Software Project Management Rational Unified Framework

Bojana Milainovi [email protected] Ivanka Milenkovi [email protected] Veljko Milutinovi [email protected]

"Software Project Management" Walker Royce 1

Part 1 Software Management Renaissance

Introduction

In the past ten years, typical goals in the software process improvement of several companies are to achieve a 2x, 3x, or 10x increase in productivity, quality, time to market, or some combination of all three, where x corresponds to how well the company does now. The funny thing is that many of these organizations have no idea what x is, in objective terms.
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Part 1 Software Management Renaissance

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Part 1 Software Management Renaissance

Table of Contents (1)

The Old Way (Conventional SPM)

The Waterfall Model Conventional Software Management Performance

Evolution of Software Economics

Software Economics Pragmatic Software Cost Estimation

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Part 1 Software Management Renaissance

Table of Contents (2)

Improving Software Economics

Reducing Software Product Size Improving Software Processes Improving Team Effectiveness Improving Automation through Software Environments Achieving Required Quality Peer Inspections: A Pragmatic View

The Old Way and the New

The Principles of Conventional Software Engineering The Principles of Modern Software Management Transitioning to an Iterative Process
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The Old Way

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The Old Way

Part 1

Software crisis
The best thing about software is its flexibility

It can be programmed to do almost anything.

The worst thing about software is also its flexibility

The almost anything characteristic has made it difficult to plan, monitor, and control software development.

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Part 1 The Old Way

The Waterfall Model
System requirements Software requirements Analysis

Drawbacks
Protracted integration and late design breakage Late risk resolution Requirements - driven functional decomposition Adversarial stakeholder relationships Focus on document and review meetings

Program design Coding

Testing

Maintenance and reliance

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Part 1

The Old Way

Conventional Software Management Performance
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9.

Finding and fixing a software problem after delivery costs 100 times more than finding and fixing the problem in early design phases. You can compress software development schedules 25% of nominal, but no more. For every $1 you spend on development, you will spend $2 on maintenance. Software development and maintenance costs are primarily a function of the number of source lines of code. Variations among people account for the biggest differences in software productivity. The overall ratio of software to hardware costs is still growing. In 1955 it was 15:85; in 1985, 85:15. Only about 15% of software development effort is devoted to programming. Walkthroughs catch 60% of the errors. 80% of the contribution comes from 20% of contributors.

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Part 1 Evolution of Software Economics

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Part 1
Evolution of Software Economics

Most software cost models can be abstracted into a function of five basic parameters:

Size (typically, number of source instructions) Process (the ability of the process to avoid non-valueadding activities) Personnel (their experience with the computer science issues and the applications domain issues of the project) Environment (tools and techniques available to support efficient software development and to automate process) Quality (performance, reliability, adaptability)

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Part 1
Evolution of Software Economics
Three generations of software economics

Cost
Software size
1960s-1970s Waterfall model Functional design Diseconomy of scale Environments/tools: Custom Size: 100% custom Process: Ad hoc 1980s-1990s Process improvement Encapsulation-based Diseconomy of scale Environments/tools: Off-the-shelf, separate Size: 30%component-based, 70% custom Process: Repeatable 2000 and on Iterative development Component- based Return to investment Environments/tools: Off-the-shelf, integrated Size: 70%component-based, 30% custom Process: Managed/measured

Typical project performance

Predictably bad Always: -Over budget -Over schedule Unpredictable Infrequently: -On budget -On schedule Predictable Usually: -On budget -On schedule

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Part 1
Evolution of Software Economics
The predominant cost estimation process
Software manager, software architecture manager, software development manager, software assessment manager

Cost modelers Risks, options, trade-offs, alternatives Cost estimate

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Part 1
Evolution of Software Economics
Pragmatic software cost estimation

A good estimate has the following attributes: It is conceived and supported by the project manager, architecture team, development team, and test team accountable for performing the work. It is accepted by all stakeholders as ambitious but realizable. It is based on a well defined software cost model with a credible basis. It is based on a database of relevant project experience that includes similar processes, technologies, environments, quality requirements, and people. It is defined in enough detail so that its key risk areas are understood and the probability of success is objectively assessed.
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Part 1 Improving Software Economics

Five basic parameters of the software cost model:
Reducing the size or complexity of what needs to be developed Improving the development process Using more-skilled personnel and better teams (not necessarily the same thing) Using better environments (tools to automate the process) Trading off or backing off on quality thresholds
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Important trends in improving software economics Cost model parameters

Size Abstraction and component based development technologies

Improving Software Economics

Trends

Part 1

Higher order languages (C++, Java, Visual Basic, etc.) Object-oriented (Analysis, design, programming) Reuse Commercial components
Iterative development Process maturity models Architecture-first development Acquisition reform Training and personnel skill development Teamwork Win-win cultures Integrated tools (Visual modeling, compiler, editor, etc) Open systems Hardware platform performance Automation of coding, documents, testing, analyses Hardware platform performance Demonstration-based assessment 16/112 Statistical quality control

Process Methods and techniques

Personnel People factors

Environment Automation technologies and tools Quality Performance, reliability, "Software accuracy

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Improving Software Economics

Reducing Software Product Size

Part 1

The most significant way to improve affordability and return on investment is usually to produce a product that achieves the design goals with the minimum amount of human-generated source material.
Reuse, object-oriented technology, automatic code production, and higher order programming languages are all focused on achieving a given system with fewer lines of human-specified source directives.

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Improving Software Economics

Reducing Software Product Size - Languages
Language
UFP -Universal Function Points The basic units of the function points are external user inputs, external outputs, internal logic data groups, external data interfaces, and external inquiries.

Part 1

SLOC per UFP 320 128 105 91 71 56 55 55 35

SLOC metrics are useful estimators for software after a candidate solution is formulated and an implementation language is known.

Assembly C Fortran 77 Cobol 85 Ada 83 C++ Ada 95 Java Visual Basic

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Reducing Software Product Size Object-Oriented Methods

Improving Software Economics

Part 1

An object-oriented model of the problem and its solution encourages a common vocabulary between the end users of a system and its developers, thus creating a shared understanding of the problem being solved.
Here is an example of how object-oriented technology permits corresponding improvements in teamwork and interpersonal communications.

