Chapter 7

IIR Filter Design

Content
Preliminaries
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Frequency Transformations
Preliminaries
How to design a digital filter
First: Specifications
The design of a digital filter is carried out in three steps:
Before we can design a filter, we must have some
specifications. These specifications are determined
by the applications.
Second: Approximations
Once the specifications are defined, we use various
concepts and mathematics to come up with a filter
description that approximates the given set of
specifications. This step is the topic of filter design.
Preliminaries
Third: Implementation
The product of the above step is a filter description
in the form of either a difference equation, or a
system function, or an impulse response. From this
description we implement the filter in hardware or
software on a computer.
In this and the next chapter we will discuss in detail
only the second step, which is the conversion of
specification into a filter description.
Preliminaries
In many applications, digital filters are used to implement
frequency-selective operations;
Therefore, specifications are required in the frequency-
domain in terms of the desired magnitude and phase
response of the filter;
Generally a linear phase response in the passband is
desirable;
An FIR filter is possible to have an exact linear phase;
An IIR filter is impossible to have linear phase in passband.
Hence we will consider magnitude-only specifications.
The specifications
Preliminaries
There are two ways to give the magnitude specifications
Absolute specifications
Provide a set of requirements on the magnitude response
function and generally used for FIR filters. ) (
e j
e H
a e H
e H a
s
j
p
j
s s s
s s s
| | ) (
| | 1 ) ( 1
2
1
e
e e
e
e ] , 0 [
p
e
Passband
] , [ t e
s
Stopband
] , [
s p
e e
Transition band
The ending frequency of the passband. Bandwidth
p
e
The beginning frequency of the stopband.
s
e
The tolerance (or ripple) in passband
1
a
The tolerance (or ripple) in stopband
2
a
Preliminaries
Relative specifications (dB)
Provide requirements in decibels (dB). This approach is
the most popular one in practice and used for both FIR
and IIR filters
2
0
2
1
0
1
lg 20 ) ( lg 20
) (
) (
lg 20
) 1 lg( 20 ) ( lg 20
) (
) (
lg 20
a e H
e H
e H
a e H
e H
e H
s
s
p
p
j
j
j
j
j
j
= = =
= = =
e
e
e
e
o
o
The maximum tolerable passband ripple
1
o
p
R
The minimum tolerable stopband attenuation
2
o
s
A
Preliminaries
Examples
In a certain filters specifications the passband
ripple is 0.25dB, and the stopband attenuation is
50dB. Determine the a
1
and a
2
.
0.0032 10 , lg 20 50
0.0284 10 1 ), 1 lg( 20 25 . 0
)
20
50
(
2 2 2
)
20
25 . 0
(
1 1 1
= = = =
= = = =

a a
a a
o
o
Preliminaries
dB 60 001 . 0 lg 20 lg 20
0.1755dB ) 02 . 0 1 lg( 20 ) 1 lg( 20
2 2
1 1
= = =
= = =
a
a
o
o
Given the passband tolerance a
1
=0.02 and the
stopband tolerance a
2
=0.001, determine the
passband ripple and the stopband attenuation
1
o
2
o
Preliminaries
The basic technique of IIR filter design
IIR filters have infinite-length impulse responses,
hence they can be matched to analog filters.
Analog filter design is a mature and well
developed field.
We can begin the design of a digital filter in the
analog domain and then convert the design into
the digital domain
Preliminaries
There are two approaches to this basic technique
Approach 1
Design analog
lowpass filter
Apply freq. band
transformation
s s
Apply filter
transformation
s z
Designed
IIR filter
Approach 2
Design analog
lowpass filter
Apply filter
transformation
s z
Apply freq. band
transformation
z z
Designed
IIR filter
return
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
Magnitude-squared function
s a
p a
A
j H
j H
O > O s O s
O s O s O s
+
| | ,
1
) ( 0
| | , 1 ) (
1
1
2
2
2
2
c
Let be the frequency response of an analog filter
) ( O j H
a
is a passband ripple parameter
c
is the passband cutoff frequency in rad/sec
p
O
is the stopband cutoff frequency in rad/sec
s
O
is a stopband attenuation parameter
A
s a
p a
A
j H
j H
O = O = O
O = O
+
= O
at
1
) (
at
1
1
) (
2
2
2
2
c
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
O =
= O
j s
a a
s H j H ) ( ) (
The properties of
2
) ( O j H
a
O =
-
= O O = O O = O
j s
a a a a a a a
s H s H j H j H j H j H j H ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
) (t h
a
is a real function
The poles and zeros of are distributed in
a mirror-image symmetry with respect to the axis.
For real filters, poles and zeros occur in complex
conjugate pairs.
O j
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

2 2
2
) ( ) ( ) (
s
a a a
j H s H s H
= O
O =
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
O j
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

o
0
2
2
s-plane
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
How to construct
) (s H
a
) (s H
a
is the system function of the analog filter. It must be
causal and stable. Then all poles of must lie within
the left half-plane.
) (s H
a
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

All left-half poles of should be assigned to
) (s H
a
) (s H
a
) ( s H
a

Zeros are not uniquely determined. They can be halved
between and . (Zeros in each half must occur
in complex conjugate pairs)
If a minimum-phase filter is required, the left-half zeros
should be assigned to
) (s H
a
Examples
) 36 )( 49 (
) 25 ( 16
) (
2 2
2 2
2
O + O +
O
= O j H
a
) 36 )( 49 (
) 25 ( 16
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
s s
s
j H s H s H
s
a a a

+
= O =
= O
poles
6 , 7 = = s s
2
th
order zeros
5 j s =
We can assign left-half poles and a pair
of conjugate zeros to
6 , 7 = = s s
5 j s =
) (s H
a
) 6 )( 7 (
) 25 (
) (
2
0
+ +
+
=
s s
s K
s H
a
4
) ( ) (
0
0 0
=
O =
= O =
K
j H s H
a
s
a

