Data Mining

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( )
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[email protected]
Jalali.mshdiau.ac.ir
Data Mining
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Association Rules
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What Is Classification?
The goal of data classification is to organize and
categorize data in distinct classes
A model is first created based on the data distribution
The model is then used to classify new data
Given the model, a class can be predicted for new data

Classification = prediction for discrete and nominal
values
With classification, I can predict in which bucket to put the ball,
but I cant predict the weight of the ball

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Prediction, Clustering, Classification
What is Prediction?
The goal of prediction is to forecast or deduce the value of an attribute
based on values of other attributes
models continuous-valued functions, i.e., predicts unknown or missing values
A model is first created based on the data distribution
The model is then used to predict future or unknown values

Supervised vs. Unsupervised Classification
Supervised Classification = Classification
We know the class labels and the number of
classes

Unsupervised Classification = Clustering
We do not know the class labels and may not know
the number of classes

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Classification and Prediction
Typical applications
Credit approval
Target marketing
Medical diagnosis
Fraud detection

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Classification: 3 Step Process
1. Model construction (Learning):
Each record (instance) is assumed to belong to a predefined class, as
determined by one of the attributes, called the class label
The set of all records used for construction of the model is called training set
The model is usually represented in the form of classification rules, (IF-THEN
statements) or decision trees

2. Model Evaluation (Accuracy):
Estimate accuracy rate of the model based on a test set
The known label of test sample is compared with the classified result from model
Accuracy rate: percentage of test set samples correctly classified by the model
Test set is independent of training set otherwise over-fitting will occur

3. Model Use (Classification):
The model is used to classify unseen instances (assigning class labels)
Predict the value of an actual attribute

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Process (1): Model Construction
Training
Data
NAME RANK YEARS TENURED
Mike Assistant Prof 3 no
Mary Assistant Prof 7 yes
Bill Professor 2 yes
Jim Associate Prof 7 yes
Dave Assistant Prof 6 no
Anne Associate Prof 3 no
Classification
Algorithms
IF rank = professor
OR years > 6
THEN tenured = yes
Classifier
(Model)
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Process (2): Using the Model in Prediction
Classifier
Testing
Data
NAME RANK YEARS TENURED
Tom Assistant Prof 2 no
Merlisa Associate Prof 7 no
George Professor 5 yes
Joseph Assistant Prof 7 yes
Unseen Data
(Jeff, Professor, 4)
Tenured?
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Accuracy of Supervised Learning
Holdout Approach
A certain amount of data (Usually, one-third) for testing and
remainder (two-third) for training
K-Fold cross validation
Split the data into k subsets of equal size, then each subset is turn is
used for testing and remainder for training


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Issues: Data Preparation
Data cleaning
Preprocess data in order to reduce noise and handle missing values
Relevance analysis (feature selection)
Remove the irrelevant or redundant attributes
Data transformation
Normalize data

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Issues: Evaluating Classification Methods
Accuracy
classifier accuracy: predicting class label
predictor accuracy: guessing value of predicted attributes
Speed
time to construct the model (training time)
time to use the model (classification/prediction time)
Robustness: handling noise and missing values
Scalability: efficiency in disk-resident databases
Interpretability
understanding and insight provided by the model
Other measures, e.g., goodness of rules, such as decision tree
size or compactness of classification rules
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Other Issues
Function complexity and amount of training data
If the true function is simple then an learning algorithm will be able to
learn it from a small amount of data, otherwise the function will only
be learnable from a very large amount of training data.
Dimensionality of the input space
Noise in the output values
Heterogeneity of the data.
If the feature vectors include features of many different kinds
(discrete, discrete ordered, counts, continuous values), some
algorithms are easier to apply than others.
Dependency of features
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Decision Tree - Review of Basics
What exactly is a Decision Tree?

A tree where each branching node represents a choice between two or
more alternatives, with every branching node being part of a path to a
leaf node (bottom of the tree). The leaf node represents a decision,
derived from the tree for the given input.

How can Decision Trees be used to classify instances of data?

Instead of representing decisions, leaf nodes represent a particular
classification of a data instance, based on the given set of attributes (and
their discrete values) that define the instance of data, which is kind of like
a relational tuple for illustration purposes.

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Review of Basics (contd)
It is important that data instances have boolean or discrete
data values for their attributes to help with the basic
understanding of ID3, although there are extensions of ID3
that deal with continuous data.


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How does ID3 relate to Decision Trees, then?
ID3, or Iterative Dichotomiser 3 Algorithm, is a Decision Tree learning
algorithm. The name is correct in that it creates Decision Trees for
dichotomizing data instances, or classifying them discretely through
branching nodes until a classification bucket is reached (leaf node).

By using ID3 and other machine-learning algorithms from Artificial
Intelligence, expert systems can engage in tasks usually done by human
experts, such as doctors diagnosing diseases by examining various
symptoms (the attributes) of patients (the data instances) in a complex
Decision Tree.

