Honors Biology,

Period 5
Chapter 8 Notes

Section 8.4: Chromosomes Replicate Before Each Cell Division

I. General Terms
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – nucleic acid that stores hereditary information
-forms of DNA:
smallest A. nucleotide
B. gene
C. chromosome
broadest D. chromatin
E. genome – total collection of genetic information

2. Gene – A sequence of nucleotides that encodes traits (trait = physical)

**Approximately 30,000 different genes in the human genome

How many total genes in the nucleus of a somatic cell? GACT science
60,000 somatic cells are diploid

3. Chromosome – A linear structure composed of a set of genes.

**A single chromosome may contain anywhere from several hundred to
several thousand genes except the y chromosome, which only has about 5
genes.

4. Chromatin – storage form of DNA, where the chromosomes are packaged with
storage proteins called HISTONES.
-When in chromatin form, individual chromosomes are not visible, but
appear as a dark mass under the microscope.

5. Genome – A complete set of genetic information

*individual genome
*species genome (i.e. the human genome)

6. nucleotide – monomers that make up DNA

-small organic molecule consisting of a phosphate group, a ribosugar and a
nitrogenous base

7. Gene and Allele

Gene – information of a trait
Example:
-gene for eye color
-gene for hair color
-gene for cholesterol receptors
 Allele – different versions of a gene
-blue eye color
-brown hair

II. Chromosome Replication

-Before a cell can divide into two daughter cells, it must first make a complete
copy of its chromosomes to pass onto new cells

Section 8.8: The Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle: An ordered sequence of events from the time a cell is first formed
until its division into two new cells

Stages of the Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle consists of two general phases
1. Interphase (90%)
2. Mitotic Phase (10%)

INTERPHASE
-growth phase
-characterized by high metabolic activity
-the cell is performing its normal function
-interphase is divided into 3 sub categories:

1. G1 (first gap) – cell growth

2. S Phase – DNA synthesis (DNA is copied)
3. G2 (second gap) – growth/ preparation
*G0 and the restriction point
- G0 – resting phase
-restriction point – stage in the cell cycle when the cell
evaluates the environment

-By the end of G2, the cell has:

1. doubled its size
2. doubled all of its contents
3. DNA appears as chromatin (chromosomes NOT visible)
4. centrosomes become visible (centrioles that display
radiating microtubule fibers)
Before S Phase: After S Phase:
sister chromatids

Eye color

HT

IQ
chromosome chromosome
Maternal #1 Paternal #1

Homologous pair

MITOTIC PHASE
-This is the period where the cell actually divides
The effect:
A single diploid cell is split into two genetically and structurally identical
diploid somatic cells
5 stages:
1. Prophase
2. Prometaphase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
**See figure 8.6
PROPHASE

-the nucleus disappears

-chromatin condenses and chromosomes become visible
*each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined a centromere
-the mitotic spindle begins to develop
-centrosomes move towards the poles of the cell

PROMETAPHASE

-the nuclear envelope breaks into fragments and disappears

-centrosomes reach the poles of the cell
-kinetochore fibers develop along the centomere of each chromosome
-some of the microtubules of the spindle connect with the kinetochore fibers
METAPHASE

-mitotic spindle is completely assembled

-chromosomes align along the metaphase plate (equator)
*the equator is a fictitious line that bisects the cell
-sister chromatids straddle the equator

ANAPHASE

-the mitotic spindle pulls the sister chromatids apart

-the newly liberated sister chromatids move towards opposite poles

TELOPHASE & CYTOKINESIS

*these two events occur simultaneously, but are separate events

Telophase
-nucleolus reappear
-nuclear envelope reforms
-chromosomes revert to chromatin
-mitotic spindle disappears

Cytokinesis
-involves the division of cytoplasm
-this physically divides one cell into two cells
-this process is different for plants and animals
*animal cells – cleavage furrow + contractile ring
*plant cells – cell plate

Affecting Cell Division

Anchorage dependence:
-cells must be in contact with a solid surface in order to divide.
*extra-cellular matrix
-density-dependent inhibition
*normal cells stop dividing upon contact with other cells.
*crowded cells stop dividing
-growth factors
*proteins secreted by certain somatic cells the stimulate other cells to
divide

Section 8.9: Growth Factors Signal The Cell Cycle Control System

Growth factors – enter the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis.

*Figure 8.9 A – illustrates 3 checkpoints (G1, G2, M)
*M checkpoint is the checkpoint at the end of mitosis at the end of
metaphase
Section 8.10: Cancer Cells

-cancer is a disease of the cell cycle

-it affects 1 out of every 5 people

How it works:
1. A single healthy cell undergoes transformation to a cancer cell.
2. The cancer cell will then form a tumor.
*tumor – abnormally growing mass of cells
*Benign tumor – If the abnormal cells remain localized
*Malignant tumor – spreads to other tissue of the body (metastasize)

Why?
1. Cells do not heed density-dependent inhibition
2. They proceed past checkpoints without growth factors
3. Some cancer cells secrete their own growth factors
Naming Cancers:
1. carcinomas – cancers that originate in external or internal coverings of the
body (i.e. skin)
2. sarcomas – cancers that originate in tissues that support the body (i.e. bone
and muscle)
3. leukemias and lymphomas – cancers of the blood forming tissue (i.e. bone
marrow, spleen and lymph nodes)

Treatments:
Benign Tumors
1. surgery
2. radiation treatment
Malignant Tumors
1. Chemotherapy (drugs)
a. Paclitaxel (taxol) – freezes the mitotic spindle arresting a cell
in metaphase (from the Pacific Yew Tree grown in Oregon)
b. Vinblastin – inhibits spindle formation in prophase (from the
Periwinkle Plant on Madagascar)

Section 8.11: Review of Functions of Mitosis

1. replace dead/lost cells

2. repair damaged tissue
3. asexual reproduction (budding)
4. growth

Section 8.12: About Chromosomes

There are two types of chromosomes:

1. autosomes – chromosomes that do not influence gender (44)
 2. sex chromosomes – chromosomes that influence gender (2)

How many homologous pairs of chromosomes do you have?

