Mirrors

In contrast to lenses and refracting surfaces, mirrors are reflecting optical devices.
They have the advantage of working in a much broader frequency range, since they
in general do not suffer any dispersion.
Planar mirrors (Fig. 5.40):

i.e. the object and its image are equidistant from the mirror surface. In fact, by
setting f = , and S
i
negative on the right of the mirror, the mirror formula is
identical to the Gaussian Lens formula. The transverse magnification is:

Therefore, the image formed by a plane mirror is life-sized, virtual and up-right.
The mirror image is inverted, i.e., left hand is imaged as right hand.
Plane mirrors are frequently used to redirect a beam of light.
i
S to identical is = A A
o
S VPA VAS
1 = =
o
i
o
i
T
S
S
Y
Y
M
Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirrors (Fig. 5.50):
According to the law of reflection, u
i
= u
r

In ASCA, using Law of Sines, we have:
In ACAP, we have:

Therefore,
( )
i
SC
SCA
SA
u sin sin
=
Z
( )
r
CP
PCA
PA
u sin sin
=
Z
( ) ( ) SCA PCA SCA PCA
o
Z = Z = Z + Z sin sin 180
PA
CP
SA
SC
=
(47)
Furthermore, SC = S
o
-|R| and CP = |R| - S
i
Considering |R| = -R (C on the left of vertex)
Thus, SC = S
o
+ R, CP = (S
i
+ R)
In the paraxial region, SA S
o
, PA S
i
, and Eq. (47) becomes:
Spherical Mirrors
Eq. (48) is equally applicable to concave ( R < 0) and convex (R > 0) mirrors.
We can find that object and image focal length are equal:

Eq. (48) can be simplified as:
(48) Mirror formula
R S S S
R S
S
R S
i o i
i
o
o
2 1 1
or = +
+
=
+
2
R
f f
o i
= =
f S S
i o
1 1 1
= + (50)
For a concave mirror f > 0 (R<0) and for a convex mirror f < 0 (R>0), as shown in Fig.
5.51. For a convex mirror, the formed image is behind the mirror, reduced and virtual.
Fig 5.51
Spherical Mirrors
Summary of imaging properties:
(1) any parallel off-axis bundle of rays will be focused to a point on the focal plane
(2) a finite planar object perpendicular to the optical axis will be imaged in a plane
perpendicular to the optical axis
(3) the transverse magnification is: M
T
= - S
i
/S
o

(4) the sign convention is summarized in Table 5.4, please note that S
i
is taken
positive when it is on the left of V (rather than right, as it is for lenses)
(5) Table 5.5 summarizes the image properties for both concave and convex
spherical mirrors. DRAW THE RAY DIAGRAM FOR EACH CASE!!
(6) the ray diagram for both concave and convex mirrors are shown in Fig. 5.53
Fig 5.53
Aspherical Mirrors
Paraboloidal mirror (Fig. 5.45): formed by rotating a parabola along its axis.
E.g.: y
2
= 2px, focal point: F(p/2, 0) A concave paraboloidal mirror can focus a
bundle of // rays in its focal point F, even under non-paraxial conditions.
Conversely, a point source on the focal point will generate an emission of
parallel rays (plane waves).
y
x
F
Paraboloidal mirror are used in variety of applications, such as flash lights, automobile
headlight reflectors and giant radio telescope antennas.
Aspherical Mirrors
Fig 5.47
Ellipsoid mirror (Fig. 5.47): formed by rotating an ellipse along its axis:

with focal points F(c, 0),

Its two foci are perfect conjugate points, i.e., any ray that goes through one focal
point has to go through the other focal point after reflection. Therefore, a point
source at one focal point will form a perfect image at the other focal point.
1
2
2
2
2
= +
b
y
a
x
2 2
b a c =
y
x
F
1
F
2
Magnetic imaging
Optical Systems
Camera (Fig. 5.102): a single lens reflex (SLR) camera is composed of a lens,
used to form an image on the film, an iris diaphragm, to control the amount of
light reaching the film and quality of image and a shutter, to control the
exposure time.
Iris diaphragm: (1) controls the amount of light reaching the film (small f/#, more
light) (2) controls the depth of field (DOF).
DOF: a range of object distance centered at the object plane, which still gives clear
and sharp image at the film plane. The smaller the aperture, the larger the
depth of field, since the image blurring induced by non-paraxial rays is reduced
for smaller aperture.

