting pan with stock to prepare: 1. Jus clair (natural juice, au jus) 2. Jus li - jus clair thickened with cornstarch or arrow root 3. Gravy - jus clair thickened with roux (degreased fat from the roast is sometimes used to make the roux)

Sauting
Saut (Fr. ) - to jump

Sauting Proteins
The key to sauting proteins is to sear the meat to create color and preserve moisture. Procedure:
Hot pan, small amount of fat (just enough to coat the bottom of the pan. White meats are dredged in flour, dark meats are not. Only use tender cuts of meat Cooked to order, not held

Sauting Proteins
Deglazing
Excess fat is removed from the pan Liquid is added to the pan The liquid washes the deglazed drippings (fonds) which are then used to make a sauce.

The #1 problem in sauting is moisture.

If moisture is allowed to accumulate, meat will boil and toughen. Remedies to avoid excess moisture:
Heat pan and fat before adding meat. Make sure meat is dry. Dont overload the pan. Once meat is added to a hot pan, do not stir or shake until heat is recovered. If sauce is made from the deglazing, the meat may be added back to the pan to mix it, but do not return it to a boil or the meat will toughen and lose moisture.

Stir-frying
Always high heat Use a wok or sauteuse Product is always cut in small pieces Used for either cooking or finishing

Stir-frying
Some products in the stir-fry may be pre-cooked partially or fully as the situation requires. Most of the concerns that apply to saut also apply to stir fry.

Pan-Frying
Larger or portion size pieces are used in pan frying (chops, steaks, filets etc.) Use enough fat to cover the product by half. Food does not jump.

Pan-Frying
Items are cooked for a longer time than sauted items, in some cases they are finished in the oven. Usually there are no drippings in the pan to make a sauce.

Fat Considerations when Sauting

The fat used in frying and sauting plays a large part in determining the quality of the finished product. Smoke point: The temperature at which a fat breaks down and begins to smoke. Smoke point is mainly determined by the amount of free fatty acids in the fat. As a rule, Animal fats are high in F.F.A. and vegetable fats are low in F.F.A.s.

Smoking Point of Fats Source: Escoffier-Le Guide Culinaire

Whole butter 250 F Clarified butter 270-280 F Animal fats 290 320F Lard 400F Goose Fat - 430F Coconut oil - 480F Vegetable oil 520F Olive oil - 550F

Meats
Term Appearance Temperature Blue-Center is red and cool Less than 140 (extra rare) Rare-Center is red and warm 140F Medium rare-Center is red-pink & hot 150F Medium-Center is pink & hot 155160 F Medium well-Center is slightly pink 165 F Well done- Center is brown 170

 When cooking red meats using dry heat cooking methods, they should never be poked or broken to check doneness. This will cause a considerable amount of color and moisture to be lost. With practice, touch is used to determine doneness of protein. The firmer the protein is to the touch, the more well done it is.

Determining Doneness for Red Meats

Moist Heat Methods of Cooking

Poaching Simmering Boiling/Blanching Steaming

Moist Heat Methods of Cooking

Used for a wide range of products (vegetables, meats, eggs, fish) Used to both tenderize tough pieces of meat and gently cook delicate fish and vegetables.

 to gently cook in a flavored liquid relatively low temperature applied to tender or delicate products: Eggs Fish Young Poultry

Poaching 160 - 185F (71 82C)

Poaching
Shallow poaching - small pieces of meat fish or poultry cooked in very little liquid. The poaching liquid is usually used to make a sauce for the finished product. Deep poaching - for large pieces, liquid to cover. A court bouillon is commonly used for deep poaching. Court Bouillon Water & Acid (to coagulate proteins) & Aromats

 Often mistakenly called boiling As water is a much better conductor of heat than air, moist heat cooking is generally applied to tougher cuts of meat. Moist heat is very effective in breaking down connective tissue Used for meats that require wet methods Broth is sometimes used for soups or sauces Examples: Pot au Feu or Chicken & Dumplings

Simmering 185 - 205F (85 96C)

Boiling / Blanching - 212F (100C)

Cooking quickly in rapidly boiling liquid for the purpose of: Par-cooking (vegetables) Removing impurities (offal meats and bones) Removing bitterness from vegetables (greens and cabbage)