22  in males the ‘XY’ are not the same
23  in females the ‘XX’ are homologous

Section 8.13: Gametes

Compare somatic cells and gametes in humans

Somatic cells:
A. diploid
B. diploid number (2n) = 46
**44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes
C. most chromosomes exist in pairs
D. are all genetically identical
E. are produced by mitosis
Gametes:
A. haploid
B. hapoid number (n) = 23
C. chromosomes are not in pairs
D. are all genetically unique
E. are produced by meiosis

Ferlitization:
2 haploid gametes fuse to create a diploid zygote
Growth:
Zygote divides into trillions of cells by meiosis

Section 8.14: About Meiosis

What is meiosis:
-meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes
-single diploid somatic cell divides into 4 haploid gametes
Males: spermatocyte  4 sperm cells
Female: oocyte  1 (functional) egg cell
Meiosis occurs only in the gonads. Mitosis occurs
Male: testes everywhere else
Female: ovaries
*meiosis does not occur in gametes, it produces them.
-the process is triggered by hormones released during puberty.

Section 8.18: Crossing-Over

-refers to the exchange of DNA between non-sister chromatids of the homologous pair
during prophase I of meiosis.
-is an example of Genetic Recombination
Defined – the production of gene combinations differ from those carried by the
original chromosome
Key events:
1. synapsis – the coming together of homologous (tetrads)
2. formation of chiasmata (chiasma) – these are regions where the non-sister
chromatids of a homologous pair attach.
3. Crossing-over – the physical exchange of DNA between chromosomes
** crossing-over only occurs between maternal and paternal copies of the
same homologous pair.
** crossing-over can occur at 1 or more locations along the chromosome.
**see figure 8.18 B
Question: Why does it not occur between non-homologues?
What accounts for the Genetic Diversity of Gametes?
1. Independent assortment
2. crossing-over
Section 8.16: Independent Assortment

-refers to the arrangement of homologous pairs of chromosomes during metaphase I of

meiosis.
**see figure 8.16
-how many different combinations of chromosomes can be created through independent
assortment?
-possible combinations of chromosomes = 2n
-an adult can produce 223 genetically unique gametes.

How many different zygotes can be created through the random fertilization of a sperm
and an egg cell?
-number of genetically unique zygotes = 64 trillion

NONDISJUNCTION
*autosomes – all non-sex chromosomes (#1-22)
*sex chromosomes – X and Y
*note: chromosomes #1-44 are homologous pairs of chromosomes. 45 and
46 are homologous in females only.

Key Terms:

Nondisjunction – the failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate during cell

division
Aneuploidy – abnormal number of chromosomes (chromosomal aberration)
Trisomy – 3 copies of a chromosome
Monosomy – 1 copy of a chromosome
Karyotype – standard picture of grouped chromosomes in a cell
Amniocentesis – the process of collecting fetal cells from the amniotic sac
DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH NONDISJUNCTION OF AUTOSOMES

Chromosome Common Name Clinical Description

Trisomy 13 Patau Syndrome (1/5000) Serious eye, brain, and circulatory

defects
Death within one year.

Trisomy 18 Edwards Syndrome Every organ is faulty.

(1/10000) Death within one year.

Trisomy 21 Down Syndrome (1/700) Mental retardation, short stature,

(Increases with the age of heart problems, increased risk of
The female) leukemia & Alzheimer’s, sterile

Trisomy 22 Down Syndrome2 Same as above + increased skeletal

deformities

DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH NONDISJUNCTION OF SEX CHROMOSOMES

Chromosome Common Name Clinical Description

XO Turner Syndrome short stature, webbed neck,

female, not fully developed
sexually, sterile

XXY Klinefelter Syndrome sterile male, underdeveloped

(1/2000) testes, secondary female
characteristics

XYY None/ supermale tall male, heavy acne, slight

Retardation, fertile
(criminals?)

XXX metafemale/ superfemale fertile female, normal

Intelligence

*CANNOT SURVIVE WITHOUT AN X CHROMOSOME.

OTHER DISORDERS IN MEIOSIS

1. Deletion – part of a chromosome is broken off and the fragment is lost during
meiosis
Example: Cri-du-chat syndrome
cause: part of chromosome 5 breaks off
symptoms: small head, moon face, severe retardation, cries
like a kitten

2. Duplication – when a chromosome fragment attaches to a sister chromatid

3. Inversion – when the chromosome fragment reattaches to the original

chromosome but in the reverse direction

4. Translocation – attachment of a fragment of a chromosome to a

nonhomologue
Example: CML (Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia)
cause: part of chromosome #22 has crossed over with #9 (The
Philadelphia Chromosome)
symptoms: large spleen, anemia, skin bruises or lethargy.
- it often advances to more serious stages that includes
acute myeloid leukemia
- most patients with CML are adults
- children may develop the disease, but only rarely
- previous radiation exposure can predispose to this
leukemia