o
o
i T
o
L
dx
x
f
dx M
x
f
M
2
2
2
2
2
= = =
(1) For a given f (or zoom), the smaller the x
o
, the smaller the dx
o
(at fixed dx
i
).
Therefore, smaller x
o
, smaller the DOF, the bigger the x
o
, the bigger the DOF
(2) Similarly, for given x
o
, the bigger the f, the smaller the DOF
Here, dx
o
is the DOF and
dx
i
reflects the quality of
the cameras sensor.
Human eye
Human eye (Fig. 5.80): the principle of human eye is very similar to that of a camera,
can be viewed as a positive lens + light-sensitive surface.
Cornea has an index of refraction of 1.376; aqueous humor: n=1.336; iris (2 8 mm ID);
crystalline lens (~22, 000 fibrous layers, at center n = 1.406 and at the edge n =
1.386, focal length can be changed by shape change), vitreous humor chamber (n =
1.337) with black inner shell choroid (dark layer to absorb the strayed light), on top
of it covered with retina (light receptor cells)
Two kinds of photoreceptor cells: rods and cones.
Cones: work in bright light, detailed and colored view, lack of sensitivity in low light level
Rods: work well in dark condition, has higher sensitivity, fast response time, no color sense
Blind spot: the area of exit of the optic nerve, containing no receptors
Yellow spot (macula): 2.5-3.0 mm in diameter contains twice as many cones than rods, at
the center it shows the fovea centralis (more densely packed cones) for the sharpest
and most detailed image.
Check this out: http://photography.bhinsights.com/content/photographic-eye.html
Eyeglasses
Normal eyes : The fine focusing of the human eye is performed by adjusting the
crystalline lens with the cilliary muscles (a muscle disc supporting the lens). Thus, by
changing the focal length of the lens, the image distance is kept constant. For normal
eyes, the far point is at infinity and the near point, the nearest point that the eye can
focus on, is about 25 cm or 10 inches.
Myopia (Nearsightedness) (Fig. 5.83): the power of the lens is too large for the axial
length of the eye: the parallel rays are brought to focus in front of the retina.
Therefore, the far point is closer than infinity, and all the points beyond the far point
appear blurred. To correct this condition, a negative lens is introduced to diverge a bit
the rays, as shown in Fig. 5.83.
Hyperopia (Farsightedness) (Fig. 5.85): the second focal point of a relaxed eye lies
behind the retina, usually due to the shortening of the axial length of the eye. As a
result, its near point moves further away from the eyes: one cannot see the nearby
objects clearly. In this case, a positive corrective lens is introduced to help imaging
the nearby objects on the retina.
Eyeglasses
Dioptric power D : reciprocal of the focal length, 1D = 1m
-1
Usage example: for thin lenses in contact, we have D = D
1
+ D
2
Astigmatism: the focusing power of an eye is not the same along different directions,
due to an uneven curvature of the cornea. Needs cylindrical lens for correction.
Example (Fig. 5.84): Suppose an eye that suffers myopia has a far point of 2 m, what
is the focal length for a correcting contact lens?
If the virtual image of an object located at infinity is formed at 2 m by a negative lens, the
eye will see the object clearly. We have:
f
D
1
=
distance point far the m 2 i.e.
2
1 1 1 1 1
=

= + = f
S S f
i o
The above equation is for a contact lens with focal length f
c
.
Repeat the problem for eyeglasses placed 16mm in front of the eye
Eyeglasses
Contact and spectacle lens : usually the eye glasses (with focal length f
l
) are
positioned at the first focal point of the cornea (d ~16 mm in front of the eye), to
avoid extra magnification of the image over the one formed by the unaided eye.
We will derive the relation between f
l
and f
c
.
The b.f.l. of the eye (f
e
) plus spectacle: (72)
( )
( )
l e
l e
f f d
f d f
l f b
+

= . . .
The combined focal length for eye plus contact lens: (73)
e c
f f f
1 1 1
+ =
Set the inverse of b.f.l. equal to 1/f above and we have:
d f f
l c

=

1 1
d D
D
D
l
l
c

=
1
or (74)
Magnifying Glass
Magnifying glass (Fig. 5.91) : to provide an enlarged image, by increasing the angular
view of a nearby object.
Magnifying power: (75)
In the paraxial ray region,
Considering S
i
= -( L - l ) , we have: (76)
u
a
MP
o
o
=
u
o
o
u a
i
a
d
Y
L
Y
o o o o ~ = ~ = tan and tan
Therefore,
L
d
f
S
L S
d S
LY
d Y
MP
o i
o
o i
o
o i
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = = 1
( ) | | l L D
L
d
MP
o
+ = 1
Case (1): set l = f, we have
Case (2): set l = 0, we have
f
d
D d MP
o
o
= =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = D
L
d MP
o
1
setting L = d
o
(smallest value of L), we have the largest MP: MP=d
o
D+1
Eyepieces
Case (3): set S
o
= f, so the virtual image is at infinity (L = ). We have:
(79)
This mode is the most pleasing to the eye and is widely used in eyepieces.
f
d
D d MP
o
o
= =
Eyepieces (ocular) (Fig. 5.93, 94, 95) : it is basically a magnifier which is used to
view the image of the object formed by a preceding lens system. It provides a virtual
image of the intermediate image, most often located at infinity, so it can be
comfortably viewed by a normal, relaxed eye.
Its magnifying power:

The design of an eyepiece is very complex in order to reduce a variety of aberrations and
maintain superior image quality. A few commonly used eyepieces are shown in Fig.
5.93, 5.94, 5.95.
f
d
D d MP
o
o
= =
Compound Microscope
Compound microscope (Fig. 5.99) : It is made of an objective (lens) and an eyepiece.
The objective is first forming a real, inverted, magnified image right in the field stop.
Then, the eyepiece magnifies further the intermediate image.
The magnifying power: MP = M
To
M
Ae
M
To
: transverse magnification of the objective, M
To
=- x
i
/ f
o
. The x
i
is set as 160 mm, called
tube length L = x
i
= 160 mm.
M
Ae
: the angular magnification of the eyepiece. M
Ae
= 254/ f
e
, 254 mm = 10 in. is a
standard near point distance for a normal eye.
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e o
f f
MP
254 160
Therefore, (81), with both focal lengths in mm.
Numerical aperture (NA) : defined as: NA = n
i
sin u
MAX
(82)
Where n
i
is the refractive index of the immersing medium (air, water, oil, etc.) adjacent to
the objective lens, and u
MAX
is the half angle of the maximum cone of light picked up
by the entrance pupil (objective), i.e. half angle subtended from the objective lens to
the object.
Telescope
Numerical aperture (NA) : it determines (1) the brightness of the image (2) more
importantly, the resolving power of a microscope, i.e., the minimum transverse
distance between two object points that can be resolved in the image.
Telescope (Fig. 5.106, 5.107): enlarge the retinal image of a distant object.
Similar to the microscope, the objective first forms an inverted real image, which
is further magnified by the eyepiece. Since the object is in effect at infinity, its
image is formed at the second focus of the objective. Usually, the eyepiece is
located with its first focal point overlapping on the second focal point of the
objective. The telescope in this configuration forms an afocal system, i.e. a system
without a focal point, since a parallel beam in results in a parallel beam out.
The angular magnification:
e
o
u
a
f
f
MP = ~
o
o
tan
tan
(83)
The image formed by the telescope is an inverted, virtual image. When the image
orientation is important, an additional system is added, such as the double Porro
prism in the binoculars.
Thick Lenses
Two approximations (basis for the first approximation):
(1) Thin lens: d << R
1
, R
2
(2) Paraxial ray condition:
sin = = tan
However, for real precision optical systems, neither of these assumptions can be
maintained. We will study the thick lens and aberrations in the following discussion.
Thick lens: thin lens condition is not satisfied, d 0.
Principal planes (Fig. 6.1): The extensions of incoming rays from the first focal point
and the outgoing parallel rays will intersect, forming a curved surface. This surface
can be approximated as a plane, in the paraxial ray approximation. This plane is
called the first (primary) principal plane. Similarly, we can define the secondary
principal plane. The points where the primary and secondary principal planes
intersect the optical axis are known as first and second principal points: H
1
and
H
2
. They are the reference points for the systems parameters.
Thick Lenses
Nodal points : The ray going through the optical
center O will emerge parallel to the incident
direction. The extension of both the incoming
and the outgoing rays will cross the optical
axis in two points, the nodal points (N
1
and
N
2
). When the lens has the same medium on
both its sides, these two point coincide with
the H
1
and H
2
points.
Two focal points, two principal points and two
nodal points constitute the cardinal points of
the system. If we know the position of these
points, than the image position, size and
orientation can be uniquely determined.
N
2
O
N
1
f S S
i o
1 1 1
= + Gaussian formula still holds for a thick lens: (6.1)
The effective focal length is given by (math, next class):
(6.2) ( )
( )
(

+ =
2 1 2 1
1 1 1
1
1
R R n
d n
R R
n
f
l
l l
l
Thick Lenses
Principal plane position : the position of the principal planes is given by V
1
H
1
= h
1

and V
2
H
2
= h
2
which are positive when the plane lies to the right of their respective
vertices.
Newtonian lens formula and transverse magnification also hold:
( )
2
1
1
R n
d n f
h
l
l l