Steaming above 212F (100 C)

The act of using steam, not water vapor, as a heat transfer agent. Three types: High pressure Low pressure No Pressure Adding pressure accelerates the cooking process

Steaming
Due to the fact that high heat toughens proteins, this method is rarely used with meats. Steam is best for: Shellfish Starches (rice and potatoes) Vegetables (except fresh green) Certain reheating operations

Steaming
High pressure usually 10 15# Good for cooking vegetables fast esp. frozen Good for fast cooking of meats that require wet methods Low pressure usually about 5# For every 1# of pressure you gain about 3F No Pressure steaming does not work well for green vegetables.

Combination Cooking Methods

Stewing
Braising

Marinades
Two types of marinades: A. Oil based - used for tender cuts and dry cooking methods. B. Acid based - used for tough cuts. Acid helps to break down collagen. Vacuum tumbling marinading - meat products and marinade ingredients are tumbled in a vacuum drum. Absence of air means greater penetration of the marinade and less time marinating.

Ideal Items to be Braised

Typically tough pieces of meat that require long, slow cooking. Collagen-rich meats contribute gelatin. Examples: shoulder, leg, breast, and shank cuts.

Larding
To insert strips of fat into a piece of meat with a special needle. These strips of fat, called lardons, are usually salt pork, slab bacon, pancetta or fat back. The lardons may be marinated before larding and are inserted with the grain of the meat.

Combination Cooking
Braising and some stewing of meats are considered combination cooking methods because they employ both dry and moist heat: 1. Dry heat to sear the meat (sealing in the juices) 2. The addition of liquid to continue the cooking process (simmering) and break down connective tissue.

Braising
Braising can be done with: large pieces (Pot Roast portion size pieces (Swiss Steak) small pieces (stews)

Procedure for Braising

Meat must be seared by browning it at high heat in a small amount of fat. After searing mirepoix is added and placed on the bottom of the pan meat is placed on top. Red meats - mirepoix is browned White meat - mirepoix is sweated

Procedure for Braising

Tomato product is added (red meats only) Usually meat is seared in the pan it is to be braised in, if not the pan should be deglazed. Liquid is added - stock, wine, marinade, beer, light sauce , or water. The amount of liquid added is in direct relation to the amount of sauce needed for the finished product. Recommended ratio is to cover the meat by 1/3 to 2/3.

Procedure for Braising

Herbs and spices are added. Pan is brought to a simmer. A lid is placed on it and it is placed in the oven. Meat should be turned or basted occasionally during the braising process to produce a nice glaze. Test for doneness: fork tender insert a meat fork, if it pulls off easily the meat is done.

Procedure for Braising

After the meat is done, a sauce can be made from the degreased cooking liquid (cuisson). - Served as is - Reduced to thicken and/or intensify flavor -Thickened with corn starch or with roux to make a sauce (jus li)

White Braising
Different from standard braising in that the items are either lightly colored (seared) or not colored at all. Done with some poultry items and occasionally with large pieces of fish.

Stewing
Stew - a liquid food containing meat, poultry, fish or vegetables; or any combination. Stewing is a moist cooking method carried out with smaller cuts of meat by: - Braising - Simmering

Stewing
Stews can be divided into two classifications
Brown stews (red meats) White stews (white meats) Blanquettes Fricassees

Stews
Ragout - a general term referring to white or brown stews. Fricassee - a white ragout usually made from white meat or small game, seared without browning and garnished with small onions and mushrooms. Chili (con carne) - a ragout of diced or ground meat, cooked with chilies, onions and spices. Served with beans in the stew or on the side.

Stews
Navarin - a brown ragout generally made with lamb, turnips, peas, onions and other root vegetables Blanquette - a white stew in which the meat is first blanched, then added to a stock or sauce to complete cooking. Blanquettes are finished with an egg and cream liaison. Goulash/paprikash - a Hungarian stew made with red meat, onions and paprika.

Principles of Vegetable Cookery

Why are vegetables cooked? 1. To break down cellular structure or make them more digestible 2. To make them more palatable

Cellulose
Microscopic fibrils of cellulose form the cell walls of plants and make plant tissue rigid. They are invulnerable to human digestive enzymes. The amount of cellulose in vegetables helps determine the cooking time and method. For example: spinach cooks much faster than carrots.