42 13
100 4
) 6 )( 7 (
) 25 ( 4
) (
2
2 2
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
s s
s
s s
s
s H
a
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
Butterworth lowpass filters
This filter is characterized by the property that its
magnitude response is flat in both passband and
stopband. The magnitude-squared function of an
N
th
-order lowpass filter is given by
N
c
a
j H
2
2
1
1
) (
|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+
= O
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
The properties of Butterworth lowpass filters
At , for all N 1 ) ( = O j H
a
0 = O
707 . 0
2
1
) ( = = O j H
a
At , for all N, which
implies a 3dB attenuation at
c
O = O
c
O = O
) ( O j H
a
is a monotonically decreasing function of
O
) ( O j H
a
approaches an ideal lowpass filter as
N
) ( O j H
a
0 = O
is maximally flat at since derivatives of
all orders exist and are equal to zero
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
The poles and zeros of
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

N
c
N
N
c
N
c
j s
a a a
j s
j
j
s
j H s H s H
2 2
2
2
/
2
) (
) (

1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
O +
O
=
|
.
|

\
|
O
+
= O =
= O
N k e j s
N
k
j
c c
N
k
2 , , 2 , 1 , ) ( ) 1 (
)
2
1 2
2
1
(
2
1
= O = O =

+ t
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

There are 2N poles of , which are equally
distributed on a circle of radius with angular spacing
of radians.
c
O
N
t
If the N is odd, there are poles on real axis.
If the N is even, there are not poles on real axis.
The poles are symmetrically located with respect to
the imaginary axis.
A pole never falls on the imaginary axis, and falls on
the real axis only if N is odd.
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
[
=

O
=
N
k
k
N
c
a
s s
s H
1
) (
) (
N k e s
N
k
j
c k
, , 2 , 1 ,
)
2
1 2
2
1
(
= O =

+ t
In general, we consider and this results in a
normalized Butterworth analog prototype filter
rad/s 1 = O
c
) (s H
an
) ( ) (
c
an a
s
H s H
O
=
When designing an actual filter with , we
can simply do a replacement for s, that is
) (s H
a
rad/s 1 = O
c
Designing equations
Given , two parameters are required to
determine a Butterworth lowpass filters :
2 1
, , , o o
s p
O O
c
N O ,
2
2
1
2
1 lg 20
1 lg 20
o
o
=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+ O = O
=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+ O = O
N
c
s
s
N
c
p
p
at
at
Solving these two equations for
c
N O ,
(
,
) lg( 2
) 1 10 /( ) 1 10 ( lg

10 10
2 1
N N N
s
p
'
=
O
O
(

=
'
o o
p
O
Since the actual N chosen is larger than required,
specifications can be either met or exceeded at or
s
O
p
O
To satisfy the specifications exactly at
s
O
To satisfy the specifications exactly at
N
s
c
2
10
1 10
2

O
= O
o
N
p
c
2
10
1 10
1

O
= O
o
Example
Determine the system function of 3
th
-order Butterworth
analog lowpass filter. Suppose
rad/s 2 = O
c
6 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
) (
|
.
|

\
|
O
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+
= O
N
c
a
j H
6 , , 2 , 1 , 2
)
6
1 2
2
1
(
= =

+
k e s
k
j
k
t
64
1
1
) ( ) (
6
s
s H s H
a a

=
8 8 4
8
) )( )( (
) (
2 3
3 2 1
3
+ + +
=

O
=
s s s s s s s s s
s H
c
a
Solution:
Design the above filter with normalized Butterworth
analog prototype filter. See table 6-4 on page 261
1 , ) (
0
2
2 1 0
0
= =
+ + + +
=
N
N
N
an
a a
s a s a s a a
d
s H

in case of 1 ) 0 ( = j H
a
0 0
a d =
3 = N
For
2 , 2
2 1
= = a a
We can find
3 2
3 2
2
4 8 8
8
)
2
( )
2
( 2 )
2
( 2 1
1
) ( ) (
s s s
s s s
s H s H
s
s
an a
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
=
=
2
s s
s
c
=
O

Design a lowpass Butterworth filter to satisfy:

rad/s 10 2 0 for dB 1
4
1
s O s s t o
Passband
Stopband
rad/s 10 5 . 1 2 for dB 15
4
2
> O > t o
Solution:
15
10 5 . 1 2
1 lg 20
1
10 2
1 lg 20
2
4
2
4
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
O

+
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
O

+
N
c
N
c
t
t
rad/s 10 5 . 1 2 dB, 15
rad/s 10 2 dB, 1
4
s 2
4
p 1
= O =
= O =
t o
t o
rad/s 10 13 . 1 2
4
= O t
c
5.8858
10 5 . 1 2
10 2
lg 2
) 1 10 /( ) 1 10 ( lg
) lg( 2
) 1 10 /( ) 1 10 ( lg

4
4
10
15
10
1
10 10
2 1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|


(

=
O
O
(

=
'
t
t
o o
s
p
N
6 = N
4
12
10
15
4
2
10
10 1.1279 2
1 10
10 5 . 1 2
1 10
2
=

O
= O t
t
o
N
s
c
Look for table 6-4 on page 261
864 . 3 , 464 . 7 , 142 . 9 , 464 . 7 , 864 . 3
5 4 3 2 1
= = = = = a a a a a
6 5 4 3 2
6 5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2 1
864 . 3 464 . 7 142 . 9 464 . 7 864 . 3 1
1
1
1
) (
s s s s s s
s s a s a s a s a s a
s H
an
+ + + + + +
=
+ + + + + +
=
= = =