Of course, accurate Decision Trees are fundamental to Data Mining and
Databases.
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Other Decision Trees
ID3
J48
C4.5
SLIQ
SPRINT
PUBLIC
RainForest
BOAT
Data Cube-based Decision Tree
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Tree Presentation
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Decision Tree Induction: Training Dataset
age income student credit_rating buys_computer
<=30 high no fair no
<=30 high no excellent no
3140 high no fair yes
>40 medium no fair yes
>40 low yes fair yes
>40 low yes excellent no
3140 low yes excellent yes
<=30 medium no fair no
<=30 low yes fair yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
<=30 medium yes excellent yes
3140 medium no excellent yes
3140 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no
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age?
overcast
student? credit rating?
<=30
>40
no yes
yes
yes
31..40
fair excellent
yes no
Output: A Decision Tree for buys_computer
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Algorithm for Decision Tree Induction
Basic algorithm (a greedy algorithm)
Tree is constructed in a top-down recursive divide-and-conquer manner
At start, all the training examples are at the root
Attributes are categorical (if continuous-valued, they are discretized in
advance)
Examples are partitioned recursively based on selected attributes
Test attributes are selected on the basis of a heuristic or statistical measure
(e.g., information gain)
Conditions for stopping partitioning
All samples for a given node belong to the same class
There are no remaining attributes for further partitioning majority voting is
employed for classifying the leaf
There are no samples left

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Entropy
8
2
=

P
8
6
=
O
P
)
8
6
log
8
6
( )
8
2
log
8
2
(
2 2
= E
S is the training example
is the proportion of positive examples in S
is the proportion of negative examples in S
Entropy measures the impurity of S


For Non-Boolean classification :
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Gain (S,A) = Expected reduction in entropy due to sorting on A
Attribute Selection Measure: Information Gain
(ID3/C4.5)

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Class P: buys_computer = yes
Class N: buys_computer = no
Attribute Selection: Information Gain
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
40
40
40 .. 31
40 .. 31
30
30
) (
>
>
<=
<=
e
+ + =

S Entropy
S
S
S Entropy
S
S
S Entropy
S
S
S Entropy
S
s
v
A value v
v
age income student credit_rating buys_computer
<=30 high no fair no
<=30 high no excellent no
3140 high no fair yes
>40 medium no fair yes
>40 low yes fair yes
>40 low yes excellent no
3140 low yes excellent yes
<=30 medium no fair no
<=30 low yes fair yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
<=30 medium yes excellent yes
3140 medium no excellent yes
3140 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no
940 . 0 )
14
5
( log
14
5
)
14
9
( log
14
9
) (
2 2
= = S Entropy
694 . 0 )
5
2
5
3
(
14
5
)
4
4
(
14
4
)
5
3
5
2
(
14
5
5
2
2
5
3
2
4
4
2
5
3
2
5
2
2
= + + = Log Log Log Log Log
Gain for Age
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Attribute Selection: Information Gain
048 . 0 ) _ , (
151 . 0 ) , (
029 . 0 ) , (
=
=
=
rating credit S Gain
student S Gain
income S Gain
246 . 0 694 . 0 940 . 0 ) , ( = = age S Gain
age income student credit_rating buys_computer
<=30 high no fair no
<=30 high no excellent no
3140 high no fair yes
>40 medium no fair yes
>40 low yes fair yes
>40 low yes excellent no
3140 low yes excellent yes
<=30 medium no fair no
<=30 low yes fair yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
<=30 medium yes excellent yes
3140 medium no excellent yes
3140 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no
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ID3 Algorithm
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Computing Information-Gain for Continuous-
Value Attributes
Let attribute A be a continuous-valued attribute
Must determine the best split point for A
Sort the value A in increasing order
Typically, the midpoint between each pair of adjacent values is considered as
a possible split point
(a
i
+a
i+1
)/2 is the midpoint between the values of a
i
and a
i+1
The point with the minimum expected information requirement for A is
selected as the split-point for A
Split:
D1 is the set of tuples in D satisfying A split-point, and D2 is the set of tuples
in D satisfying A > split-point

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Gain Ratio for Attribute Selection and Cost of Attributes
What happens if you choose Day as root ??
Attribute with Cost
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Overfitting and Tree Pruning
Overfitting: An induced tree may overfit the training data
Too many branches, some may reflect anomalies due to noise or outliers
Poor accuracy for unseen samples
Two approaches to avoid overfitting
Prepruning: Halt tree construction earlydo not split a node if this would result in the
goodness measure falling below a threshold
Difficult to choose an appropriate threshold
Postpruning: Remove branches from a fully grown treeget a sequence of progressively
pruned trees
Use a set of data different from the training data to decide which is the best pruned tree
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Enhancements to Basic Decision Tree Induction
Allow for continuous-valued attributes
Dynamically define new discrete-valued attributes that partition the continuous
attribute value into a discrete set of intervals
Handle missing attribute values
Assign the most common value of the attribute
Assign probability to each of the possible values
Attribute construction
Create new attributes based on existing ones that are sparsely represented
This reduces fragmentation, repetition, and replication
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Instance Based Learning
Lazy learning (e.g., instance-based learning): Simply stores
training data (or only minor processing) and waits until it is
given a test tuple
Eager learning (eg. Decision trees, SVM, NN): Given a set of
training set, constructs a classification model before receiving
new (e.g., test) data to classify