The use of continuous integration creates opportunities to recognize risk early and make incremental corrections without destabilizing the entire development effort.
This aspect of object-oriented technology enables an architecture-first process, in which integration is an early and continuous life-cycle activity.

An object-oriented architecture provides a clear separation of concerns among disparate elements of a system, creating firewalls that prevent a change in one part of the system from rending the fabric of the entire architecture.
This feature of object-oriented technology is crucial to the supporting languages and environments available to implement object-oriented architectures.

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Improving Software Economics

Reducing Software Product Size Reuse
1 Project Solution: $N and M months 2 Project Solution: 50% more cost and 100% more time

Part 1

Many-project solution: Operating with high value per unit investment, typical of commercial products

5 Project Solution: 125% more cost and

Developmen and Schedul

150% more time

Number of Projects Using Reusable Components

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Reducing Software Product Size Commercial Components

Improving Software Economics ADVANTAGES

Predictable license costs Broadly used, mature technology Available now Dedicated support organization Hardware/software independence Rich in functionality

Part 1

APPROACH

DISADVANTAGES
Frequent upgrades Up-front license fees Recurring maintenance fees Dependency on vendor Run-time efficiency sacrifices Functionality constraints Integration not always trivial No control over upgrades and maintenance Unnecessary features that consume extra resources Often inadequate reliability and stability Multiple-vendor incompatibility

Commercial components

Custom development

Complete change freedom Smaller, often simpler implementations Often better performance Control of development and enhancement

Expensive, unpredictable development Unpredictable availability date Undefined maintenance model Often immature and fragile Single-platform dependency Drain on expert resources

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Improving Software Economics

Improving Software Processes
Macroprocess
Project Project profitability Risk management Project budget, schedule, quality Software project managers Software engineers On budget, on schedule Major milestone success Project scrap and rework Quality vs. financial performance 1 to many years

Part 1

Attributes
Subject Objectives

Metaprocess
Line of business Line-of-business profitability Competitiveness

Microprocess
Iteration Resource management Risk resolution Milestone budget, schedule, quality Subproject managers Software engineers On budget, on schedule Major milestone progress Release/iteration scrap and rework Content vs. schedule 1 to 6 months

Audience

Acquisition authorities, customers Organizational management Project predictability Revenue, market share

Metrics

Concerns Time scales

Bureaucracy vs. standardization 6 to 12 months

Three levels of processes and their attributes

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Improving Software Economics

Improving Team Effectiveness (1)

Part 1

The principle of top talent: Use better and fewer people. The principle of job matching: Fit the task to the skills an motivation of the people available. The principle of career progression: An organization does best in the long run by helping its people to selfactualize. The principle of team balance: Select people who will complement and harmonize with one another. The principle of phase-out: Keeping a misfit on the team doesnt benefit anyone.

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Improving Software Economics

Improving Team Effectiveness (2)
Important Project Manager Skills: Hiring skills. Few decisions are as important as hiring decisions. Placing the right person in the right job seems obvious but is surprisingly hard to achieve. Customer-interface skill. Avoiding adversarial relationships among stakeholders is a prerequisite for success. Decision-making skill. The jillion books written about management have failed to provide a clear definition of this attribute. We all know a good leader when we run into one, and decision-making skill seems obvious despite its intangible definition. Team-building skill. Teamwork requires that a manager establish trust, motivate progress, exploit eccentric prima donnas, transition average people into top performers, eliminate misfits, and consolidate diverse opinions into a team direction. Selling skill. Successful project managers must sell all stakeholders (including themselves) on decisions and priorities, sell candidates on job positions, sell changes to the status quo in the face of resistance, and sell achievements against objectives. In practice, selling requires continuous negotiation, compromise, and empathy.

Part 1

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Improving Software Economics

Achieving Required Quality
Key practices that improve overall software quality: Focusing on driving requirements and critical use cases early in the life cycle, focusing on requirements completeness and traceability late in the life cycle, and focusing throughout the life cycle on a balance between requirements evolution, design evolution, and plan evolution Using metrics and indicators to measure the progress and quality of an architecture as it evolves from a high-level prototype into a fully compliant product Providing integrated life-cycle environments that support early and continuous configuration control, change management, rigorous design methods, document automation, and regression test automation Using visual modeling and higher level language that support architectural control, abstraction, reliable programming, reuse, and self-documentation Early and continuous insight into performance issues through demonstration-based evaluations

Part 1

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Part 1 The Old Way and the New

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The Principles of Conventional Software Engineering

1. 2.

The Old Way and the New

Part 1

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

Make quality #1. Quality must be quantified and mechanism put into place to motivate its achievement. High-quality software is possible. Techniques that have been demonstrated to increase quality include involving the customer, prototyping, simplifying design, conducting inspections, and hiring the best people. Give products to customers early. No matter how hard you try to learn users needs during the requirements phase, the most effective way to determine real needs is to give users a product and let them play with it. Determine the problem before writing the requirements. When faced with what they believe is a problem, most engineers rush to offer a solution. Before you try to solve a problem, be sure to explore all the alternatives and dont be blinded by the obvious solution. Evaluate design alternatives. After the requirements are agreed upon, you must examine a variety of architectures and algorithms. You certainly do not want to use an architecture simply because it was used in the requirements specification. Use an appropriate process model. Each project must select a process that makes the most sense for that project on the basis of corporate culture, willingness to take risks, application area, volatility of requirements, and the extent to which requirements are well understood. Use different languages for different phases. Our industrys eternal thirst for simple solutions to complex problems has driven many to declare that the best development method is one that uses the same notation through-out the life cycle. Why should software engineers use Ada for requirements, design, and code unless Ada were optimal for all these phases? Minimize intellectual distance. To minimize intellectual distance, the softwares structure should be as close as possible to the real-world structure. Put techniques before tools. An undisciplined software engineer with a tool becomes a dangerous, undisciplined software engineer. Get it right before you make it faster. It is far easier to make a working program run than it is to make a fast program work. Dont worry about optimization during initial coding.

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The Principles of Conventional Software Engineering

1. 2.

The Old Way and the New

Part 1

3.

4.