Chemistry of Cooking Vegetables

Colors change by cooking method and chemical reactions. Since most vegetables are cooked in water, the condition of the water or pH (Acidity / Alkalinity) is responsible for these changes. Alkali medium for cooking vegetables should be salted water. Stronger alkali such as baking soda break down the vegetables texture too quickly. Never use ammonia. Acid media include water with the addition of lemon juice, vinegar, wine, or milk

Chemistry of Cooking Vegetables

Covered or Uncovered ? Vegetables are naturally acidic and their acids are released during cooking. These volatile acids evaporate in the steam of the boiling water. Therefore, if an acid medium is required cook covered. If an alkali medium is required, cook uncovered.

Cooking Vegetables by Color

Green Vegetables
Green vegetables get their pigment from chlorophyll. Acid and heat will destroy chlorophyll rapidly, making it yellow or brown. They should be cooked in large amounts of salted water uncovered, as quickly as possible .

Cooking Vegetables by Color

White Vegetables
White vegetables get their pigment from flavones that are water soluble. When cooked in highly alkaline water they turn yellow. To prevent this add acid and cook covered.

Cooking Vegetables by Color

Red Vegetables
Red vegetables owe their pigment to anthocyanins. Red color is enhanced with the addition of an acid. If cooked in a highly alkali medium they can turn blue!

Cooking Vegetables by Color

Orange / Yellow Vegetables
Orange / Yellow vegetables get their color from carotenes. The condition of the water has little effect on these pigments which are not water soluble, but can be released by sweating or sauteeing.

Procedure for Blanching Vegetables

1. Wash, peel, trim and cut the vegetables into uniform shapes and sizes. 2. Bring an adequate amount of liquid to a boil. The liquid should cover the vegetables and they should be able to move freely. 3. Add vegetables to the boiling liquid. Vegetables with different cooking times or colors should be cooked separately.

Procedure for Blanching Vegetables

4. Cook vegetables to desired doneness. 5. Drain vegetables from boiling water. 6. Refresh or shock vegetables in ice water to stop the cooking process. Drain and reserve until needed.

Finishing Vegetables
Blanched vegetables may be finished (note:not all vegetables need be blanched): Sauted in butter In a sauce Au gratin Mashed or pureed Served cold Deep fried

Other Methods of Cooking Vegetables

Braising Glazing Steaming Stewing Sauting / Stir-frying Pan Frying / Deep Frying Baking / Roasting Grilling / Broiling

Determining Doneness
Avoid over cooking vegetables. The term al dente or firm to the bite is often used to describe proper doneness. Generally vegetables are done when they are tender when pierced with a fork or the tip of a paring knife. Properly cooked vegetables are not crunchy.

Preserving Nutrients in Vegetables

1. Use vegetables that are as fresh as possible. 2. Store in a cool place with minimum exposure to light. 3. Wash vegetables whole, before cutting, as near to cooking time as possible.

Preserving Nutrients in Vegetables

4. Peel and cut as near to cooking time as possible. Some nutrients are destroyed by oxygen and light. 5. Cook as quickly as possible. 6. Drain vegetables when cooked. Avoid storing them in liquid. Water soluble B and C vitamins are especially vulnerable. 7. Serve as soon as possible

Starches and Grains

Potatoes
Origins
Potatoes are native to the Andes Mountains of Peru. They were first brought to Spain in the early 1500s. Its use spread throughout Europe, but wasnt a common food source in Europe until the 1700s.

Potatoes
Origins
Antoine Parmentier (1737-1817) wrote numerous works proving the potato was a safe and nutritious food source to the French who scorned it before his time. Therefore, the classic name for an item garnished with potatoes is Parmentier.

Potatoes
Composition
80% Water 18% Starch & Sugar (Carbohydrates) 2 % Protein

Potatoes
Categories
Mealy (starchy ) - high starch content and thick skin. Best for baking and often referred to as bakers. Low sugar content makes them good for deep frying, giving a crisp texture and even color. Waxy - low starch content, usually with more sugar and a thin skin. Best for boiling. They do not become fluffy when baked, and tend to become streaky (caramelized sugar ) when deep fried.

