Butterworth approximation

The classical method of analog filters design is Butterworth approximation. The Butterworth filters are also known as maximally flat filters. Squared magnitude response of a Butterworth low-pass filter is defined as follows

where order of the filter.

- radian frequency,

- constant scaling frequency,

Some properties of the Butterworth filters are: The first gain at DC is equal to 1; has a maximum at derivatives of (3.1) are equal to zero at . This is why Butterworth

filters are known as maximally flat filters.

Poles locations
Using property (1.26) expression (3.1) can be rearranged to the form

Given

this expression can be written as follows

Function that if

has is a pole of (3.2), then

poles and doesn't have any finite zeros. It is easy to see is also a pole of (3.2). In order to find the poles of

transfer function

that satisfy (3.2), we have to select one pole from each pair

of the poles of expression (3.2). As it was mentioned before, the poles of a valid filter have to have negative real parts. The poles of (3.2) can be found as roots of equation

Observing that

, where

stands for the odd number, roots

of (3.3)

can be obtained as solutions to the equation

The solution of (3.4) can be presented in the form

So, roots (3.5) are the poles of All poles lie on a circle of radius

. in the complex s-plane. Since the difference

has the same value for all roots, it can be concluded that the poles are equally spaced on the circumference. Fig 3.1 Pole locations of the squared magnitude response for the Butterworth low-pass filters with orders N=6 and N=5. Scaling frequency .

It is easy to see that for the . Therefore, N roots of (3.5) have the negative real parts; these are the poles of . The remaining roots are the poles of . Real parts in (3.5) are also never

zero, so poles never fall to the imaginary axis. For the Butterworth low-pass filters with odd orders, two of the poles have zero imaginary parts, so they fall on the real axis in the s-plane. For the filters with even orders, all imaginary and real parts are nonzero. The poles of Butterworth filter lie on left half of the s-plane, and they can be given as follows

Minimum order determination

The practical low-pass filter specification is determined by four parameters: . The first step to design a filter with these parameters is to determine the minimum order of the filter that meets this specification. The signal attenuation for the Butterworth approximation can be expressed as follows

Applying (3.7) to the pass-band and stop-band edges results in the following system of two equations

These equations can be rearranged as

Variables

and

must be obtained from system (3.9). The order of the filter is the real variable. Parameters were

is an

integer variable, and scaling frequency

are real and they are set in the specification (parameters replaced with

). In general, system of equations (3.9) doesn't have a precise

solution for those kinds of variables. But it can be solved if integer variable with the real variable .

is replaced

The precise solution of system (3.10) can be easily found as

(3.11) is a precise solution to the equations (3.10). It can be used to determine the approach to the solution of the system (3.9). Minimum order of the Butterworth filter that meets specification can be found as

where brackets [] stand for the nearest integer exceeding Since

, the solution of the equations (3.9) will be exceeding the specification

requirements. In order to complete the Butterworth filter design, the scaling frequency must be determined.

Cutoff frequency determination

Cutoff frequency for the ideal low-pass filters is determined as a frequency up to which the signals pass well and the signals beyond it are rejected. Due to the transition band in the practical filters, the definition of cutoff frequency is unclear. It is a common practice to characterize practical filters with a natural cutoff frequency, which is determined as a

frequency at which the power gain is 1/2 of the power gain at the passband frequencies. Since the power of the signal is proportional to the amplitude, the magnitude response at the natural cutoff frequency is as follows

Converting gain to decibels results in

Therefore, the natural cutoff frequency can be determined as a frequency where the signal loss through the filter is approximately 3 dB. It is easy to see from (3.1), that for Butterworth filters, the natural cutoff frequency , and it doesn't depend on the order of the filter. The minimum required order for the Butterworth filter could be computed using (3.12). The scaling frequency system of inequalities cannot be determined to precisely satisfy both of the edge conditions (3.9). The scaling frequency can be determined in such a way as to satisfy the

where the order of the filter

is determined from (3.12). If these inequalities are

satisfied, then Butterworth filter meets or exceeds the specification requirements. System of inequalities (3.14) has multiple solutions. Let us consider some practical solutions. Case 1. Specification requirements at the pass-band edge are met precisely. In this case, the first inequality in (3.14) should be replaced with equality, and scale frequency can be found as follows

Inserting scale frequency (3.15) to (3.7), the attenuation at the stop-band edge can be computed

This attenuation must satisfy the second inequality in (3.14). To demonstrate it, the following equations for the precise solution and for the solution of the system that precisely meets the specification requirements at the pass-band edge can be considered.