5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Inspect code. Inspecting the detailed design and code is a much better way to find errors than testing. Good management is more important than good technology. The best technology will not compensate for poor management, and a good manager can produce great results even with meager resources. Good management motivates people to do their best, but there are no universal right styles of management. People are the key to success. Highly skilled people with appropriate experience, talent, and training are key. The right people with insufficient tools, languages, and process will succeed. The wrong people with appropriate tools, languages, and process will probably fail. Follow with care. Just because everybody is doing something does not make it right for you. It may be right, but you must carefully assess its applicability to your environment. Object orientation, measurement, reuse, process improvement, CASE, prototyping-all these might increase quality, decrease cost, and increase user satisfaction. The potential of such techniques is often oversold, and benefits are by no means guaranteed or universal. Take responsibility. When a bridge collapses we ask, what did the engineers do wrong? Even when software fails, we rarely ask this. The fact is that in any engineering discipline, the best methods can be used to produce awful designs, and the most antiquated methods to produce elegant design. Understand the customers priorities. It is possible the customer would tolerate 90% of the functionality delivered late if they could have 10% of it on time. The more they see, the more they need. The more functionality (or performance) you provide a user, the more functionality (or performance) the user wants. Plan to throw one away .One of the most important critical success factors is whether or not a product is entirely new. Such brand-new applications, architectures, interfaces, or algorithms rarely work the first time. Design for change. The architectures, components, and specification techniques you use must accommodate change. Design without documentation is not design. I have often heard software engineers say, I have finished the design. All that is left is the documentation.

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The Principles of Conventional Software Engineering

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The Old Way and the New

Part 1

8.

9.
10.

Use tools, but be realistic. Software tools make their users more efficient. Avoid tricks. Many programmers love to create programs with tricks- constructs that perform a function correctly, but in an obscure way. Show the world how smart you are by avoiding tricky code. Encapsulate. Information-hiding is a simple, proven concept that results in software that is easier to test and much easier to maintain. Use coupling and cohesion. Coupling and cohesion are the best ways to measure softwares inherent maintainability and adaptability. Use the McCabe complexity measure. Although there are many metrics available to report the inherent complexity of software, none is as intuitive and easy to use as Tom McCabes. Dont test your own software. Software developers should never be the primary testers of their own software. Analyze causes for errors. It is far more cost-effective to reduce the effect of an error by preventing it than it is to find and fix it. One way to do this is to analyze the causes of errors as they are detected. Realize that softwares entropy increases. Any software system that undergoes continuous change will grow in complexity and become more and more disorganized. People and time are not interchangeable. Measuring a project solely by person-months makes little sense. Expert excellence. Your employees will do much better if you have high expectations for them.

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The Principles of Modern Software Management

The Old Way and the New

Part 1

Architecture-first approach

The central design element The risk management element The technology element The control element The automation element

Design and integration first, then production and test

Iterative life-cycle process

Risk control through ever-increasing function, performance, quality

Component-based development

Object-oriented methods, rigorous notations, visual modeling

Change management environment

Metrics, trends, process instrumentation

Round-trip engineering

Complementary tools, integrated environments

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A Software Management Process Framework

Part 2

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A Software Management Process Framework

Table of Contents (1)

Part 2

Life-Cycle Phases
Engineering and Production Stages Inception Phase Elaboration Phase Construction Phase Transition Phase

Artifacts of the Process

The Artifact Sets Management Artifacts Engineering Artifacts Pragmatic Artifacts
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A Software Management Process Framework

Table of Contents (2)

Part 2

Model-based software Architectures

Architecture: A Management Perspective Architecture: A Technical Perspective

Workflows of the Process

Software Process Workflows Iteration Workflows

Checkpoints of the Process

Major Milestones Minor Milestones Periodic Status Assessments
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Engineering and Production Stages

Part 2 Life-Cycle Phases

Two stages of the life-cycle :

1. The engineering stage driven by smaller teams doing design and synthesis activities 2. The production stage driven by larger teams doing construction, test, and deployment activities
LIFE-CYCLE ASPECT
Risk reduction Products

ENGINEERING STAGE EMPHASIS

Schedule, technical feasibility Architecture baseline

PRODUCTION STAGE EMPHASIS

Cost Product release baselines

Activities
Assessment Economics Management

Analysis, design, planning

Demonstration, inspection, analysis Resolving diseconomies of scale Planning

Implementation, testing
Testing Exploiting economics of scale Operations

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Engineering and Production Stages

Part 2 Life-Cycle Phases

Attributing only two stages to a life cycle is too coarse

Spiral model [Boehm, 1998]

Engineering Stage
Inception Elaboration

Production Stage
Construction Transition

Idea

Architecture

Beta Releases

Products

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Part 2 Life-Cycle Phases

Inception Phase

Overriding goal to achieve concurrence among stakeholders on the life-cycle objectives

Essential activities : Formulating the scope of the project (capturing the requirements and operational concept in an information repository) Synthesizing the architecture (design trade-offs, problem space ambiguities, and available solutionspace assets are evaluated) Planning and preparing a business case (alternatives for risk management, iteration planes, and cost/schedule/profitability trade-offs are evaluated)

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Part 2 Life-Cycle Phases

Elaboration Phase

During the elaboration phase, an executable architecture prototype is built

Essential activities : Elaborating the vision (establishing a high-fidelity understanding of the critical use cases that drive architectural or planning decisions) Elaborating the process and infrastructure (establishing the construction process, the tools and process automation support) Elaborating the architecture and selecting components (lessons learned from these activities may result in redesign of the architecture)

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Part 2 Life-Cycle Phases

Construction Phase

During the construction phase : All remaining components and application features are integrated into the application All features are thoroughly tested Essential activities : Resource management, control, and process optimization Complete component development and testing against evaluation criteria Assessment of the product releases against acceptance criteria of the vision

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Part 2 Life-Cycle Phases

Transition Phase

The transition phase is entered when baseline is mature enough to be deployed in the end-user domain This phase could include beta testing, conversion of operational databases, and training of users and maintainers Essential activities : Synchronization and integration of concurrent construction into consistent deployment baselines Deployment-specific engineering (commercial packaging and production, field personnel training) 1. Assessment of deployment baselines against the complete vision and acceptance criteria in the requirements set
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Life-Cycle Phases
Evaluation Criteria : Is the user satisfied? Are actual resource expenditures versus planned expenditures acceptable?
Each of the four phases consists of one or more iterations in which some technical capability is produced in demonstrable form and assessed against a set of the criteria The transition from one phase to the nest maps more to a significant business decision than to the completion of specific software activity.

