METAL CASTING PROCESSES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sand Casting Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes Permanent Mold Casting Processes Foundry Practice Casting Quality Metals for Casting Product Design Considerations

Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove part Advantage: more complex shapes possible Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mold rather than casting itself 2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can be used to make many castings Advantage: higher production rates Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

Overview of Sand Casting

Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant majority of total tonnage cast Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium Castings range in size from small to very large Production quantities from one to millions

Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).

Steps in Sand Casting

1. 2. 3. 4. Pour the molten metal into sand mold Allow time for metal to solidify Break up the mold to remove casting Clean and inspect casting Separate gating and riser system 5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical properties

Making the Sand Mold

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into two halves and removing the pattern The mold must also contain gating and riser system If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in mold A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

Sand Casting Production Sequence

Figure 11.2 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting. The steps include not only the casting operation but also pattern-making and mold-making.

The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting Pattern materials: Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it warps Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

Types of Patterns
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid pattern (b) split pattern (c) match-plate pattern (d) cope and drag pattern

Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets

Core in Mold

Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.

Desirable Mold Properties

Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten metal Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without cracking the casting Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make other molds?

Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape during pouring Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking, compared to round grains Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

Binders Used with Foundry Sands

Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay Other bonding agents also used in sand molds: Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins) Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate) Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase strength and/or permeability

Types of Sand Mold

Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water; Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay And mold is baked to improve strength Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps

Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends to displace the core, which can cause casting to be defective Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid less the weight of core itself Fb = Wm - Wc where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core

Other Expendable Mold Processes

Shell Molding Vacuum Molding Expanded Polystyrene Process Investment Casting Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together by thermosetting resin binder

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.

Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;

Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;

Shell Molding

Figure 11.5 Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of shell molding: Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and better surface finish Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not required Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting Can be mechanized for mass production Disadvantages: More expensive metal pattern Difficult to justify for small quantities

Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than by a chemical binder The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than casting operation itself Developed in Japan around 1970

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of vacuum molding: Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning done when binders are used Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture-related defects are absent Disadvantages: Slow process Not readily adaptable to mechanization

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and internal cores (if needed) Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the pattern;

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid, thus the resulting mold cavity is filled.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of expanded polystyrene process: Pattern need not be removed from the mold Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not required as in a conventional green-sand mold Disadvantages: A new pattern is needed for every casting Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of producing patterns

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Applications: Mass production of castings for automobile engines Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to 1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then 2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material around wax pattern It is a precision casting process - capable of producing castings of high accuracy and intricate detail

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it solidifies

Investment Casting

Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting and the parts are separated from the sprue

Investment Casting

Figure 11 9 A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet Corp.).

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of investment casting: Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast Close dimensional control and good surface finish Wax can usually be recovered for reuse Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape process Disadvantages Many processing steps are required Relatively expensive process

Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O) In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with water Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine details and good surface finish

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of plaster mold casting: Good accuracy and surface finish Capability to make thin cross-sections Disadvantages: Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which can cause problems in casting Mold strength is lost if over-baked Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to lower melting point alloys

Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made of refractory ceramic material that can withstand higher temperatures than plaster Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other high-temperature alloys Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting except for the metals cast Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar

Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new mold is required for every casting In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times The processes include: Basic permanent mold casting Die casting Centrifugal casting

The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening and closing Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material, due to the very high pouring temperatures

Permanent Mold Casting

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated

Permanent Mold Casting

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of permanent mold casting: Good dimensional control and surface finish More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger Limitations: Generally limited to metals of lower melting point Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need to open the mold High cost of mold

Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and can be automated accordingly Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and missiles Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron

Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is removed Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting Use of high pressure (0.7 700MPa)to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes. Typical parts made by die casting include transmission housings,, valve bodies, hand tools, toys, carburettors, motors etc.

Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity Two main types: 1. Hot-chamber machine 2. Cold-chamber machine

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into the die. It involves the use of a piston which traps a certain volume of molten metal and forces it in to the die cavity through a gooseneck and nozzle. High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into injection cylinder (Shot chamber) from external melting container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure(2070Mpa) into die cavity. The shot chamber is not heated , hence the term cold chamber. The machines may be horizontal or vertical. High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because of pouring step Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

Molds for Die Casting

Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of die casting: Economical for large production quantities Good accuracy and surface finish Thin sections are possible Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting Disadvantages: Generally limited to metals with low metal points Part geometry must allow removal from die

Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer regions of die cavity The group includes: True centrifugal casting Semicentrifugal casting Centrifuge casting

True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather than before Parts: Hollow cylindrical parts such as pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

True Centrifugal Casting

Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.

Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of rotation Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest Examples: wheels and pulleys

Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force Used for smaller parts Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal casting methods

Furnaces for Casting Processes

Furnaces most commonly used in foundries: Cupolas Direct fuel-fired furnaces Crucible furnaces Electric-arc furnaces Induction furnaces

Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near base Used only for cast irons Although other furnaces are also used, the largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying elements, is loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up height of cupola

Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners located on side of furnace Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down against charge At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copper-base alloys and aluminum

Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-temperature steel alloy Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting

Crucible Furnaces
Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift-out crucible, (b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace.

Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be designed for high melting capacity Used primarily for melting steel

Figure 6.9 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal Induced current causes rapid heating and melting Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and purity Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in foundry work

Induction Furnace

Figure 11.20 Induction furnace

Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done using crucibles More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two-man ladle.

Additional Steps After Solidification

Trimming Removing the core Surface cleaning Inspection Repair, if required Heat treatment

Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections are relatively small, appendages can be broken off Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting methods are used

Removing the Core

If cores have been used, they must be removed Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as the binder deteriorates In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either manually or mechanically In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving bonding agent Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing appearance of surface Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting In many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to detect their presence

Heat Treatment
Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties Reasons for heat treating a casting: For subsequent processing operations such as machining To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part in service

Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the product The defects can be classified as follows: General defects common to all casting processes Defects related to sand casting process

General Defects: Misrun

A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

General Defects: Cold Shut

Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

General Defects: Cold Shot

Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow

Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes

Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift

A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

Foundry Inspection Methods

Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances have been met Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with quality of cast metal

Metals for Casting

Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure metals Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are better Casting alloys can be classified as: Ferrous Nonferrous

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

Most important of all casting alloys Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other metals combined Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3) white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons Typical pouring temperatures 1400C (2500F), depending on composition

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive engineering material The capability to create complex geometries makes casting an attractive shaping process Difficulties when casting steel: Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other casting metals 1650C (3000F) At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal must be isolated from air Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

Generally considered to be very castable Pouring temperatures low due to low melting temperature of aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F) Properties: Light weight Range of strength properties by heat treatment Easy to machine

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze Properties: Corrosion resistance Attractive appearance Good bearing qualities Limitation: high cost of copper Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

Highly castable, commonly used in die casting Low melting point melting point of zinc Tm = 419C (786F) Good fluidity for ease of casting Properties: Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to prolonged high stresses

Product Design Considerations

Geometric simplicity: Although casting can be used to produce complex part geometries, simplifying the part design usually improves castability Avoiding unnecessary complexities: Simplifies mold-making Reduces the need for cores Improves the strength of the casting

Product Design Considerations

Corners on the casting: Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and cracks Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and sharp edges should be blended

Product Design Considerations

Draft Guidelines: In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of pattern from mold Draft = 1 for sand casting In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal of the part from the mold Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

Draft
Minor changes in part design can reduce need for coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.

Product Design Considerations

Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish: Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on process: Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand casting Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die casting and investment casting

Product Design Considerations

Machining Allowances: Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the required dimensions and part features Additional material, called the machining allowance, is left on the casting in those surfaces where machining is necessary Typical machining allowances for sand castings are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)