=
O
=
4
10 13 . 1 2
) ( ) ( ) (
t
s
s
an
s
s
an a
s H s H s H
c
6 5 5 4 10 3 15 2 20 24 29
29
10 2.74 10 3.76 10 3.27 10 1.90 10 6.97 10 1.28
10 1.28
s s s s s s + + + + + +

Look for table 6-6 on page 263
259 . 0 966 . 0
707 . 0 707 . 0
966 . 0 259 . 0
4 , 3
5 , 2
6 , 1
j s
j s
j s
=
=
=
To construct a cascade structure
) 1.00 1.93 )( 1.00 1.41 )( 1.00 0.52 (
1
) )( )( )( )( )( (
1
) (
2 2 2
6 5 4 3 2 1
+ + + + + +
=

=
s s s s s s
s s s s s s s s s s s s
s H
an
4
10 13 . 1 2
=
O

t
s s
s
c
) 10 5.04 10 1.37 )( 10 5.04 10 )( 10 5.04 10 3.69 (
10 28 . 1
) (
9 5 2 9 5 2 9 4 2
29
+ + + + + +

=
s s s s s s
s H
a
Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
Chebyshev lowpass filters
There are two types of Chebyshev filters
Chebyshev-I: equiripple in the passband and monotonic in
the stopband.
Chebyshev-II: monotonic in the passband and equiripple in
the stopband.
Chebyshev filters can provide lower order than Butterworth
filters for the same specifications.
|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+
= O
c
N
a
C
j H
2 2
2
1
1
) (
c
Chebyshev-I
N is the order of the filter
is the N
th
-order Chebyshev polynomial given by
2
N
C

O
O
=
>
s
=

c
N
x
x x N
x x N
x C where
1 | | ), ch ( ch
1 | | ), cos cos(
) (
-1
1
x x C x C
x C x xC x C
N N N
= =
=
+
) ( , 1 ) (
) ( ) ( 2 ) (
1 0
1 1

is the passband ripple factor.
c
1 0 < <c
|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+
= O
c
N
a
C
j H
2 2
2
1
1
) (
c
|
.
|

\
|
O
O
+
= O
c
N
a
C
j H
2 2
1
1
) (
c
The properties of Chebyshev lowpass filters
At :
0 = O
even is for
1
1
) 0 (
odd is for 1 ) 0 (
2
N j H
N j H
a
a
c +
=
=
At :
c
O = O
N j H
c a
all for
2
1
1
) (
c +
= O
For :
c
O s O s 0
2
1
1
~ 1 between oscillates
c +
O) ( j H
a
c
O > O
For :
0 to lly monotonica decreases ) ( O j H
a
s
O = O
For :
A
j H
s a
1
) ( = O
Designing equations
Given , two parameters are required to
determine a Chebyshev-I filter:
2 1
, , , o o
s c
O O
N , c
1 10
1
1 . 0 2
=
o
c
(

O
O
(

>

c
s
ch
ch
N
1
1 . 0
1 1 10
2
c
o

O = O

c
o
1 10 1
2
1 . 0
1
ch
N
ch
c s
(

O = O

c
1 1 1
3
ch
N
ch
c dB
Note: this is only for
dB c 3
O < O
Determine system function
To determine a causal and stable , we must find
the poles of and select the left half-plane
poles for . The poles are obtained by finding the
roots of
) (s H
a
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

) (s H
a
0 1
2 2
=
|
.
|

\
|
O
+
c
N
j
s
C c
It can be shown that if
are the (left half-plane) roots of the above polynomial,
then
N k j s
k k k
, , 2 , 1 = O + = o
(

O = O
(

O =
N
k
b
N
k
a
c k
c k
2
) 1 2 (
cos ) (
2
) 1 2 (
sin ) (
t
t
o

N k , , 2 , 1 =
1
1 1
2
+ + =
c
c

) (
2
1
), (
2
1
1 1 1 1
N N N N
b a

+ = =
=

=
N
k
k
a
s s
K
s H
1
) (
) (

+
=
even is N ,
1
1
odd is N , 1
) 0 (
2
c
j H
a
Where K is a normalizing factor chosen to make
Determine poles by geometric method
The poles of fall on an ellipse with major axis
and minor axis .
) ( ) ( s H s H
a a

c
bO
c
aO
o
O j
c
bO
c
aO
N
t
Determine the system function of 2
th
-order Chebyshev-I
lowpass filter. Suppose and
rad/s 1 = O
c
dB 1
1
= o
2589 . 0 1 10 1 10
1 . 0 1 . 0 2
1
= = =
o
c
From table 6-5 on page 261
2
0
2
1 0
0
0977 . 1 1025 . 1
) (
s s
d
s s a a
d
s H
a
+ +
=
+ +
=
0977 . 1
1025 . 1
1
0
=
=
a
a
0.8913
2589 . 1
1
1
1
) 0 (
2
= =
+
=
c
j H
a
9827 . 0 , 8913 . 0
1025 . 1
) (
0
0
0
= = =
=
d
d
s H
s
a
Examples
Solution:
Design a lowpass Chebyshev-I filter to satisfy:
rad/s 10 2
4
= O t
c
Passband cutoff:
dB 1
1
= o
Passband ripple:
Stopsband cutoff: rad/s 10 5 . 1 2
4
= O t
s
Stopband attenuation:
dB 15
2
= o
Solution:
5088 . 0 1 10 1 10
1 . 0 1 . 0
1
= = =
o
c
3.1978
) 5 . 1 (
(10.8761)
1 10
1
1
1
1 . 0
1
2
= =
(