Part 2

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Artifacts of the Process

Requirements Set
1.Vision document 2.Requirements model(s)

Part 2

Design Set

Implementation Set
1.Source code baselines 2.Associated compile-time files 3.Component executables

Deployment Set
1.Integrated product executable baselines 2.Associated run-time files 3.User manual

1.Design model(s) 2.Test model 3.Software architecture description

Management Set Planning Artifacts

1.Work breakdown structure 2.Bussines case 3.Release specifications 4.Software development plan

Operational Artifacts
5.Release descriptions 6.Status assessments 7.Software change order database 8.Deployment documents 9.Enviorement

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Artifacts of the Process

Management Artifacts

Part 2

The management set includes several artifacts :

Work Breakdown Structure vehicle for budgeting and collecting costs. The software project manager must have insight into project costs and how they are expended. If the WBS is structured improperly, it can drive the evolving design in the wrong direction. Business Case provides all the information necessary to determine whether the project is worth investing in. It details the expected revenue, expected cost, technical and management plans.

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Artifacts of the Process

Management Artifacts Release Specifications
Typical release specification outline : I. II. I. I. Iteration content Measurable objectives A. Evaluation criteria B. Follow-through approach Demonstration plan A. Schedule of activities B. Team responsibilities Operational scenarios (use cases demonstrated) A. Demonstration procedures B. Traceability to vision and business case

Part 2

Two important forms of requirements : vision statement (or user need) - which captures the contract between the development group and the buyer. evaluation criteria defined as management-oriented requirements, which may be represented by use cases, use case realizations or structured text representations.

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Artifacts of the Process

Management Artifacts Software Development Plan the defining document for the projects
process. It must comply with the contract, comply with the organization standards, evolve along with the design and requirements.

Part 2

Deployment depending on the project, it could include several document

subsets for transitioning the product into operational status. It could also include computer system operations manuals, software installation manuals, plans and procedures for cutover etc.

Environment A robust development environment must support automation of the development process. It should include : requirements management visual modeling document automation automated regression testing

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Artifacts of the Process

Engineering Artifacts

Part 2

In general review, there are three engineering artifacts :

Vision document
supports the contract between the funding authority and the development organization. It is written from the users perspective, focusing on the essential features of the system. It should contain at least two appendixes the first appendix should describe the operational concept using use cases, the second should describe the change risks inherent in the vision statement. it is extracted from the design model and includes views of the design, implementation, and deployment sets sufficient to understand how the operational concept of the requirements set will be achieved.

Architecture Description

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Artifacts of the Process

Engineering Artifacts
Typical architecture description outline :
I. Architecture overview A. Objectives B. Constraints C. Freedoms Architecture views A. Design view B. Process view C. Component view D. Deployment view III. Architectural interactions A. Operational concept under primary scenarios B. Operational concept under secondary scenarios C. Operational concept under anomalous scenarios Architecture performance Rationale, trade-offs, and other substantiation

Part 2

I.

I. I.

Software User Manual

it should include installation procedures, usage procedures and guidance, operational constraints, and a user interface description. It should be written by members of the test team, who are more likely to understand the users perspective than the development team. It also provides a necessary basis for test plans and test cases, and for construction of automated test suites.

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Artifacts of the Process

Pragmatic Artifacts

Part 2

Over the past 30 years, the quality of documents become more important than the quality of the engineering information they represented.

The reviewer must be knowledgeable in the engineering notation.

Human-readable engineering artifacts should use rigorous notations that are complete, consistent, and used in a self-documenting manner.
Paper is tangible, electronic artifacts are too easy to change. Short documents are more useful than long ones.

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Model-Based Software Architectures

A Management Perspective

Part 2

From a management perspective, there are three different aspects of an architecture :

An architecture (the intangible design concept) is the design

of software system, as opposed to design of a component. An architecture baseline (the tangible artifacts) is a slice of information across the engineering artifact sets sufficient to satisfy all stakeholders that the vision can be achieved within the parameters of the business case (cost, profit, time, people). An architecture description (a human-readable representation of an architecture) is an organizes subsets of information extracted from the design set model.

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Model-Based Software Architectures

A Management Perspective

Part 2

The importance of software architecture can be summarized as follows:

Architecture representations provide a basis for balancing the trade-offs between the problem space and the solution space. Poor architectures and immature processes are often given as reasons for project failures.

A mature process, an understanding of the primary requirements, and a demonstrable architecture are important prerequisites for predictable planning.
Architecture development and process definition are the intellectual steps that map the problem to a solution without violating the constraints.

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Model-Based Software Architectures

A Technical Perspective
The model which draws on the foundation of architecture developed at Rational Software Corporation and particularly on Philippe Kruchtens concepts of software architecture :
An architecture is described through several views, which are extracts of design models that capture the significant structures, collaborations, and behaviors.

Part 2

Architecture Description Document

Design view Process view Use case view Component view Deployment view Other views (optional)

Use Case View

Design View

Process View

Component View

Deployment View

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Model-Based Software Architectures

A Technical Perspective
The use case view describes how the systems critical use cases are realized by elements of the design model. It is modeled statically using case diagrams, and dynamically using any of the UML behavioral diagrams.

Part 2

The design view addresses the basic structure and the functionality

of the solution. The process view addresses the run-time collaboration issues involved in executing the architecture on a distributed deployment model, including the logical software network topology, interprocess communication and state management. The component view describes the architecturally significant elements of the implementation set and addresses the software source code realization of the system from perspective of the project's integrators and developers. The deployment view addresses the executable realization of the system, including the allocation of logical processes in the distribution view to physical resources of the deployment network.