=
( )
1
2
1
R n
d n f
h
l
l l

=
(6.4)
(6.3)
2
f x x
i o
=
o
i
o
i
T
x
f
f
x
Y
Y
M = = =
(6.5) (6.6)
Properties of principal planes: (1) they are conjugate planes (2) M
T
= 1, so they
are also called unit planes. (3) any ray directed towards a point on the first
principal plane will emerge from the lens as if it is originated from the
corresponding point (the same height) on the second principal plane.
Thin Lens vs. Thick Lens
Thin lens :
Reference point: optical center
d
l
0

d
l
0

Thick lens :
Reference points: H
1
& H
2

o
i
o
i
o
i
T
x
f
f
x
S
S
Y
Y
M = = = =
2
f x x
i o
=
f S S
i o
1 1 1
= +
Ray Diagrams
F
o
F
i
F
i
F
o
F
o
F
i
H
1 H
2
F
i
F
o
H
1
H
2
Thin Lens Thick lens
Positive Lens Positive Lens
Negative Lens Negative Lens
Example
Find the image distance (P245, Fig.6.4): An thick double-convex lens with R
1

= 20 cm and R
2
= -40 cm, thickness d = 1 cm, index of refraction of 1.5. An
object is positioned 30 cm from the lens. Find the image position.
The system principal plane positions (referenced to each vertex):
H
1
is to the right of V
1
, and H
2
is to the left of V
2
. Finally, S
o
= 30+ 0.22, we
have
( )
( )
( )
( )
cm 8 . 26 1/cm
) 40 )( 20 ( 5 . 1
1 1 5 . 1
40
1
20
1
1 5 . 1
1 1 1
1
1
2 1 2 1
=
(

=
(

+ = f
R R n
d n
R R
n
f
l
l l
l
( ) ( )
cm 22 . 0
) 40 ( 5 . 1
1 1 5 . 1 8 . 26 1
2
1
=

=
R n
d n f
h
l
l l
( ) ( )
cm 44 . 0
) 20 ( 5 . 1
1 5 . 0 8 . 26 1
1
2
= =

=
R n
d n f
h
l
l l
2
from measured cm, 238 and
8 . 26
1 1
2 . 30
1
H S
S
i
i
= = +
Compound Thick Lens
Compound thick lens (Fig.6.5): If we know the focal lengths, principal
point positions and their separation, we can calculate the effective focal
length, principal points for the compound length:
21 12
1 2 2 1
where
1 1 1
H H d
f f
d
f f f
= + = (6.8)
The principal plane position of the system:
2
1 11

f
fd
H H =
1
2 22

f
fd
H H =
(6.9) (6.10)
Thus, by knowing the effective focal length and the locations of the principal
planes, we can represent the above two think lenses as a single effective thick
lens. For an optical system consisting of more than two thick lenses, we can
apply the above procedure successively to work out the final focal length and
locations of principal planes. Please look at the example on P246.
Matrix Review
A matrix is a square or a rectangular array of numbers or functions (elements)
that obey certain rules. Its elements are labeled by two subscripts. An element
at i
th
row and j
th
column is denoted as: a
ij
.
A matrix with m rows and n column is:
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|



=
mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
1 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

Equality: A = B, if and only if a
ij
= b
ij
, for all values of i and j.
Addition: A + B = C, if and only if a
ij
+ b
ij
= c
ij
, for all values of i and j.
Commutation: A + B = B + A
Association: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Scalar Multiplication: C = A =(A), c
ij
= a
ij
, also A= A.
Matrix Review
Matrix Multiplication:
A B = C, if and only if , the element c
ij
is
formed as a scalar product of ith row of A with jth column of B.

=
k
kj ik ij
b a c
Association: (AB)C = A(BC)
Distributive law: A(B+C) = AB+AC , however multiplication of matrices is usually not
commutative, i.e., AB BA , in general.
Example: 2x2 square matrix
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
22 21
12 11
22 21
12 11
and Given
b b
b b
B
a a
a a
A
we have:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
= +
22 22 21 21
12 12 11 11
b a b a
b a b a
B A

22 21
12 11
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a a
a a
A
| |
| |
|
Matrix Review
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
22 22 12 21 21 22 11 21
22 12 12 11 21 12 11 11
22 21
12 11
22 21
12 11
b a b a b a b a
b a b a b a b a
b b
b b
a a
a a
AB
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 22 1 21
2 12 1 11
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
have we , For
g a g a
g a g a
g
g
a a
a a
AG
g
g
G
Determinant of A: det A = |A| = a
11
a
22
- a
12
a
21



Unit matrix: A EA AE E = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= and ,
1 0
0 1