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Instance-based Learning
Its very similar to a
Desktop!!
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Example
Image Scene Classification

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Instance-based Learning
When To Consider IBL
Instances map to points
Less than 20 attributes per instance
Lots of training data

Advantages:
Learn complex target functions(Class)
Don't lose information

Disadvantages:
Slow at query time
Easily fooled by irrelevant attributes

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K-Nearest Neighbor Learning (k-NN)
k-NN is a type of instance-based learning, or lazy learning
where the function is only approximated locally and all
computation is deferred until classification.
The k-nearest neighbor algorithm is amongst the simplest of
all machine learning algorithms: an object is classified by a
majority vote of its neighbors, with the object being assigned
to the class most common amongst its k nearest neighbors (k
is a positive integer, typically small).
If k = 1, then the object is simply assigned to the class of its nearest
neighbor.
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K-Nearest Neighbor Learning (k-NN)- Cont.
Usually Euclidean distance is used as the distance metric;
however this is only applicable to continuous variables. In
cases such as text classification, another metric such as the
overlap metric (or Hamming distance: it measures the minimum
number ofsubstitutions required to change one string into the other, or the
number of errors that transformed one string into the other. ) can be used.

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Distance or Similarity Measures
Common Distance Measures:
Manhattan distance:



Euclidean distance:



Cosine similarity:

( , ) 1 ( , ) dist X Y sim X Y =
2 2
( )
( , )
i i
i
i i
i i
x y
sim X Y
x y

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KNN - Algorithm
Key Idea: Just store all training examples
Nearest Neighbour :
Given query instance X
q
, First locate nearest training example X
n
,
Then estimate

K Nearest Neighbour :
Given x
q
, take vote among its K nearest nbrs ( If discrete-value for
class)
Take mean of f Values of k nearest nbrs (if real-value)

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Figure K Nearest Neighbors Example

X
Stored training set patterns
X input pattern for classification
--- Euclidean distance measure to
the nearest three patterns
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two one
four
three
five
six
seven
Eight ?
Which one belongs to Mondrian ?
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Training data
Number Lines Line types Rectangles Colours Mondrian?
1 6 1 10 4 No
2 4 2 8 5 No
3 5 2 7 4 Yes
4 5 1 8 4 Yes
5 5 1 10 5 No
6 6 1 8 6 Yes
7 7 1 14 5 No


Number Lines Line types Rectangles Colours Mondrian?
8 7 2 9 4


Test instance
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Normalization
Min-max normalization: to [new_min
A
, new_max
A
]


Z-score normalization (: mean, : standard deviation):


Normalization by decimal scaling
A A A
A A
A
min new min new max new
min max
min v
v _ ) _ _ ( ' +

=
A
A v
v
o

= '
j
v
v
10
' =
Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(||) < 1
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Normalised training data
Number Lines Line
types
Rectangles Colours Mondrian?
1 0.632 -0.632 0.327 -1.021 No
2 -1.581 1.581 -0.588 0.408 No
3 -0.474 1.581 -1.046 -1.021 Yes
4 -0.474 -0.632 -0.588 -1.021 Yes
5 -0.474 -0.632 0.327 0.408 No
6 0.632 -0.632 -0.588 1.837 Yes
7 1.739 -0.632 2.157 0.408 No


Number Lines Line
types
Rectangles Colours Mondrian?
8 1.739 1.581 -0.131 -1.021


Test instance
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Distances of test instance from training data
Example Distance
of test
from
example
Mondrian?
1 2.517 No
2 3.644 No
3 2.395 Yes
4 3.164 Yes
5 3.472 No
6 3.808 Yes
7 3.490 No
Classification
1-NN Yes
3-NN Yes
5-NN No
7-NN No
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Example
Classify Theatre ?
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Nearest neighbors algorithms: illustration
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
e1
1-nearest neighbor:
the concept represented by e1
5-nearest neighbors:
q1 is classified as negative
q1
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Voronoi diagram
query
point q
f
nearest neighbor q
i
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Variant of kNN: Distance-Weighted kNN
We might want to weight nearer neighbors more heavily





Then it makes sense to use all training examples instead of just k
2
1
1
) , (
1
where
) (
: ) (
i q
i
k
i
i
k
i
i i
q
d
w
w
f w
f
x x
x
x = =

=
=
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Difficulties with k-nearest neighbour
algorithms
Have to calculate the distance of the test case from all
training cases
There may be irrelevant attributes amongst the attributes
curse of dimensionality
For instance , we have 20 attribute, however 2 of them are
appropriate attributes , non-relevant attributes effect to
results
Solution : Assign appropriate Weight to the attributes by
using cross-validation method.

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How to choose k
Large k:
less sensitive to noise (particularly class noise)
better probability estimates for discrete classes
larger training sets allow larger values of k
Small k:
captures fine structure of problem space better
may be necessary with small training sets
Balance must be struck between large and small k
As training set approaches infinity, and k grows large, kNN
becomes Bayes optimal

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1. Use Weka to classify and evaluate Letter Recognition dataset through IBL
2. Write down 3 new challenges in KNN