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Workflows of the Process

Software Process Workflows The term workflow is used to mean a thread of cohesive and most sequential activities.
There are seven top-level workflows: 1. Management workflow: controlling the process and ensuring win conditions for all stakeholders 2. Environment workflow: automating the process and evolving the maintenance environment 1. Requirements workflow: analyzing the problem space and evolving the requirements artifacts 1. Design workflow: modeling the solution and evolving the architecture and design artifacts 1. Implementation workflow: programming the components and evolving the implementation and deployment artifacts 1. Assessment workflow: assessing the trends in process and product quality 2. Deployment workflow: transitioning the end products to the user

Part 2

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Workflows of the Process

Software Process Workflows

Part 2

Four basic key principles:

1. Architecture-first approach: implementing and testing the architecture must precede full-scale development and testing and must precede the downstream focus on completeness and quality of the product features. 1. Iterative life-cycle process: the activities and artifacts of any given workflow may require more than one pass to achieve adequate results. 1. Roundtrip engineering: Raising the environment activities to a first-class workflow is critical; the environment is the tangible embodiment of the projects process and notations for producing the artifacts. 1. Demonstration-based approach: Implementation and assessment activities are initiated nearly in the life-cycle, reflecting the emphasis on constructing executable subsets of the involving architecture.

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Workflows of the Process

Iteration Workflows
An iteration consist of sequential set of activities in various proportions, depending on where the iteration is located in the development cycle.
An individual iterations workflow:

Part 2

Allocated usage scenarios

Results from the Previous iteration

Management Requirements

Design
Implementation Assessment Deployment
Results for the next iteration

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Workflows of the Process

Iteration Workflows
Inception and Elaboration Phases Construction Phase

Part 2

Management Requirements

Management Requirements Design

Design
Implementation Assessment Deployment
Transition Phase

Implementation
Assessment Deployment

Management Requirements Design Implementation Assessment Deployment

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Checkpoints of the Process

It is important to have visible milestones in the life cycle , where various stakeholders meet to discuss progress and planes.

Part 2

The purpose of this events is to:

Synchronize stakeholder expectations and achieve concurrence on the requirements, the design, and the plan.

Synchronize related artifacts into a consistent and balanced state

Identify the important risks, issues, and out-of-rolerance conditions Perform a global assessment for the whole life-cycle.

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Checkpoints of the Process

Three types of joint management reviews are conducted throughout the process:
1. Major milestones provide visibility to systemwide issues, synchronize the management and engineering perspectives and verify that the aims of the phase have been achieved.

Part 2

2. Minor milestones iteration-focused events, conducted to review the content of an iteration in detail and to authorize continued work.
3. Status assessments periodic events provide management with frequent and regular insight into the progress being made.
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Software Management Disciplines

Part 3

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Software Management Disciplines

Table of Contents (1)

Part 3

Iterative Process Planning

Work Breakdown Structures Planning Guidelines The Cost and Schedule Estimating Process The Iteration Planning Process Pragmatic Planning

Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Line-of-Business organizations Project Organizations Evolution Organizations

Process Automation
Tools: Automation Building Blocks The Project Environment

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Software Management Disciplines

Table of Contents (2)

Part 3

Project Control and Process Instrumentation

The Seven Core Metrics Management Indicators Quality Indicators Life-Cycle Expectations Pragmatic Software Metrics Metrics Automation

Tailoring the Process

Process Discriminants Example: Small-Scale Project Versus Large-scale Project

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Iterative Process Planning

Work Breakdown Structures

Part 3

The development of a work breakdown structure is dependent on the project management style, organizational culture, customer preference, financial constraints and several other hard-to-define parameters. A WBS is simply a hierarchy of elements that decomposes the project plan into the discrete work tasks. A WBS provides the following information structure:
A delineation of all significant work A clear task decomposition for assignment of responsibilities A framework for scheduling, budgeting, and expenditure

tracking.

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Iterative Process Planning

Planning Guidelines

Part 3

Two simple planning guidelines should be considered when a project plan is being initiated or assessed.
FIRST-LEVEL WBS ELEMENT DEFAULT BUDGET

Management Environment Requirements Design Implementation Assessment Deployment Total

10% 10% 10% 15% 25% 25% 5% 100%

DOMAIN Effort Schedule

INCEPTION 5% 10%

ELABORATION 20% 30%

CONSTRUCTION 65% 50%

TRANSITION 10% 10%

The second guideline prescribes the allocation of effort and schedule across the life-cycle phases

The first guideline prescribes a default allocation of costs among the first-level WBS elements

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The Cost and Schedule Estimating Process

Iterative Process Planning

Part 3

Project plans need to be derived from two perspectives. Forward-looking:

1. The software project manager develops a characterization of the overall size, process, environment, people, and quality required for the project 2. A macro-level estimate of the total effort and schedule is developed using a software cost estimation model 3. The software project manager partitions the estimate for the effort into a top-level WBS, also partitions the schedule into major milestone dates and partitions the effort into a staffing profile 4. At this point, subproject managers are given the responsibility for decomposing each of the WBS elements into lower levels using their top-level allocation, staffing profile, and major milestone dates as constraints. "Software Project Management" Walker 64/112

The Cost and Schedule Estimating Process

Iterative Process Planning

Part 3

Backward-looking:
1. The lowest level WBS elements are elaborated into detailed tasks, for which budgets and schedules are estimated by the responsible WBS element manager. 2. Estimates are combined and integrated into higher level budgets and milestones. 3. Comparisons are made with the top-down budgets and schedule milestones. Gross differences are assessed and adjustments are made in order to converge on agreement between the top-down and the bottom-up estimates.

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Iterative Process Planning

The Iteration Planning Process
Engineering Stage
Inception
Feasibility iterations

Part 3

Production Stage
Construction
Usable iterations

Elaboration
Architecture iterations

Transition
Product releases

Engineering stage planning emphasis:

Macro-level task estimation for production-stage artifacts Micro-level task estimation for engineering artifacts Stakeholder concurrence Coarse-grained variance analysis of actual vs. planned expenditures Tuning the top-down projectindependent planning guidelines into project-specific planning guidelines.