Since

and

, it is easy to see from (3.17) that the second inequality in

(3.14) is satisfied. For the system that precisely meets the specification requirements at the pass-band edge, the scale frequency can be computed using (3.15), and the attenuation at the stopband will be exceeding the specification requirements. Case2. Specification requirements at the stop-band edge are met precisely. In this case, the second inequality in (3.14) should be replaced with equality. The scale frequency can be expressed as follows

Attenuation at the pass-band edge

where scale frequency

is expressed by (3.18).

Equations for the precise solution and for the solution of the system that precisely meets the specification requirements at the stop-band edge are

Since

and

, it is easy to see from (3.20) that

, and the first

inequality in (3.14) is satisfied. For the system that precisely meets the specification requirements at the stop-band edge, the scale frequency can be computed using (3.18), and attenuation at the pass-band will be exceeding the specification requirements. Case3. Specification requirements on both edges are exceeded. At some conditions, the scale frequency the precise solution of the system is given by which was determined for the precise

solution (3.11) can be used to satisfy the system of inequalities (3.14). Attenuation for

Attenuation of the Butterworth filter with order follows

and scaling frequency

is as

Parameters

in these expressions are determined by (3.11).

Fig 3.2 displays the precise solution (3.21) and solution (3.22) for the case when .

Fig. 3.2 Case

It is clear that in this case the specification requirements are exceeded on both pass-band and stop-band edges. Fig 3.3 and Fig 3.4 display solutions (3.21) and (3.22) for the cases when . In both cases one of the edge requirements is not met. and

Fig 3.3

Requirements at the pass-band are exceeded but requirements at the stop-band are not met.

Fig 3.4

Requirements at the stop-band are exceeded but requirements at the pass-band are not met. Consequently, the scaling frequency can be used to meet or exceed specification . For most

requirements on both edges only in the case when

practical filters, these conditions are met. If there is the need to design a filter with different conditions, it is recommended to use expressions (3.15) or (3.18) to compute scaling frequency for the Butterworth filters.

How to obtain transfer function of the low-pass Butterworth filters

The transfer function of the low-pass Butterworth filter can be expressed as follows

where

are poles of transfer function. occur in complex

As it was mentioned before, all poles of the filter with even order conjugate pairs. The product

of every pair of complex conjugate poles

can be expressed using formulas (3.5) for Butterworth poles

Therefore, the transfer function of the low-pass Butterworth filter with even order be expressed as follows

can

In the case when the order pole equal to and

is an odd number, the Butterworth filters have a single real complex conjugate pairs. Therefore, the transfer

function of the Butterworth low-pass filter with an odd order can be expressed as follows

Note that the normalized form of transfer functions can be obtained by setting (3.25) and (3.26).

in

As it was shown earlier in (1.16), the transfer function of a serial system is determined as a product of transfer functions of the linked blocks. Therefore, Butterworth filters of any

order orders:

can be presented in the form of serially linked blocks of the first and second

When the order

of the filter is even, the transfer function of the Butterworth low-pass

filter can be submitted in the form

When the order

of the filter is odd, the transfer function of the Butterworth low-pass

filter can be submitted in the form

Design samples using FAZA

Sample 1: Apass = 0.5 db Astop = 3.0 db Fpass = 0.5 rad/sec Fstop = 1.5 rad/sec

Design results: min order = 1; Transfer function: Sample 2: Apass = 0.5 db Astop = 10.0 db

Fpass = 0.5 rad/sec Fstop = 1.5 rad/sec

Design results: min order = 2; Transfer function: Sample 3: Apass = 0.5 db Astop = 15.0 db Fpass = 0.5 rad/sec Fstop = 1.5 rad/sec Design results: min order = 3; Transfer function:

Sample 4: Apass = 0.5 db Astop = 20.0 db Fpass = 0.5 rad/sec Fstop = 1.5 rad/sec Design results: min order = 4; Transfer function:

Sample 5: Apass = 0.5 db Astop = 30.0 db

Fpass = 0.5 rad/sec Fstop = 1.5 rad/sec Design results: min order = 5; Transfer function: