Session-4

Mathematical Modeling & Simulation of ABS

Lecture delivered by:

SitaramGupta

Session Objectives
To understand the importance of ABS Mathematical Modeling and simulation of ABS system using simulink The objectives of antilock systems are threefold: 1. To reduce stopping distances 2. To improve stability 3. To improve steerability during braking

Session Topics
ABS Importance Mathematical Modeling Simulation of ABS system using simulink

Introduction
Anti-lock brake systems (ABS) prevent brakes from locking during braking. Under normal braking conditions the driver controls the brakes. However, during severe braking or on slippery roadways, when the driver causes the wheels to approach lockup, the antilock system takes over. ABS modulates the brake line pressure independent of the pedal force, to bring the wheel speed back to the slip level range that is necessary for optimal braking performance.
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Introduction
An antilock system consists of wheel speed sensors, a hydraulic modulator, and an electronic control unit. The ABS has a feedback control system that modulates the brake pressure in response to wheel deceleration and wheel angular velocity to prevent the controlled wheel from locking. The system shuts down when the vehicle speed is below a pre-set threshold.

Stopping Distance
The distance to stop is a function of the mass of the vehicle, the initial velocity, and the braking force. By maximizing the braking force the stopping distance will be minimized if all other factors remain constant. However, on all types of surfaces, to a greater or lesser extent, there exists a peak in fiction coefficient. It follows that by keeping all of the wheels of a vehicle near the peak, an antilock system can attain maximum fictional force and, therefore, minimum stopping distance. This objective of antilock systems however, is tempered by the need for vehicle stability and steerability.
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Stability
Although decelerating and stopping vehicles constitutes a fundamental purpose of braking systems, maximum friction force may not be desirable in all cases For example not if the vehicle is on a so-called p-split surface (asphalt and ice, for example), such that significantly more braking force is obtainable on one side of the vehicle than on the other side.

Stability
Applying maximum braking force on both sides will result in a yaw moment that will tend to pull the vehicle to the high friction side and contribute to vehicle instability, and forces the operator to make excessive steering corrections to counteract the yaw moment. If an antilock system can maintain the slip of both rear wheels at the level where the lower of the two friction coefficients peaks, then lateral force is reasonably high, though not maximized. This contributes to stability and is an objective of antilock systems.
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Steerability
Good peak frictional force control is necessary in order to achieve satisfactory lateral forces and, therefore, satisfactory steerability. Steerability while braking is important not only for minor course corrections but also for the possibility of steering around an obstacle. Tire characteristics play an important role in the braking and steering response of a vehicle. For ABS-equipped vehicles the tire performance is of critical significance.
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Steerability
All braking and steering forces must be generated within the small tire contact patch between the vehicle and the road. Tire traction forces as well as side forces can only be produced when a difference exists between the speed of the tire circumference and the speed of the vehicle relative to the road surface. This difference is denoted as slip. It is common to relate the tire braking force to the tire braking slip.

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Steerability
After the peak value has been reached, increased tire slip causes reduction of tire-road friction coefficient. ABS has to limit the slip to values below the peak value to prevent wheel from locking. Tires with a high peak friction point achieve maximum friction at 10 to 20% slip. The optimum slip value decreases as tire-road friction decreases. The ABS system consists of the following major subsystems
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Wheel-Speed Sensors
Electro-magnetic or Hall-effect pulse pickups with toothed wheels mounted directly on the rotating components of the drive train or wheel hubs. As the wheel turns the toothed wheel (pulse ring) generates an AC voltage at the wheel-speed sensor. The voltage frequency is directly proportional to the wheel's rotational speed.

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Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

The electronic control unit receives, amplifies and filters the sensor signals for calculating the wheel rotational speed and acceleration. This unit also uses the speeds of two diagonally opposed wheels to calculate an estimate for the speed of the vehicle. The slip at each wheel is derived by comparing this reference speed with the speeds of the individual wheels. The "wheel acceleration" and "wheel slip" signals serve to alert the ECU to any locking tendency.
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Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

The microcomputers respond to such an alert by sending a signal to trigger the pressure control valve solenoids of the pressure modulator to modulate the brake pressure in the individual wheel-brake cylinders. The ECU also incorporates a number of features for error recognition for the entire ABS system (wheelspeed sensors, the ECU itself, pressure-control valves, wiring harness). The ECU reacts to a recognized defect or error by switching off the malfunctioning part of the system or shutting down the entire ABS.
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Hydraulic Pressure Modulator

The hydraulic pressure modulator is an electrohydraulic device for reducing, holding, and restoring the pressure of the wheel brakes by manipulating the solenoid valves in the hydraulic brake system. It forms the hydraulic link between the brake master cylinder wheel-brake cylinders. The hydraulic modulator is mounted in the engine compartment to minimize the length of the lines to the brake master cylinder and the wheel-brake cylinders.
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Hydraulic Pressure Modulator

Depending on the design, this device may include a pump, motor assembly, accumulator and reservoir. Fig. 1 shows relationship between modulator, dynamics and controller. Following brakes are generally used in automobiles. In disk brake, a force is applied to both sides of a rotor and braking action is achieved through the frictional action of inboard and outboard brake pads against the rotor.
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Hydraulic Pressure Modulator

In drum brakes, a force is applied to a pair of brake shoes. A variety of configurations exists, including 1eading, trailing shoe (simplex), duo-duplex, and duo-servo. Drum brakes feature high gains compared to disk brakes, but some configurations tend to be more nonlinear and sensitive to fading.

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Hydraulic Pressure Modulator

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Mathematical Modeling
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Basically, a complete vehicle model that includes all relevant characteristics of the vehicle is too complicated for use in the control system design. Therefore, for simplification a model capturing the essential features of the vehicle system has to be employed for the controller design. The design considered here belongs to a quarter vehicle model as shown in Fig. 2 This model has been already used to design the controller for ABS.
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Vehicle Dynamics

Fig 2. Quarter Vehicle Model

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Vehicle Dynamics
The longitudinal velocity of the vehicle and the rotational speed of the wheel constitute the degrees of freedom for this model. The governing two equations for the motions of the vehicle model are as follows: For braking force balance in longitudinal direction (vehicle)

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Mathematical Model

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Mathematical Model

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Mathematical Model

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Mathematical Model
By controlling the braking torque u in the simulation tests to evaluate the performance of ABS, using different control strategies.

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Problem Formulation
The relation of the frictional coefficient versus wheel slip ratio provides the explanation of the ability of the ABS to maintain vehicle steerability and stability, and still produce shorter stopping distances than those of locked wheel stop. The friction coefficient can vary in a very wide range, depending on factors like: (a) Road surface conditions (dry or wet) (b) Tire side-slip angle (c) Tire brand (summer tire, winter tire) (d) Vehicle speed, (e) The slip ratio between the tire and the road.
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Problem Formulation
Friction model used here. It gives value of coefficient of friction as a function of linear velocity and slip ratio.

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Problem Formulation

C1= 1.2801, C2 = 23.99, C3=0.52, C4= .03 (assumed)

The effective coefficient of friction between the tire and the road has an optimum value at particular value of wheel slip ratio.

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Problem Formulation
This value differs according to the road type. From Fig 2. it is clear that, for almost all road surfaces the frictional coefficient value is optimum when the wheel slip ratio is approximately 0.2 and worst when the wheel slip ratio is 1 in other words when wheel is locked. So, objective of ABS controller is to regulate the wheel slip ratio (lambda ) to target value of 0.2 to maximize the frictional coefficient () for any given road surface.
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Problem Formulation

Fig 2. Frictional Coefficient of Road Surface v/s Wheel Slip Ratio

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Control system
A feedback control system is a closed loop control system in which a sensor monitors the output (slip ratio) and feeds data to the controller which adjusts the control (brake pressure modulator) as necessary to maintain the desired system output (match the wheel slip ratio to the reference value of slip ratio). Fig.3 shows the block diagram of feedback control system

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Control system

Fig 3 Block Diagram of Feedback Control System

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Control system
This feedback controller can be any one of 1) Proportional Control 2) Proportional Derivative Control 3) Proportional Integral Control 4) Proportional Integral Derivative Control Proportional Feedback Control (P-type) A proportional controller attempts to control the output by applying input to the system which is in proportion to measured error (e) between the output and the set-point. Here control torque is
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Control system

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Proportional Derivative Feedback Control (PD-type)

This controller feeds both the error with constant gain (Kp) and the differentiation of error with constant gain (Kd) to the system in order to maintain the output of system at the set point.

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Proportional Integral Feedback Control(PI-type) Here input to the system is the error with constant gain (Kp) plus the integral of error with constant gain (Ki) to control the system output.

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Proportional Integral Derivative Feedback Control

In PID controller system input is the addition of error with constant gain (Kp) Integral of error with constant gain (Ki) Differential of error with constant gain (Kd)

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Proportional Integral Derivative Feedback Control

To design ABS with control systems mentioned above the values of Kp, Ki and Kd of the controller can be determined by 1) Trial and error, 2) Manual tuning, and 3) Simulation. Appropriate values of Kp, Ki and Kd are calculated using trial and error method by observing trend of graph of slip ratio versus time obtained using Simulink software tool.
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Simulink Models
Simulink model of quarter vehicle In order to model the ABS with different controllers system incorporating the dynamic equations is modelled in Simulink environment. Fig 4. shows the block diagram of the Simulink model representing vehicle dynamics during straight line braking.

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Simulink Models

Fig 4. Block Diagram Representing Dynamics of Equations

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Simulink Models
To model this system in Simulink, several subgroups are used to avoid confusion. Slip ratio calculation given in Eq. (9) can be formed as a subgroup shown in fig 5.

Fig 5. Subgroup of Slip Ratio Calculation

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Simulink Models
Similarly friction coefficient () calculation can be formed in one subgroup

Fig 6. Subgroup of Calculation

Combining sub groups and modelling remaining equations into Simulink model, we get complete Simulink model of quarter vehicle during straight line braking without feedback control as shown in Fig 7.
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Simulink Models

Fig 7. Vehicle Model Without Feedback Control

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Simulink model of ABS using proportional feedback control Simulink model shown in Fig 7. is modified to use it as a system subgroup in modelling of feedback control system. Fig 8. shows the modified version in which a SUM box is added between input terminal (which is control torque u) and brake torque Tb. So the total torque input T to wheel is T = u + Tb (15) This subgroup formed is shown in Fig 9.
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Simulink Models

Fig 8. Modified Vehicle Model Without Feedback Control

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Simulink Models

Fig 9. Subgroup of System

Newly formed subgroup shown in Fig 8. is integrated with proportional feedback control with proportional gain Kp as shown in Fig. 10
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Simulink Models

Fig .10 P-type Feedback control

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Simulink model of ABS using proportional deferential feedback control

In this case system is fed with proportional deferential feedback control. Where Kp is proportional gain and Kd is differential gain. This system is shown in Fig.11
Fig.11 PD-type Feedback control

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Simulink model of ABS using proportional integral feedback control System is fed with proportional integral feedback control where Kp is proportional gain and Ki is integral gain. This system is shown in Fig.12

Fig .12 PI-type Feedback control

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Simulink model of ABS using proportional integral deferential feedback control

By combination of above systems we get PID- type control system where Kp is proportional gain Kd is differential gain and Ki is integral gain are used. This system is shown in Fig.13
Fig.13 PID-type Feedback control

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Results & Discussion

This chapter describes the controlled slip response outputs using linear control models. INPUT PARAMETERS USED To simulate the performance of different vehicle parameters with and without any feedback control system under straight line braking following input parameters are considered [5]. R=0.33 m, m =342 kg, Jw =1.13 kgm squre,
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Results & Discussion

g =9.81 m/s2, Max braking torque = 1200Nm Initial linear velocity = 27.78m/s = 100 km/h Initial rotational speed= = 84.18 rad/s d = 0.2 Kp = 250 Kd = 5 Ki = 10

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 STRAIGHT LINE BRAKING OF VEHICLE WITHOUT FEEDBACK Fig 3.1 and 3.2 shows the behavior of vehicle parameters during straight line braking without any controller. Fig 3.1 a, b and Fig 3.2 a, b are plot of vehicle angular velocity, stopping distance, vehicle linear velocity and slip ratio respectively versus time.

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Straight line Braking vehicle without feedback

Fig 3.1: a) wheel angular speed v/s time; b) stopping distance v/s time

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Straight line Braking vehicle without feedback

Fig 3.2: a)vehicle linear velocity v/s time; b) slip ratio v/s time

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Straight line Braking vehicle without feedback

It is seen that slip ratio has been varying from 0 to 1 from application of brakes to the wheel stopping instant. Even the wheel speed is zero at .42 seconds, the stopping distance of 45 m occurs at 3.6 seconds. This indicates that wheel has been locked before vehicle comes to halt. That means during braking steerability is lost at .42 seconds due to locking of wheel
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Proportional Control
When feedback control is incorporated in the system to maintain constant slip ratio value, simple linear model called P- control with a constant gain Kp comes first. Fig 3.3 and Fig 3.4 shows plot of slip ratio versus time and stopping distance versus time respectively.

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Proportional Control

Fig 3.3: slip ratio v/s time (Kp = 250)

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Fig 3.4: stopping distance v/s time Compare to 45 m stopping distance and increasing slip ratio in open loop case, P controller supplies a control force and maintain slip ratio with 0.01 steady state error and the stopping distance reduced to 33 m.

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PROPORTIONAL DERIVATIVE CONTROL For PD type feedback control, plots of slip ratio versus time and stopping distance versus time are obtained. These plots are shown in Fig 3.5 a and b.

Fig 3.5: a) slip ratio v/s time; b) stopping distance v/s time As seen it is similar to P type controller. In this case stopping time is 2.4 seconds and stopping distance is 32 m. Stopping time and stopping distance are decreased slightly.

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Proportional Integral control

In this case also the plots of slip ratio versus time and stopping distance versus time are obtained. These plots are shown in Fig 3.6 a and b

Fig 3.6: a) slip ratio v/s time; b) stopping distance v/s time There is no much variation. This time stopping distance found to be 33 m and stopping time found to be 2.5 seconds.

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Proportional Integral Derivative control

Similarly in case of PID type feedback control plots of slip ratio versus time and stopping distance versus time are obtained.

Fig 3.7: a) slip ratio v/s time; b) stopping distance v/s time .

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Table 1 Braking Performance Results Here the stopping time and stopping distance are slightly
reduced. Stopping time is 2.3 seconds and stopping distance is 31 m. Overall Comparisons are tabulated in Table 3.1

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Discussion
From Table 3.1, it is clear that ABS improves braking performance of vehicle. Comparing slip ratio v/s time graphs of different control schemes suggests that a proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce but never eliminate the steady-state error. An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make the transient response worse.

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Table 2 General Effects

A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response. Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd, and Ki on a closedloop system are summarized in the table shown below.

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Future scope
In this work system is nonlinear model and controller is a linear type hence the effectiveness of the controller may not be good. In this line, as a future scope of the work well known linear controllers like neural networks, neuro-fuzzy, and fuzzy PID systems may be employed. Also, real time implementation of the control logic is needed with a on board micro-controller mounted over a small scaled model of the vehicle.

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Summary
In this Seesion an attempt is made to understand the application of various type of linear controller used for antilock braking systems. The system was modeled with a quarter vehicle dynamics and differential equation of motion was formulated. The slip ratio is used control as a criterion for this control work. Friction force and normal reaction are function of slip ratio and in turn entire equations were nonlinear.
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Summary
The second order differential equations were written as three state space equations (1st order equations) and solutions are obtained by time integration method and are directly achieved with MATLAB Simulink block diagrams. The time histories of the wheel, stopping distance of the vehicle, and slip factor variation are obtained for benchmark problem available in literature. Various central strategies like P-type, PD-type, PItype, and PID-type have been implemented to augment the constant braking torque so as to control the slip ratio. 68