Production stage planning emphasis:

Micro-level task estimation for production-stage artifacts Macro-level task estimation for engineering artifacts Stakeholder concurrence Fine-grained variance analysis of actual vs. planned expenditures

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Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Line-of-Business Organizations
Default roles in a software line-of-business organizations
Organization Manager
Software Engineering Process Authority Process definition Process improvement Project Review Authority Project compliance Periodic risk assessment

Part 3

Software Engineering Environment Authority

Infrastructure
Project administration Engineering skill centers Professional development

Process automation

Project A Manager

Project B Manager

Project N Manager

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Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Project Organizations

Part 3

Software Management Team

Artifacts

Systems Engineering Financial Administration Quality Assurance

Business case Vision Software development plan Work breakdown structure Status assessments Requirements set

Responsibilities

Life-Cycle Focus
Inception
Elaboration phase planning Team formulating Contract base lining Architecture costs

Resource commitments Personnel assignments Plans, priorities, Stakeholder satisfaction Scope definition Risk management Project control
Transition
Customer satisfaction Contract closure Sales support Next-generation planning

Elaboration
Construction phase planning Full staff recruitment Risk resolution Product acceptance criteria Construction costs

Construction
Transition phase planning Construction plan optimization Risk management

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Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Project Organizations

Part 3

Software Architecture Team

Artifacts

Architecture description Requirements set Design set Release specifications

Demonstrations Use-case modelers Design modelers Performance analysts

Responsibilities

Requirements trade-offs Design trade-offs Component selection Initial integration Technical risk solution

Life-Cycle Focus
Inception
Architecture prototyping Make/buy trade-offs Primary scenario definition Architecture evaluation criteria definition

Elaboration
Architecture base lining Primary scenario demonstration Make/buy trade-offs base lining

Construction
Architecture maintenance Multiple-component issue resolution Performance tuning Quality improvements

Transition
Architecture maintenance Multiple-component issue resolution Performance tuning Quality improvements

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Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Project Organizations

Part 3

Software Development Team

Component teams

Artifacts

Design set Implementation set Deployment set

Responsibilities
Component Component Component Component Component

design implementation stand-alone test maintenance documentation

Life-Cycle Focus
Inception
Prototyping support Make/buy trade-offs

Elaboration
Critical component design Critical component implementation and test Critical component base line

Construction
Component Component Component Component design implementation stand-alone test maintenance

Transition
Component maintenance Component documentation

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Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Project Organizations

Part 3

Software Assessment Team

Artifacts

Deployment set SCO database User manual Environment Release specifications Release descriptions Deployment documents
Inception
Infrastructure planning Primary scenario prototyping

Release testing Change management Deployment Environment support

Responsibilities

Life-Cycle Focus
Construction

Project infrastructure Independent testing Requirements verification Metrics analysis Configuration control Change management User deployment
Transition
Infrastructure maintenance Release base lining Change management Deployment to users Requirements verification

Elaboration
Infrastructure base lining Architecture release testing Change management Initial user manual

Infrastructure upgrades Release testing Change management User manual base line Requirements verification

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Project Organizations and Responsibilities

Evolution of Organizations

Part 3

Software management 50% Software architecture 20% Software development 20% Software assessment 10% Software architecture 50%

Software management 10% Software development 20% Software assessment 20%

Inception
Transition
Software management 10% Software architecture 5% Software development 35% Software assessment 50%

Elaboration
Construction
Software management 10% Software architecture 10% Software development 50% Software assessment 30%

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Process Automation
Computer-aided software engineering

Part 3

Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) is software to support software development and evolution processes. Activity automation

Graphical editors for system model development; Data dictionary to manage design entities; Graphical UI builder for user interface construction; Debuggers to support program fault finding; Automated translators to generate new versions of a program.

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Process Automation
Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) Technology

Part 3

Case technology has led to significant improvements in the software process. However, these are not the order of magnitude improvements that were once predicted

Software engineering requires creative thought this is not readily automated; Software engineering is a team activity and, for large projects, much time is spent in team interactions. CASE technology does not really support these.
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Process Automation
CASE Classification

Part 3

Classification helps us understand the different types of CASE tools and their support for process activities. Functional perspective

Tools are classified according to their specific function.

Process perspective

Tools are classified according to process activities that are supported.

Tools are classified according to their organisation into integrated units.

Integration perspective

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Process Automation
Functional Tool Classification
To y e o l tp P n in to ls la n g o E it gto ls d in o C a gema ae e t to ls hn n g mn o C n u tio m n g m t to ls o fig ra n a a e en o P to p gto ls ro ty in o Mth d p o to ls e o -su p rt o Lag ag-p ce n to ls n u e ro ssi g o P g ma ly to ls ro ra na sis o T st g o ls ein t o D u g gto ls eb g in o D um tato to ls oc en i n o R -e g e gto ls e n inerin o Ea p s x m le P ERT o e to ls, stim io to ls sp a sh et at n o , re d e s T x e to , d g me ito , w rdp c ss rs et di rs ia ra d rs o ro e o R q ire en stracab tyto s,c an e cn l s ste s eu m t e ili ol h g o tro y m V si n m agm n y e , syse u in o ls er o a e e t sst ms t m b n ild g t o V y h h v la g ag , us in e ce e er t o er ig -le el n u es er t rfa g n a rs D sig e to , d tad tio a s,co eg n a rs e n di rs a ic n rie d e er to C p rs in pr t r s omile , ter e e C s re re ceg n a o , s a a ly rs d n m a al s r ros fe n e er t rs t tic na se , y a ic n y e s T st d t a e er to fileco ar to e a g n a rs, mp a rs In a ive b g in sst ms ter ct de u g g y e Pg a o p g a e ly ut ro ramsm a ee it o , i g d rs C s e e e sst msp g mre truc rin s stem ros-rfer nc y e , ro ra -s tu g y s

Part 3

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Process Automation
CASE Integration

Part 3

Tools

Support individual process tasks such as design consistency checking, text editing, etc. Support a process phase such as specification or design, Normally include a number of integrated tools. Support all or a substantial part of an entire software process. Normally include several integrated workbenches.
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Workbenches

Environments

Process Automation
Tools, Workbenches, Environments
CASE te c hnolo gy

Part 3

T ools

W orkbe nche s

En onm ents vir

Editors

Com pile rs

File c om pa r tor s a

I nteg d rate e nvir onm ents

P roce ss- ce ntr d e e nvir onm ents

Anal sis and y design

Pr ogra m m ing

T sting e

Multi-m ethod workbe nche s

Single- m e thod workbe nche s

Ge ne a l- purpose r workbe nche s

La ngua spe c ific geworkbe nche s

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Project Control and Process Instrumentation

The Core Metrics

Part 3

METRIC
Work and progress

PURPOSE
Iteration planning, plan vs. actuals, management indicator Financial insight, plan vs. actuals, management indicator Resource plan vs. actuals, hiring rate, attrition rate Iteration planning, management indicator of schedule convergence Convergence, software scrap, quality indicator Convergence, software rework, quality indicator

PERSPECTIVES
SLOC, function points, object points, scenarios, test cases, SCOs Cost per month, full-time staff per month, percentage of budget expended People per month added, people per month leaving Software changes

Budget cost and expenditures

Staffing and team dynamics

Change traffic and stability

Breakage and modularity

Reworked SLOC per change, by type, by release/component/subsystem Average hours per change, by type, by release/component/subsystem

Rework and adoptability

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Tailoring the Process

Process Discriminants

Part 3

The two primary dimensions of process variability

Higher technical complexity
Embedded, real-time, distributed, fault-tolerant High-performance, portable Unprecedented, architecture reengineering

Average software project

5 to 10 people 10 to 12 months 3 to 5 external interfaces Some unknowns, risks

Lower management complexity

Smaller scale Informal Few stakeholders Products

Higher management complexity

Large scale Contractual Many stakeholders Projects

Lower technical complexity

Straightforward automation, single thread Interactive performance, single platform Many precedent systems, application re-engineering

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Example: Small-Scale Project vs. Large-Scale Project

Differences in workflow priorities between small and large projects

Tailoring the Process

Part 3

Rank

Small Commercial Project Design Implementation

Large Complex Project Management Design

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Deployment
Requirements Assessments Management Environment

Requirements
Assessment Environment Implementation Deployment

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Looking Forward

Part 4

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Looking Forward
Table of Contents

Part 4

Modern Project Profiles

Continuous Integration Early Risk Resolution Evolutionary Requirements Teamwork Among Stakeholders Top 10 Software Management Principles Software Management Best Practices

Next-Generation Software Economics

Next-Generation Cost Models Modern Software Economics

Modern Process Transitions

Culture Shifts Denouement

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Modern Project Profiles Continuous Integration

Differences in workflow cost allocations between a conventional process and a modern process
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING WORKFLOWS
Management Environment Requirements Design Implementation Assessment Deployment Total

Part 4

CONVENTIONAL PROCESS EXPENDITURES

5% 5% 5% 10% 30% 40% 5% 100%

MODERN PROCESS EXPENDITURES

10% 10% 10% 15% 25% 25% 5% 100%

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Modern Project Profiles Continuous Integration The continuous integration inherent in an iterative development process enables better insight into quality trade-offs. System characteristics that are largely inherent in the architecture (performance, fault tolerance, maintainability) are tangible earlier in the process, when issues are still correctable.

Part 4

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Modern Project Profiles Early Risk Resolution

Conventional projects usually do the easy stuff first, modern process attacks the important 20% of the requirements, use cases, components, and risks. The effect of the overall life-cycle philosophy on the 80/20 lessons provides a useful risk management perspective.
80% of the engineering is consumed by 20% of the requirements.
80% of the software cost is consumed by 20% of the components. 80% of the errors are caused by 20% of the components.

Part 4

80% of the progress is made by 20% of the people. "Software Project Management" Walker 86/112

Modern Project Profiles Evolutionary Requirements

Conventional approaches decomposed system requirements into subsystem requirements, subsystem requirements into component requirements, and component requirements into unit requirements. The organization of requirements was structured so traceability was simple. Most modern architectures that use commercial components, legacy components, distributed resources and object-oriented methods are not trivially traced to the requirements they satisfy.

Part 4

The artifacts are now intended to evolve along with the process, with more and more fidelity as the life-cycle progresses and the requirements understanding matures. "Software Project Management" Walker 87/112

Modern Project Profiles Teamwork among stakeholders

Many aspects of the classic development process cause stakeholder relationships to degenerate into mutual distrust, making it difficult to balance requirements, product features, and plans. The process with more-effective working relationships between stakeholders requires that customers, users and monitors have both applications and software expertise, remain focused on the delivery of a usable system It also requires a development organization that is focused on achieving customer satisfaction and high product quality in a profitable manner. The transition from the exchange of mostly paper artifacts to demonstration of intermediate results is one of the crucial mechanisms for promoting teamwork among stakeholders.

Part 4

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Modern Project Profiles Top 10 Software Management Principles

1. Base the process on an architecture-first approach rework
rates remain stable over the project life cycle.

Part 4

2. Establish an iterative life-cycle process that confronts risk early 3. Transition design methods to emphasize component-based development
4. Establish a change management environment the dynamics
of iterative development, including concurrent workflows by different teams working on shared artifacts, necessitate highly controlled baselines

5. Enhance change freedom through tools that support round-trip engineering

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Modern Project Profiles Top 10 Software Management Principles

6. Capture design artifacts in rigorous, model-based notation 7. Instrument the process for objective quality control and progress assessment 8. Use a demonstration-based approach to asses intermediate artifacts

Part 4

9. Plan intermediate releases in groups of usage scenarios with evolving levels of detail
10. Establish a configurable process that is economically scalable

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Modern Project Profiles Software Management Best Practices

There is nine best practices:
1. Formal risk management

Part 4

2. Agreement on interfaces
3. Formal inspections 4. Metric-based scheduling and management 5. Binary quality gates at the inch-pebble level 6. Program-wide visibility of progress versus plan. 7. Defect tracking against quality targets 8. Configuration management 9. People-aware management accountability

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Next-Generation Software Economics Next-Generation Cost Models

Software experts hold widely varying opinions about software economics and its manifestation in software cost estimation models:

Part 4

source lines of code

productivity measures Java object-oriented

function points
quality measures C++ functionally oriented

VERSUS

It will be difficult to improve empirical estimation models while the project data going into these models are noisy and highly uncorrelated, and are based on differing process and technology foundations.

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Next-Generation Software Economics Next-Generation Cost Models

Some of todays popular software cost models are not well matched to an iterative software process focused an architecture-first approach Many cost estimators are still using a conventional process experience base to estimate a modern project profile A next-generation software cost model should explicitly separate architectural engineering from application production, just as an architecture-first process does.

Part 4

Two major improvements in next-generation software cost estimation models:

Separation of the engineering stage from the production stage will force estimators to differentiate between architectural scale and implementation size. Rigorous design notations such as UML will offer an opportunity to define units of measure for scale that are more standardized and therefore can be automated and tracked.