Potatoes
Categories
Mealy Russet Idaho White rose Burbank Waxy Cobbler Red Maine Yellow Fin

Potatoes
Cooking Methods
Boiling in the skin - jacket potatoes peeled in stock or bouillon - pommes fondant Pureed boiled first, drain completely, puree while still hot Mashed or whipped - addition of milk, cream or butter Duchess (doo SHEHS) - add yolks and pipe

Potatoes
Cooking Methods
Deep fried From a pureed appariel (ah pahr AY) Croquette (kroh KEHT)-shaped, breaded , deep-fried Dauphine (doe FEEN)-appariel with pate au choux Lorette (lohr EHT)- dauphine with grated cheese) From raw Pommes frits (pohm FREET) - French fries Pont neuf (pohnt NOOF) - Steak fries Pomme paille (pohm PIE) - Shoe string Cottage fries -rondelle cut

Potatoes
Cooking Methods
Pan - fried Hash browns cooked or raw, chopped or shredded Home fried -par-cooked rondelles Lyonnaise -home fried with onions Potato pancakes (shredded raw) Rissol } --- tourned, various sizes Parisienne } Chteau }
Cocotte

Rice
Categories
Categorized by seed size long grain medium grain short grain

Rice
Categories
Categorized by seed size long grain
6 mm. long

Categorized by processing Brown rice

Bran intact

White rice
endosperm pearled or polished

Converted rice par-boiled to remove surface

starch (most popular in foodservice)

medium grain
5-6 mm. long

Instant
fully cooked and freeze dried

short grain
2.5 mm. long

Rice
Varieties
Arborio - medium grain starchy rice for risotto Basmati - rich flavorful long grain rice used in East Indian Cuisine Pecan rice - nutty flavored rice from South Louisiana Wild rice - Actually an aquatic grass originally harvest by Native Americans in Minnesota and Wisconsin

Grains
Corn
Cornmeal, hominy, grits, masa harina

Wheat
Wheat berries, bulgar, semolina, cous cous

Barley Buckwheat / Kasha / Groats Oats Exotic Grains

Quinoa Millet Amaranth Kamut

Cooking Rice & Grains

I. SIMMERING METHOD (3 parts liquid to 1 part rice by volume) 1. Bring liquid to a boil. 2. Stir in grains and seasoning. 3. Return to a boil. reduce to a simmer and cover. 4. Simmer until grains are tender and liquid is absorbed. 5. Remove from heat 6. Drain if necessary. Keep covered and allow excess liquid to absorb. Fluff.

Cooking Rice & Grains

II. PILAF METHOD (2 parts liquid to 1 part rice by volume) 1. Heat fat in sauce pan, sweat aromats (onion, garlic, mirepoix etc.) 2. Add rice and stir to coat grains with fat. 3. Add liquid (usually seasoned stock). 4. Bring to a simmer. 5. Cover and place in oven (350 for 20 30 min.). 6. When liquid is absorbed and grains are tender, uncover and fluff.

Cooking Rice & Grains

III. RISOTTO METHOD ( 3 parts liquid [or more] to 1 part rice by volume) 1. Bring cooking liquid to a simmer. 2. Heat fat in sauce pan, sweat aromats (onion, garlic, other ingredients). 3. Add rice and stir to coat grains with fat. 4. Add a small amount of hot liquid , stirring continually until absorbed. 5. Repeat step 4 until all liquid is absorbed and grains are tender. 6. Finish with whole butter and parmesan cheese.

Cooking Pasta
PROPER RATIO 1 gal. rapidly boiling water to 1 # pasta DRY PASTA Requires a longer cooking time as cooking is also rehydration. 1# dried pasta = 2-3# cooked 2 oz. dry pasta is an average entree portion FRESH PASTA Delicate, requires a very short cooking time no re-hydration required

Cooking Pasta
1. Bring salted water to a boil (1 gallon per 1# pasta) 2. Add pasta and stir to separate pieces 3. Cook pasta uncovered at a rolling boil until al dente 4. Drain pasta immediately and serve at once or shock in ice water to stop the cooking. 5. To hold cooked pasta, toss with oil.