O
O
(
(

>

ch
ch
ch
ch
N
c
s
c
o
4 = N 5088 . 0 = c
Look for table 6-5 on page 261
dB 1
1
= o
9528 . 0 , 4539 . 1 , 7426 . 0 2756 . 0
3 2 1 0
= = = = a a a a
4 3 2
0
4 3
3
2
2 1 0
0
9528 . 0 4539 . 1 7426 . 0 2756 . 0
) (
s s s s
d
s s a s a s a a
d
s H
an
+ + + +
=
+ + + +
=
0.8913
2589 . 1
1
1
1
) 0 (
2
= =
+
=
c
j H
a
0.2456 , 0.8913
2756 . 0
) (
0
0
0
= = =
=
d
d
s H
s
an
4 3 2
9528 . 0 4539 . 1 7426 . 0 2756 . 0
2456 . 0
) (
s s s s
s H
an
+ + + +
=
4
10 2
=
O

t
s s
s
c
4 3 4 2 9 14 18
18
10 5.9866 10 5.7398 10 1.8420 10 4.2954
10 3.8278
) (
s s s s
s H
a
+ + + +

=
Look for table 6-7 on page 264
4073 . 0 3369 . 0 , 9834 . 0 1395 . 0
3 , 2 4 , 1
j s j s = =
To construct a cascade structure
) 0.2794 6738 . 0 )( 0.9865 2790 . 0 (
2456 . 0
) )( )( )( (
) (
2 2
4 3 2 1
0
+ + + +
=

=
s s s s
s s s s s s s s
d
s H
an
4
10 2
=
O

t
s s
s
c
) 10 1.1030 10 4.2336 )( 10 3.8945 10 1.7530 (
10 8278 . 3
) (
9 4 2 9 4 2
18
+ + + +

=
s s s s
s H
a
return
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Impulse invariance transformation
Definition
To design an IIR filter having a unit sample response h(n)
that is the sampled version of the impulse response of the
analog filter. That is
) ( ) ( nT h n h
a
=
T : Sampling interval
T j j
e e T
O
= O =
e
e or ,
Since this is a sampling operation, the analog and digital
frequencies are related by
The system function and are related by
) (s H
a
) (z H

=
=
=
k
a
e z
k
T
j s H
T
z H
sT
)
2
(
1
) (
t
This implies a mapping from the s-plane to the z-plane
T
t
T
t

o
O j
0
T
t 3
T
t 3

] Re[z
] Im[ z j
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Properties
Using ] Re[s = o
UC) the of (outside 1 | z | into maps 0
UC) the (on 1 | z | into maps 0
UC) the of (inside 1 | z | into maps 0
> >
= =
< <
o
o
o
Since the entire left half of the s-plane maps into the unit
circle, a causal and stable analog filter maps into a causal
and stable digital filter.
All semi-infinite left strips of width map into .
Thus this mapping is not unique but a many-to-one mapping
T / 2t
1 | | < z
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
t e
e
e
< = | | ), (
1
) (
T
j H
T
e H
a
j
then
There will be no aliasing.
Frequency response

=
k
a
j
T
k
j H
T
e H )
2
(
1
) (
t e
e
T T
j H j H
a a
t e
> O = = O | | for 0 ) ( ) ( If
To minimize the effects of aliasing, the T should be
selected sufficiently small.
If the filter specifications are given in digital frequency
domain, we cannot reduce aliasing by selecting T.
Aliasing occurs if the filter is not exactly band-limited
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Digitalizing of analog filters

=

=
N
k k
k
a
s s
A
s H
1
) (
Using partial fraction expansion, expand into ) (s H
a
The corresponding impulse response is

= =
N
k
t s
k a a
t u e A s H L t h
k
1
1
) ( )] ( [ ) (

= =
= = =
N
k
n T s
k
N
k
nT s
k a
n u e A n u e A nT h n h
k k
1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
To sample the ) (t h
a
The z-transform of is ) (n h
=

= =

= = =
N
k
T s
k
n
N
k
n T s
k
n
n
z e
A
z e A z n h z H
k
k
1
1
0 1
1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
Conclusions:

=

=
N
k k
k
a
s s
A
s H
1
) ( Compared with
The pole in s-plane is mapped to the pole in z-plane
k
s
T s
k
e
The partial fraction expansion coefficient of is the
same as that of
) (s H
a
) (z H
The zeros in the two domains do not satisfy the same
relationship
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
An alternative method
t e
e t e
e
< ~ =

=
=

=
=

| | ), ( )
2
( ) (
1
) (
) ( ) (
1
1
T
j H k
T
j
T
j H e H
z e
TA
z H
nT Th n h
a
k
a
j
N
k
T s
k
a
k
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Advantages and disadvantages
The digital filter impulse response is similar to that of a
analog filter. This means we can get a good approximations
in time domain.
Due to the presence of aliasing, this method is useful only
when the analog filter is essentially band-limited to a
lowpass or bandpass filter in which there are no oscillations
in the stopband.
It is a stable design and that the frequencies and
are linearly related. So a linear phase analog filter can be
mapped to a linear phase digital filter.
O
e
Design procedure
Choose T and determine the analog frequencies
Transform analog poles into digital poles to obtain the
digital filter
T T
s
s
p
p
e
e
= O = O ,
Given the digital lowpass filter specifications
2 1
, , , o o e e
s p
Design an analog filter using the specifications ) (s H
a
2 1
, , , o o
s p
O O

=

=
N
k k
k
a
s s
A
s H
1
) (
Using partial fraction expansion, expand into ) (s H
a
=

=
N
k
T s
k
z e
A
z H
k
1
1
1
) (
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Examples
Transform
3
1
1
1
3 4
2
) (
2
+

+
=
+ +
=
s s s s
s H
a
into a digital filter using the impulse invariance method
in which T=1
) (z H
2 1
1
4 2 3 1
3 1
3 1 1
0183 . 0 4177 . 0 1
3181 . 0
) ( 1
) (
1 1
) (