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Next-Generation Software Economics Modern Software Economics

Changes that provide a good description of what an organizational manager should strive for in making the transition to a modern process:

Part 4

1. Finding and fixing a software problem after delivery costs 100 times more than fixing the problem in early design phases
2. You can compress software development schedules 25% of nominal, but no more. 3. For every $1 you spend on development, you will spend $2 on maintenance. 4. Software development and maintenance costs are primarily a function of the number of source lines of code.

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Next-Generation Software Economics Modern Software Economics

5. Variations among people account for the biggest differences in software productivity. 6. The overall ratio of software to hardware costs is still growing in 1955 it was 15:85; in 1985 85:15. 7. Only about 15% of software development effort is devoted to programming.

Part 4

8. Software systems and products typically cost 3 times as much per SLOC as individual software programs.
9. Walkthroughs catch 60% of the errors.

10. 80% of the contribution comes from 20% of the contributors. "Software Project Management" Walker 95/112

Modern Process Transitions Culture Shifts

Several culture shifts must be overcome to transition successfully to a modern software management process:
Lower level and mid-level managers are performers Requirements and designs are fluid and tangible Good and bad project performance is much more obvious earlier in the life cycle Artifacts are less important early, more important later

Part 4

Real issues are surfaced and resolved systematically

Quality assurance is everyones job, not a separate discipline Performance issues arise early in the life cycle Investments in automation is necessary Good software organization should be more profitable

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Modern Process Transitions Denouement

Good way to transition to a more mature iterative development process that supports automation technologies and modern architectures is to take the following shot: Ready.
Do your homework. Analyze modern approaches and technologies. Define your process. Support it with mature environments, tools, and components. Plan thoroughly.

Part 4

Aim.
Select a critical project. Staff it with the right team of complementary resources and demand improved results.

Fire.

Execute the organizational and project-level plans with vigor and follow-through.

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Appendix

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Appendix Use Case Analysis

What is a Use Case?

A sequence of actions a system performs that yields a valuable result for a particular actor. A user or outside system that interacts with the system being designed in order to obtain some value from that interaction

What is an Actor?

Use Cases describe scenarios that describe the interaction between users of the system and the system itself. Use Cases describe WHAT the system will do, but never HOW it will be done.
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Appendix Whats in a Use Case?

Define the start state and any preconditions that accompany it Define when the Use Case starts Define the order of activity in the Main Flow of Events Define any Alternative Flows of Events Define any Exceptional Flows of Events Define any Post Conditions and the end state Mention any design issues as an appendix Accompanying diagrams: State, Activity, Sequence Diagrams View of Participating Objects (relevant Analysis Model Classes) Logical View: A View of the Actors involved with this Use Case, and any Use Cases used or extended by this Use Case
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Use Cases Describe Function not Form

Appendix

Use Cases describe WHAT the system will do, but never HOW it will be done. Use Cases are Analysis Products, not Design Products.

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Use Cases Describe Function not Form

Appendix

Use Cases describe WHAT the system should do, but never HOW it will be done Use cases are Analysis products, not design products

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Appendix Benefits of Use Cases

Use cases are the primary vehicle for requirements capture in RUP Use cases are described using the language of the customer (language of the domain which is defined in the glossary) Use cases provide a contractual delivery process (RUP is Use Case Driven) Use cases provide an easily-understood communication mechanism When requirements are traced, they make it difficult for requirements to fall through the cracks Use cases provide a concise summary of what the system should do at an abstract (low modification cost) level.
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Appendix Difficulties with Use Cases

As functional decompositions, it is often difficult to make the transition from functional description to object description to class design Reuse at the class level can be hindered by each developer taking a Use Case and running with it. Since UCs do not talk about classes, developers often wind up in a vacuum during object analysis, and can often wind up doing things their own way, making reuse difficult Use Cases make stating non-functional requirements difficult (where do you say that X must execute at Y/sec?) Testing functionality is straightforward, but unit testing the particular implementations and non-functional requirements is not obvious
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Appendix Use Case Model Survey

The Use Case Model Survey is to illustrate, in graphical form, the universe of Use Cases that the system is contracted to deliver. Each Use Case in the system appears in the Survey with a short description of its main function.

Participants: Domain Expert Architect Analyst/Designer (Use Case author) Testing Engineer
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Appendix Sample Use Case Model Survey

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Appendix Analysis Model

In Analysis, we analyze and refine the requirements described in the Use Cases in order to achieve a more precise view of the requirements, without being overwhelmed with the details Again, the Analysis Model is still focusing on WHAT were going to do, not HOW were going to do it (Design Model). But what were going to do is drawn from the point of view of the developer, not from the point of view of the customer Whereas Use Cases are described in the language of the customer, the Analysis Model is described in the language of the developer:

Boundary Classes Entity Classes Control Classes

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Why spend time on the Analysis Model, why not just face the cliff?

Appendix

By performing analysis, designers can inexpensively come to a better understanding of the requirements of the system By providing such an abstract overview, newcomers can understand the overall architecture of the system efficiently, from a birds eye view, without having to get bogged down with implementation details. The Analysis Model is a simple abstraction of what the system is going to do from the point of view of the developers. By speaking the developers language, comprehension is improved and by abstracting, simplicity is achieved Nevertheless, the cost of maintaining the AM through construction is weighed against the value of having it all along.
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Appendix Boundary Classes

Boundary classes are used in the Analysis Model to model interactions between the system and its actors (users or external systems) Boundary classes are often implemented in some GUI format (dialogs, widgets, beans, etc.) Boundary classes can often be abstractions of external APIs (in the case of an external system actor) Every boundary class must be associated with at least one actor:

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Appendix Entity Classes

Entity classes are used within the Analysis Model to model persistent information Often, entity classes are created from objects within the business object model or domain model

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Appendix Control Classes

The Great Et Cetera Control classes model abstractions that coordinate, sequence, transact, and otherwise control other objects In Smalltalk MVC mechanism, these are controllers Control classes are often encapsulated interactions between other objects, as they handle and coordinate actions and control flows.

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Literature

Software Project Management A Unified Framework Walker Royce Software Processes Ian Sommerville 2004 Process and Method: An Introduction to the Rational Unified Process

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