+
=
+ +

=

=
z z
z
e z e e z
e e Tz
e z
T
e z
T
z H
T T T
T T
T T
Design a lowpass digital filter using a Butterworth
prototype to satisfy
dB 15 , 3 . 0
dB 1 , 2 . 0
2
1
= =
= =
o t e
o t e
s
p
Solution
Let T=1, and then
t
e
t
e
3 . 0 , 2 . 0 = = O = = O
T T
s
s
p
p
Design an analog filter using the specifications ) (s H
a
2 1
, , , o o
s p
O O
6 5 4 3 2
717 . 2 691 . 3 179 . 3 825 . 1 664 . 0 121 . 0
121 . 0
) (
s s s s s s
s H
a
+ + + + + +
=

=

=
N
k k
k
a
s s
A
s H
1
) (
Using partial fraction expansion, expand into
) (s H
a
) 497 0 j 497 0 (
071 1
497 0 497 0
071 1
j0.679) 0.182 (
j0.249 0.144
j0.679) 0.182 (
j0.249 0.144
j0.182) 0.679 (
j1.607 0.928
j0.182) 0.679 (
j1.607 0.928
) (
. . s
.
) . j . ( s
.
s
s s s
s H
a


+
+

+


+
+
+
+

+
+
+

=
Transform analog poles into digital poles to obtain the
digital filter
=

=
N
k
T s
k
z e
A
z H
k
1
1
1
) (
2 1
1
2 1
1
2 1
1
645 . 0 297 . 1 1
446 . 0 287 . 0

370 . 0 069 . 1 1
1450 . 1 143 . 2
257 . 0 997 . 0 1
630 . 0 859 . 1
) (

+

+
+
+
+
+

=
z z
z
z z
z
z z
z
z H
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Bilinear transformation
Definition
This is a conformal mapping that transforms the -axis
into the unit circle in the z-plane only once, thus avoiding
aliasing of frequency components. This mapping is the
best transformation method.
O j
|
.
|

\
|
O
= O
2
tan
1
T
c
T j
T j
T
j
T
j
T
j
T
j
e
e
c
e e
e e
c j
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
2 2
2 2
O
O
O

O
O

O
+

=
+

= O
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

=
+

=
z
z
c
e
e
c s
T s
T s
s c
s c
z

+
=
T s
T s
e
e
c s
1
1
1
1

=
T s
e z
1
=
1
1
1
1

=
z
z
c s
T
t
T
t

1
O j
1
o
0
s
1
-plane
] Re[z
] Im[ z j
0
z-plane
0
O j
o
s-plane
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Parameter c
T
c
T
c
T
c
2
then ,
2 2
tan
1
1 1
= O ~ O
O
~
|
.
|

\
|
O
= O
Keeping a good corresponding relationship between
the analog filter and the digital filter in low frequencies.
i.e. in low frequencies
1
O ~ O
|
.
|

\
|
O =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
O
= O
2
cot then
2
tan c
2
tan
1 c
c
c c
c
c
T
c
e e
Keeping a good corresponding relationship between the
analog filter and the digital filter in a specific frequency
(for example, in the cutoff frequency, )
T
c c 1
O ~ e
Properties
Using , we obtain
O + = j s o
2 2
2 2
) (
) (
| | ,
) (
) (
O +
O + +
=
O
O + +
=

+
=
o
o
o
o
c
c
z
j c
j c
s c
s c
z
So 1 | | 0 , 1 | | 0 , 1 | | 0 > > = = < < z z z o o o
Using , we obtain
e j
e z =
O = =
+

=
+

j jc
e
e
c
z
z
c s
j
j
)
2
tan(
1
1
1
1
1
1
e
e
e
The imaginary axis maps onto the unit circle in a one-to-one
fashion. Hence there is no aliasing in the frequency domain.
The entire left half-plane maps into the inside of the unit
circle. Hence this is a stable transformation.
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Advantages and disadvantages
It is a stable design;
There is no aliasing;
There is no restriction on the type of filter that can
be transformed;.
O
e
The frequencies and are not linearly related.
So a linear phase analog filter cannot be mapped
to a linear phase digital filter.
Design procedure
Choose a value for T. We may set T=1
)
2
tan(
2
),
2
tan(
2
s
s
p
p
T T
e
e
= O = O
Given the digital lowpass filter specifications
2 1
, , , o o e e
s p
Prewarp the cutoff frequencies and ; that is
p
e
s
e
Design an analog filter to meet the specifications
2 1
, , , o o
s p
O O
) (s H
a
Finally, set
)
1
1 2
( ) (
1
1

=
z
z
T
H z H
a
and simplify to obtain as a rational function in ) (z H
1
z
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Examples
Transform

into a digital filter using the bilinear transformation.
Choose T=1
3 4
2
) (
2
+ +
=
s s
s H
a
2 1
2 1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.07 0.13 1
13 . 0 0.27 13 . 0
3
1
1
2 4
1
1
2
2
)
1
1
2 ( )
1
1 2
( ) (

+ +
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
+

=
+

=
z z
z z
z
z
z
z
z
z
H
z
z
T
H z H
a
T
a
Design the digital Chebyshev-I filter using bilinear
transformation. The specifications are:
dB 15 , 3 . 0
dB 1 , 2 . 0
2
1
= =
= =
o t e
o t e
s
p
Solution
Let T=1
1.0191 ) 15 . 0 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

0.6498 ) 1 . 0 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

= = = O
= = = O
t
e
t
e
s
s
p
p
T
T
Prewarp the cutoff frequencies
Design an analog Chebyshev-I filter to meet the
specifications
2 1
, , , o o
s p
O O
) (s H
a
0.0492 0.2038 0.6140 6192 . 0
0438 . 0
) (
2 3 4
+ + + +
=
s s s s
s H
a
) 0.6493 1.5548 1 )( 0.8482 1.4996 1 (
) 1 ( 0018 . 0
0.5507 2.2925 3.8290 3.0543 1
0.0018 0.0073 0.0110 0.0073 0018 . 0
) (
2 1 2 1
4 1
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1

+ +
+
=
+ +
+ + + +
=
z z z z
z
z z z z
z z z z
z H
Analog-to-Digital Filter Transformations
Comparison of three filters
Using different prototype analog filters will give out different
N and the minimum stopband attenuations.
dB 15 , 3 . 0
dB 1 , 2 . 0
2
1
= =
= =
o t e
o t e
s
p
Given the digital filter specifications:
prototype Order N Stopband Att.
Butterworth 6 15 dB
Chebyshev-I 4 25 dB
Elliptic 3 27 dB
return
Frequency Transformations
Introduction
The treatment in the preceding section is focused
primarily on the design of digital lowpass IIR filters. If we
wish to design a highpass or a bandpass or a bandstop
filter, it is a simple matter to take a lowpass prototype
filter and perform a frequency transformation.
Frequency transformations in the analog domain
Frequency transformations in the digital domain
There are two approaches to perform the frequency
transformation
Frequency Transformations
Approach 1
Analog
lowpass filter
Frequency
transformation
s s
Filter
transformation
s z
Designed
IIR filter
Approach 2
Analog
lowpass filter
Filter
transformation
s z
Frequency
transformation
z z
Designed
IIR filter
Frequency Transformations
Specifications of frequency-selective filters
Lowpass filter
2 1
, , , o o e e
s p
highpass filter
2 1
, , , o o e e
p s
bandpass filter
2 1 2 2 1 1
, , , , , o o e e e e
s p p s
bandstop filter
2 1 2 2 1 1
, , , , , o o e e e e
p s s p
Frequency Transformations
Frequency transformations in the digital domain
) (z H
L
the given prototype lowpass digital filter
) (Z H
d
the desired frequency-selective digital filter
) (
1 1
= Z G z Define a mapping of the form
Such that
) (
1 1
) ( ) (

=
=
Z G z
L d
z H Z H
To do this, we simply replace everywhere in
by the function
1
z ) (z H
L
) (
1
Z G
Frequency Transformations
Given that is a stable and causal filter, we also
want to be stable and causal. This imposes the
following requirements:
) (z H
L
) (Z H
d
The unit circle of the z-plane must map onto the unit
circle of the Z-plane
The inside of the unit circle of the z-plane must also
map onto the inside of the unit circle of the Z-plane.
1
Z
) (
1
Z G
must be a rational function in so that
) (Z H
d
is implementable.
Frequency Transformations
Let and be the frequency variables of and ,
respectively. That is . Then
u
e z
Z
e u j j
e Z e z = = ,
)] ( arg[
) ( ) (
e
e e u
j
e G j j j j
e e G e G e


= =
)] ( arg[ , 1 ) (
e e j j
e G e G

= =
Hence the is an all-pass function ) (
1
Z G
1 | | ,
1
) (
1
1
1
1 1
<

= =
[
=

-

k
N
k
k
k
a
Z a
a Z
Z G z
By choosing an appropriate order N and the
coefficients , we can obtain a variety of mappings
k
a
Frequency Transformations
Frequency transformation formulae (P296)
Lowpass - Lowpass
1
1
1
1

=
Z
Z
z
o
o
] 2 / ) sin[(
] 2 / ) sin[(
c c
c c
e u
e u
o
+

=
: Cutoff frequency of new digital filter
c
e
c
u The cutoff frequency of prototype lowpass digital filter
Frequency Transformations
Lowpass - Highpass
1
1
1
1

+
+
=
Z
Z
z
o
o
] 2 / ) cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
c c
c c
e u
e u
o

+
=
: Cutoff frequency of new digital filter
c
e
Frequency Transformations
Lowpass - Bandpass
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
+
+
=

Z Z
Z Z
z
o o
o o
1
1
,
1
2
2
tan )
2
cot( , cos
] 2 / ) cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
2 1
1 2
0
1 2
1 2
+

=
+
=

= =

+
=
k
k
k
k
k
c
o
|
o
u e e
e
e e
e e
|
: lower cutoff frequency of bandpass digital filter
1
e
: upper cutoff frequency of bandpass digital filter
2
e
: center frequency of the passband
0
e
Frequency Transformations
Lowpass - Bandstop
: lower cutoff frequency of bandstop digital filter
1
e
: upper cutoff frequency of bandstop digital filter
2
e
: center frequency of the stopband
0
e
k
k
k
k
c
+

=
+
=

= =

+
=
1
1
,
1
2
2
tan )
2
tan( , cos
] 2 / ) cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
2 1
1 2
0
1 2
1 2
o
|
o
u e e
e
e e
e e
|
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
+
+
=

Z Z
Z Z
z
o o
o o
Frequency Transformations
Design procedure
Determine the specifications of the digital prototype
lowpass filter;
Determine the specifications of the analog prototype
lowpass filter;
Design the analog prototype lowpass filter;
Transform the analog prototype lowpass filter into a digital
prototype lowpass filter using bilinear transformation;
Perform the frequency transformation in digital domain to
obtain the desired frequency-selective filters.
Frequency Transformations
Examples
Given the specifications of Chebyshev-I lowpass filter
dB 15 , 3 . 0
dB 1 , 2 . 0
2
1
= =
= =
o t u
o t u
s
p
Design a highpass filter with the above tolerances but
with passband beginning at t e 6 . 0 =
p
and its system function
) 6493 . 0 5548 . 1 1 )( 8482 . 0 4996 . 1 1 (
) 1 ( 01836 . 0
) (
2 1 2 1
4 1

+ +
+
=
z z z z
z
z H
L
Frequency Transformations
Solution
3820 . 0
] 2 / ) 6 . 0 2 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) 6 . 0 2 . 0 cos[(
=

+
=
t t
t t
o
) 4019 . 0 0416 . 1 1 )( 7647 . 0 5561 . 0 1 (
) 1 ( 0243 . 0
) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
4 1
3820 . 0 1
3820 . 0
1
1
1

=
+ + + +

=
=

Z Z Z Z
Z
z H Z H
Z
Z
z
L d
Frequency Transformations
Using the Chebyshev-I prototype to design a highpass
digital filter to satisfy
dB 15 , 46 . 0
dB 1 , 6 . 0
= =
= =
s s
p p
A
R
t e
t e
Determine the specifications of the digital prototype
lowpass filter
Solution
t u 2 . 0 =
p
Choose the passband frequency with a reasonable value:
Determine the stopband frequency by
1
1
1
1

+
+
=
Z
Z
z
o
o
)
1
arg(
1
e
e
e
e
u
o
o
u
o
o
j
j
j
j
j
e
e
e
e
e

+
+
=
+
+
=
3820 . 0
] 2 / ) 6 . 0 2 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) 6 . 0 2 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
=

+
=

+
=
t t
t t
e u
e u
o
p p
p p
t
o
o
u
e
e
3 . 0 )
3820 . 0 1
3820 . 0
arg( )
1
arg(
46 . 0
46 . 0
=

=
+
+
=

j
j
j
j
s
e
e
e
e
s
s
Determine the specifications of the analog prototype
lowpass filter
Set T = 1 and prewarp the cutoff frequencies
1.0191 ) 15 . 0 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

0.6498 ) 1 . 0 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

= = = O
= = = O
t
u
t
u
s
s
p
p
T
T
Design an analog Chebyshev-I prototype lowpass filter
to satisfy the specification:
s p s p
A R , , , O O
0.0492 0.2038 0.6140 6192 . 0
0438 . 0
) (
2 3 4
+ + + +
=
s s s s
s H
a
) 0.6493 1.5548 1 )( 0.8482 1.4996 1 (
) 1 ( 0018 . 0
0.5507 2.2925 3.8290 3.0543 1
0.0018 0.0073 0.0110 0.0073 0018 . 0
) (
2 1 2 1
4 1
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1

+ +
+
=
+ +
+ + + +
=
z z z z
z
z z z z
z z z z
z H
L
Transform the analog prototype lowpass filter into a
digital prototype lowpass filter using bilinear transformation
Perform the frequency transformation in digital domain
to obtain the desired digital highpass filter
) 4019 . 0 0416 . 1 1 )( 7647 . 0 5561 . 0 1 (
) 1 ( 0243 . 0
) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
4 1
1
1
1
1

+
+
=
+ + + +

=
=

Z Z Z Z
Z
z H Z H
Z
Z
z
L h
o
o
Frequency Transformations
Using the Chebyshev-I prototype to design a bandpass
digital filter to satisfy
dB 15 , 7 . 0 , 2 . 0
dB 1 , 5 . 0 , 4 . 0
2 1
2 1
= = =
= = =
s s s
p p p
A
R
t e t e
t e t e
Determine the specifications of the digital prototype
lowpass filter
Solution
t u 2 . 0 =
p
Choose the passband frequency with a reasonable value:
Determine the stopband frequency by
t
o o
o o
u
e e
e e
69 . 0 )
1
arg(
2 2
2 2
1
2
2
2 1
2
=
+
+
=


s s
s s
j j
j j
s
e e
e e
1584 . 0
] 2 / ) 4 . 0 5 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) 4 . 0 5 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
1 2
1 2
=

+
=

+
=
t t
t t
e e
e e
|
p p
p p
0515 . 2
2
2 . 0
tan )
2
4 . 0 5 . 0
cot( =

=
t t t
k
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
+
+
=

Z Z
Z Z
z
o o
o o
3446 . 0
1
1
, 2130 . 0
1
2
2 1
=
+

= =
+
=
k
k
k
k
o
|
o
Determine the specifications of the analog prototype
lowpass filter
Set T = 1 and prewarp the cutoff frequencies
3.7842 ) 0.3450 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

0.6498 ) 1 . 0 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

= = = O
= = = O
t
u
t
u
s
s
p
p
T
T
Design an analog Chebyshev-I prototype lowpass filter
to satisfy the specification:
s p s p
A R , , , O O
4656 . 0 7134 . 0
4149 . 0
) (
2
+ +
=
s s
s H
a
2 1
2 1
5157 . 0 1997 . 1 1
) 1 ( 0704 . 0
) (

+
+
=
z z
z
z H
L
Transform the analog prototype lowpass filter into a
digital prototype lowpass filter using bilinear transformation
Perform the frequency transformation in digital domain
to obtain the desired digital bandpass filter
4 3 2 1
4 2
1
0.7106 0.4814 7020 . 1 5731 . 0 1
0205 . 0 0410 . 0 0205 . 0
) ( ) (
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1


+
+
=
+ +
+
=
=

Z Z Z Z
Z Z
z H Z H
Z Z
Z Z
z
L bp
o o
o o
Frequency Transformations
Using the Chebyshev-I prototype to design a bandstop
digital filter to satisfy
dB 20 , 65 . 0 , 35 . 0
dB 1 , 75 . 0 , 25 . 0
2 1
2 1
= = =
= = =
s s s
p p p
A
R
t e t e
t e t e
Determine the specifications of the digital prototype
lowpass filter
Solution
t u 2 . 0 =
p
Choose the passband frequency with a reasonable value:
Determine the stopband frequency by
t
o o
o o
u
e e
e e
0.1919 )
1
arg(
1 1
1 1
1
2
2
2 1
2
=
+
+
=


s s
s s
j j
j j
s
e e
e e
0
] 2 / ) 25 . 0 75 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) 25 . 0 75 . 0 cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
] 2 / ) cos[(
1 2
1 2
=

+
=

+
=
t t
t t
e e
e e
|
p p
p p
0.1584
2
2 . 0
tan )
2
25 . 0 75 . 0
tan( =

=
t t t
k
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
+
+
=

Z Z
Z Z
z
o o
o o
0.7265
1
1
, 0
1
2
2 1
=
+

= =
+
=
k
k
k
o
|
o
Determine the specifications of the analog prototype
lowpass filter
Set T = 1 and prewarp the cutoff frequencies
6217 . 0 ) 0.0959 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

0.3168 ) 1 . 0 tan( 2 )
2
tan(
2

= = = O
= = = O
t
u
t
u
s
s
p
p
T
T
Design an analog Chebyshev-I prototype lowpass filter
to satisfy the specification:
s p s p
A R , , , O O
0.0156 1243 . 0 3131 . 0
0156 . 0
) (
2 3
+ + +
=
s s s
s H
a
3 2 1
3 2 1
0.7335 2.3692 2.6225 1
0.0016 0.0049 0.0049 0.0016
) (


+ +
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z H
L
Transform the analog prototype lowpass filter into a
digital prototype lowpass filter using bilinear transformation
Perform the frequency transformation in digital domain
to obtain the desired digital bandstop filter
) 0.339 1 )( 0.776 1.248 1 )( 0.776 1.248 1 (
) 1 ( 0.132
) ( ) (
2 2 1 2 1
3 2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1

+
+
=
+ + +
+
=
=

Z Z Z Z Z
Z
z H Z H
Z Z
Z Z
z
L bs
o o
o o
return
0 30 40 50 60
0.707
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
N=2
N=4
N=8
N=16
return
) ( O j H
a
0 2 4 6
0.707
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 2 4 6
-3
-1
0
1
3
Phase Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
P
h
a
s
e

i
n

r
a
d
) ( O j H
a
return
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
0
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in pi units
H
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
-30
-15
-1
0
Magnitude in dB
Analog frequency in pi units
d
e
c
i
b
e
l
s
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Analog frequency in pi units
P
0 0.5 1 1.5
x 10
-4
0
10000
20000
Impulse Response
time in seconds
h
a
(
t
)
return
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
0
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in pi units
H
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
-30
-15
-1
0
Magnitude in dB
Analog frequency in pi units
d
e
c
i
b
e
l
s
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Analog frequency in pi units
P
0 0.5 1 1.5
x 10
-4
-5000
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
Impulse Response
time in seconds
h
a
(
t
)
return
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
0
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
1
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
2
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
3
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
4
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
5
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
) (
6
x C
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
return
0 2 3 5
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
4 = N
0 2 3 5
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
return
5 = N
0 1 2 3 5
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0 1 2 3 5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
Phase Response
Analog frequency in rad/s
P
h
a
s
e

i
n

r
a
d
return
) ( O j H
a
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
0
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Analog frequency in pi units
H
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
-30
-15
-1
0
Magnitude in dB
Analog frequency in pi units
d
e
c
i
b
e
l
s
0 2 3 5
x 10
4
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Analog frequency in pi units
P
h
a
s
e

i
n

p
i

u
n
i
t
s
0 1 2 3 4
x 10
-4
-5000
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
Impulse Response
time in seconds
h
a
(
t
)
return
0 pi/T 2*pi/T
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 pi 2*pi

0.2
0.4
0.6
) ( O j H
a
) (
e j
e H
1 = T
O
e
0 pi/T 2*pi/T

0.2
0.4
0.6
0 pi 2*pi

0.2
0.4
0.6
) ( O j H
a
) (
e j
e H
1 . 0 = T
O
e
return
0 0.2 0.3 1
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi
0 0.2 0.3 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Frequency in pi
0 0.2 0.3 1
-15
-1
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi
0 0.2 0.3 1
2
4
6
8
10
Group Delay
Frequency in pi
return
0 pi/T 2*pi/T
0.2
0.4
0.6
Magnitude Response
frequency in rad/s
0 pi 2*pi
0.2
0.4
0.6
frequency in rad/sample
) ( O j H
a
) (
e j
e H
1 = T
O
e
0 pi/T 2*pi/T
0.2
0.4
0.6
Magnitude Response
frequency in rad/s
0 pi 2*pi
0.2
0.4
0.6
frequency in rad/sample
) ( O j H
a
) (
e j
e H
1 . 0 = T
O
e
return
0 0.2 0.3 1
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi units
0 0.2 0.3 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Frequency in pi
p
i

u
n
i
t
s
0 0.2 0.3 1
-15
-1
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi units
0 0.2 0.3 1
3
6
9
12
15
Group Delay
Frequency in pi units
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
return
0 0.2 0.3 1
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi units
0 0.6 1
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi units
0 0.2 0.3 1
-15
-1
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi units
0 0.6 1
-15
-1
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi units
return
0 0.46 0.6 1
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi units
0 0.46 0.6 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Frequency in pi
p
i

u
n
i
t
s
0 0.46 0.6 1
-15
-1
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi units
0 0.46 0.6 1
2
4
6
8
10
Group Delay
Frequency in pi units
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
return
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1
0.1778
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi units
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Frequency in pi
p
i

u
n
i
t
s
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi units
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1
3
6
9
12
15
Group Delay
Frequency in pi units
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
return
0 0.250.35 0.650.75 1
0.1
0.8913
1
Magnitude Response
Frequency in pi units
0 0.250.35 0.650.75 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Phase Response
Frequency in pi
p
i

u
n
i
t
s
0 0.250.35 0.650.75 1
-30
-20
-10
0
Magnitude Response in dB
Frequency in pi units
0 0.250.35 0.650.75 1
2
4
6
8
10
Group Delay
Frequency in pi units
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
return