M

R
P.

PUBLISH KS

C.

T. C. BapaneHKoe. B. 77 AeMudoeuH, B. A M. Koean, r Jl JJyHit, E noptuneea, C. B. <Ppo/io8> P. fl. UlocmaK, A. P.

H. Ctweea,

SAflAMM H VnPA)KHEHHfl

no

MATEMATM H ECKOMV
AHAJ1H3V

I7od
B.

H.

AE

rocydapcmeeHHoe
a

G. Baranenkov* B. Drmidovich V. Efimenko, S. Kogan, G. Lunts>> E. Porshncva, E. bychfia, S. frolov, /?. bhostak, A. Yanpolsky

PROBLEMS
IN

MATHEMATICAL
ANALYSIS
Under
B.
the editorship of

DEMIDOVICH

Translated from the Russian by

G.

YANKOVSKV

MIR PUBLISHERS
Moscow

TO THE READER
MIR
opinion
book.
of

Publishers would be the translation and

glad
the

to

have your
of

design

this

Please send your suggestions to 2, Pervy Rtzhtky Pereulok, Moscow, U. S. S. R.

Second Printing

Printed

in

the

Union

of

Soviet Socialist

Republic*

CONTENTS
Preface
9
I.
1.

Chapter
Sec.

INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS
Functions
11

Sec. 2 Sec. 3 Sec. 4

Graphs
Limits

of

Elementary Functions

16

22

Infinitely Small and Large Quantities Sec. 5. Continuity of Functions

33
36

Chapter II
Sec Sec
1.

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS
Calculating Derivatives Directly Tabular Differentiation
.

42
46
.

Sec. 3 The Derivatwes of Functions Not Represented Explicitly Sec. 4. Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative Sec 5 Derivatives of Higier Orders

56

60

66
71

Sec
Sec Sec

6
7

Sec. 8

and Higher Orders Mean Value Theorems Taylor's Formula

Differentials of First
for

75

77

9 The L'Hospital-Bernoulli Rule Forms

Evaluating

Indeterminate

78

Chapter III

THE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION AND THE GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS OF A DERIVATIVE

1.

Sec.

Sec. 2

The Extrema of a Function The Direction of Concavity

.

of

One Argument

83
91

Points of Inflection

Sec Sec

3
4.

Sec. 5.

Asymptotes Graphing Functions by Characteristic Points Differential of an Arc Curvature

93
96
.
.

101

Chapter IV
Sec.
1

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
Direct Integration Integration by Substitution Integration by Parts

107

Sec Sec

2 3

113
116

Sec. 4

Sec. 5.

Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial Integration of Rational Functions

....

118
121

Contents
Integrating Certain Irrational Functions Integrating Trigoncrretric Functions Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

Sec. 6.

125 128 133

for

Sec Sec

7.

Sec. 8
9.

Using Ingonometric and Hyperbolic Substitutions

Finding
is

integrals of the
tional Function

Form

(x,

^a^ + bx + c) dx,

Where R

Ra133

Sec

10
11
12.

Integration of

Vanou* Transcendental Functions

135

Sec
Sec.

Using Reduction Formulas Miscellaneous Examples on Integration

135
136

Chapter V
Sec.
1.

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
The Definite Integral
Improper Integrals
as the Limit of a

Sum

138

Sec Sec

Evaluating Ccfirite Integrals by Means of Indefinite Integrals 140

143 146

Sec. 3

Charge

of

Variable in a Definite Integral

Sec. 5.

Integration by Parts

149
150

Sec

Mean-Value Theorem Sec. 7. The Areas of Plane Figures Sec 8. The Arc Length of a Curve Sec 9 Volumes of Solids Sec 10 The Area of a Surface of Revolution
6

153
158
161

166
168

Sec
Sec

11
12.

torrents

Centres

of

Gravity

Guldin's Theorems

Applying Definite Integrals

to the Solution of Physical

Prob173

lems

Chapter VI.
Sec.
1.

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Basic Notions
Partial Derivatives

180
184

Sec. 2. Continuity

Sec

3
4

185
187

Sec
Sec

Total Differential of a Function

Sec. 6. Derivative in a
Sec. 7

Differentiation of Composite Functions 190 Given Direction and the Gradient of a Function 193

HigKei -Order Derivatives and Differentials

197

Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec.

Integration of Total Differentials 9 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 10 Change of Variables

11.

202
205

.211
217
. .

Sec
Sec.

12
13
14

Sec

Sec

15 16

The Tangent Plane and the Normal to a Surface for a Function of Several Variables . The Extremum of a Function of Several Variables .... * Firdirg the Greatest and tallest Values of Functions Smcular Points of Plane Curves
Taylor's Formula
.

220
222
227

230 232
234

Sec

Envelope

Sec. 17. Arc Length o! a Space

Curve

Contents
Sec.
18.

Sec.

19

Sec. 20.

The Vector Function of a Scalar Argument The Natural Trihedron of a Space Curve Curvature and Torsion of a Space Curve

235
238

242

Chapter VII.
Sec.
Sec. Sec.
Sec.
1

MULTIPLE AND LINE INTEGRALS

The Double
Integral in Rectangular Coordinates

Sec.
Sec. Sec.

Change of Variables in a Double Integral 3. Computing Areas 4. Computing Volumes 5. Computing the Areas of Surfaces 6 Applications of the Double Integral in Mechanics
2
7.

246 252 256

258

259 230
262

Triple Integrals

Sec.

8.

Improper Integrals

Dependent

on

Parameter.

Improper
269

Sec.

Multifle Integrals 9 Line Integrals

10.
11.

273
284 286

Sec.

Surface Integrals

Sec.
Sec.

12.

The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula Fundamentals of Field Theory

288

Chapter VIII. SERIES

Sec.
1.

Number

Series

293
304
311

Sec. 2. Functional Series

Sec. 3. Taylor's Series Sec. 4. Fourier's Series

318

Chapter
Sec.

IX DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.

lies of

Verifying Solutions. Forming Differential Equations Curves. Initial Conditions

of

Fami322

Sec. 2

Sec.

3.

324 First-Order Differential Equations First-Order Diflerential Equations with Variables Separable. 327
Differential

Orthogonal Trajectories
Sec. 4

First-Order

Homogeneous
Linear

Equations
Equations.
Bernoulli's

330

Sec. 5. First-Order

Differential

332 Equation 335 Sec. 6 Exact Differential Equations. Integrating Factor Sec 7 First-Order Differential Equations not Solved for the Derivative 337 339 Sec. 8. The Lagrange and Clairaut Equations Sec. 9. Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations 340 345 Sec. 10. Higher-Order Differential Equations 349 Sec. 11. Linear Differential Equations
Sec.
12.

Linear Differential Equations of Second Order with Constant

351

Coefficients

8
Sec. 13. Linear

Contents
Differential

Equations of Order

Higher

than

Two
356
357

with Constant Coefficients

Sec
Sec
14.
15.

Euler's Equations

Systems

of

Differential

Equations

359

Sec. 16.
ries

Integration of Differential Equations by

Means

of

Power

Se-

361
17.

Sec

Problems on Fourier's Method

363

Chapter X.
Sec.
1

APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS
Operations on Approximate Numbers Interpolation of Functions

367
372
376 382
.

Sec. 2.

Sec.

3.

Computing the^Rcal Roots

Numerical, Integration of

Sec. 4
Sec. 5.

Equations Functions
.

of

Integration of Ordinary DilUrtntial Equations Sec. 6. Approximating Ftuncr's Coefficients

er:ca1

Nun

384

3>3
396

ANSWERS
APPENDIX
I.

475
475

II.

Greek Alphabet Some Constants

475

Inverse Quantities, Powers, Roots, Logarithms Trigonometric Functions V. Exponential, Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions VI. Some Curves
III.

476 478
479 480

IV

PREFACE
This collection of problems and exercises in mathematical analcovers the maximum requirements of general courses in ysis higher mathematics for higher technical schools. It contains over
3,000 problems sequentially arranged in Chapters I to X covering branches of higher mathematics (with the exception of analytical geometry) given in college courses. Particular attention is given to the most important sections of the course that require established skills (the finding of limits, differentiation techniques, the graphing of functions, integration techniques, the applications
all

of definite integrals, series, the solution of differential equations). Since some institutes have extended courses of mathematics,

the authors have included problems on field theory,

the

Fourier

method,

and

the number of the requireiren s of the student, as far as practical mas!ering of the various sections of the course goes, but also enables the instructor to supply a varied choice of problems in each section
to select problems for tests and examinations. Each chap.er begins with a brief theoretical introduction that covers the basic definitions and formulas of that section of the course. Here the most important typical problems are worked out in full. We believe that this will greatly simplify the work of the student. Answers are given to all computational problems; one asterisk indicates that hints to the solution are given in the answers, two asterisks, that the solution is given. The are frequently illustrated by drawings. problems This collection of problems is the result of many years of teaching higher mathematics in the technical schools of the Soviet Union. It includes, in addition to original problems and examples, a large number of commonly used problems.

approximate calculaiions. Experience shows that problems given in this book not only fully satisfies

and

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS

Sec.

1.

Functions

ana

1. Real nurrbers. Rational and irrational numbers are collectively known numbers The absolute value of a real number a is understood to be the nonnegative number \a\ defined by the conditions' \a\=a if a^O, and = a if a < 0. The following inequality holds for all real numbers a |aj
as real
b:

2. Definition of a function. If to every value*) of a variable x, which belongs to son.e collection (set) E, there corresponds one and only one finite value of the quantity /, then y is said to be a function (single-valued) of x or a dependent tariable defined on the set E. x is the a r gument or independent variable The fact that y is a Junction of x is expressed in brief form by the notation y~l(x) or y = F (A), and the 1'ke If to every value of x belonging to some set E there corresponds one or several values of the variable /y, then y is called a multiple- valued function of x defined on E. From now on we shall use the word "function" only in the meaning of a single-valued function, if not otherwise stated 3 The domain of definition of a function. The collection of values of x for which the given function is defined is called the domain of definition (or the domain) of this function. In the simplest cases, the domain of a function is
either a closed interval [a.b\, which is the set of real numbers x that satisfy the inequalities or an open intenal (a.b), which :s the set of real numbers that satisfy the inequalities a a more comx b. Also possible is plex structure of the domain of definition of a function (see, for instance, Prob-

a^^^b,

< <

lem 21)

Example

1.

Determine the domain

of definition of the function

1

Solution.

The function

is

defined

if

x
that
vals:
is,
if

-l>0,
of the function is a set
of

oo<x<

|x|>

1.
1

Thus, the

domain
-\-

two

inter-

and

<x<

oo

4. Inverse functions. If the equation t/ /(x) may be solved uniquely for the variable x, that is, if there is a function x g(y) such that y^*
Hencetorth
all

*)

values will be

considered

as

real,

if

not

otherwise

stated.

12

Introduction to Analysis

\Ch.

then the function x = g(y), or, in standard notation, y=g(x), is the inverse of y = f(x). Obviously, g[f(x)]s&x, that is, the function f (x) is the inverse of g(x) (and vice ve^sa). In He fereia! case, the equation y f(x) defines a multiple-valued inverse function x f~ (y) such that y ==[[(-* (y)\ for all y that are values of the function f (x) Lxanple 2. Determine the inverse of the function

y=l-2-*.
Solution. Solving equation
(1) for x,

(1)

we have
y

2-*=l
and
*

log(l-y)
log 2
j
'

Obviously,
ries

of the function (2) is the domain of oo </<!. Definition 5. Corrposite and irrplicit functicns. A function y of x defined by a seof equalities y = /(), where u = 9 (x), etc., is called a comoosite function,

or a function of a function. A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable the equation x*+i/*=l defines is called an implicit (unction. For example, y as an implicit function of x. 6. The graph of a function. A set of points (x, y) in an ;o/-plane, whose coordinates are connected by the equation y f(x), is called the graph of the given function.

1**.

Prove that

if

a and b are real numbers then

\\a\-\b\\<\a-b\<\a\ + \b\.
2.

Prove the following equalities:

a) b)

|ab|Ha|.|b|;
2

c)

|a|

=a
|x

2
;

d)

3.

Solve the inequalities:

a)
*

1|<3;

c)

b)
4.

|x+l|>2;

d) |jtif

Find /(-1),/(0),/(1),
6.

/(2), /(3), /(4),

/(*)

= *'- 6*' -f

4- llx
5. 6.
7.

Find
/ (x)

/(O),

/(-4). /(-^/(T)

-arc cos (log x). Find

f(x)
is

/!,
Find

7^.

if/

/(I), /(10).
1)

The function

and /(2)
*)

linear.

this function, if/(

=2

3.

Log x

is

the logarithm of the

number x

to the base 10.

Sec

1]

Functions

13

Find the rational integral function f(x) of degree two, = and /(3) = 5. 9. Given that f(4) = 2, /(5) = 6. Approximate the value 3) if we consider the function / (x) on the interval /(4, linear (linear interpolation of a function). 10. Write the function
8.

if

of

0,

if

as a single formula using the absolute-value sign. Determine the domains oi definition of the following functions:
11.

a)

y=

x+\;
-

16.
17.

y=
/

= lo

13.

a),= ?E2L = *VV-2. 14**. =1/2 + * **.

b)
(/

19.
-

t/=

21.

Determine the domain

y

of definition of the function

= |/sin 2x.

22. f(jc)

= 2A:

SA;'

5x

+ 6A:
and

10.

Find

(-*)l
23.
is

^(^)

=
=

called euen

defined in a symmetric region / and orfd if /( x) f(x). f( f(x) x) Determine which of the following functions are even and which
f (x)
if

function

are odd:

e)

24.

Prove

that

/<;*</

may

any function be represented

f(x)
in

defined in the interval the form of the sum of an

even function and an odd function.

14

In t roduction to Analysis

[Ch.

25. Prove that the product of two even functions or of two odd functions is an even function, and that the product of an even function by an odd function is an odd function. 26. A function f (x) is called periodic if there exists a positive numter T (the period of the function) such that f(x+ T)^f(x) for all valves of x within the dcmain of definition of f(x). Determine uhich of the following functions are periodic, and for the periodic functions find their least period T:
a) / (x)

b)
c)

= 10 sin 3 *, = a sin \K + b cos tar; (*)

d) / (x)
e)

= sin *; = sin (J/*). / (x)

1

27.

of the figure

and the area S Express the length of the segment y = as a function of Construct (Fig 1). the graphs of these functions.

AMN

x=AM

MN

AfsM"

M
\
I

28. The linear density (that is, mass per unit length) of a rod AB = l (Fig. 2) on the segments AC l^ CD = 1 2 and DB = l\ (/ + l t + / 3 =- 1) to </,, q z and q^ respecis equal
t

B
Fig.
1

Fig. 2

x of this of a variable segment tively. Express the mass rod as a function of x. Construct the graph of this function.
29.

AM =

Find cp|\M*)| and

i|?

jtp(x)J,

if

v(x)

= x?

and q(x)

= 2*.

30.

Find

H/Um,
/U+l),
if

if

31. 32.

Find

f(x
of

l)

= x\
of

Show

Let f(n) be the that

sum

n terms

an arithmetic progression.

33.

Show

that

if

f(x)
,

and the numbers jc lf xt x t form an arithmetic progression, then the numbers J (x ) f (x t ) and / (xj likewise form such a prol
9

gression.

Sec.

1]

/ (x)

Prove that if f(x) is an exponential function, that is, and the numbers x v *,, x t form an arithmetic progression, then the numbers /(*,), f (* 2 ) and /(jcj form a geo34.

= a x (a >0),

__
Functions

15

metric progression. 35. Let

Show

that

36.

Let
that

<p

(*)

= !(* + a-*)
f

and

t|)

(AT)

= 1 (a*
^>

a-*).

Show
and

(*+</)
(x

<p

<p

(y)

+ * (*)

(y)

ty

+ y)

<p

37.

Find /(-I), /(O), /(I)

arc sin
arc tan

if

x for x for

^ ^ < # c + oo.
1

0,

38. Determine the roots (zeros) of the rrgion of positivity of the region of negativity of the function y if:
a)

and

r/=l

-f-x;

d)

b)
c)

y=2+x 0=1
-

y = x*
ff

3x;
2jc

2
;

_ ioo
if:

39.

Find the inverse of the function y

In
40.

what regions will these inverse functions be defined? Find the inverse of the function
/

x,
x*,

if

y
41.

if

Write the given functions as a series of equalities each of which contains a simple elementary function (poweri exponential, trigonometric, and the like):

member

a)

b)

= (2*-5r; * y=2
i/

c)

COS

d)

= arc sin (3-*

).

16

Introduction to Analysts

[Ch.

42.

Write as a single equation the composite functions repre-

sented as a series of equalities:

a)

b)

= sin#; # = arctan, u = Yv,

u*>

y=

= log#;

w,
,

if

t/<0,

ifu>0;
y defined by the equations:

*_!.
43. Write, explicitly, functions of
a)

x *

arc cos y

= n;

b) 10*
c)

+10' =10;

+ \y\ = 2y.

Find the domains of definition of the given implicit functions.

Sec, 2. Graphs of Elementary Functions

Graphs of functions # /(*) are mainly constructed by marking a suffiand / (*,-) (/ = 0, 1, 2, ...) ciently dense net of points Ai /(*,-, //), where */, by connecting the points with a line that takes account of intermediate points. Calculations are best done by a slide rule.

Fig. 3

Graphs of the basic elementary functions (see Ap pendix VI) are learned through their construction. Proceeding from the graph of
y

readily

= f(x),

(T)

get the graphs of the following functions by means of simple geometric constructions: M*) js th * mirror image of the graph T about the *-axis; 1) 0i 2) 0i=/( *) is the mirror image of the graph F about the #-axis;

we

Sec. 2]

Graphs
is
is

of

Elementary functions
th? x-axis by an Uve (/-axis by

17

3) #i 4) 1/4

= & + /(*)

= /(*)

the

F graph displaced along

graph
displaced
of the function

the F

along

amount a; an amount

(Fg. 3). Example. Construct the graph

Solution.

The

desired line

is

a sine curve
(Fig. 4)

y = sinx displaced along the *-axis

to the right

by an amount -j

Fig. 4

Construct

the
fc

graphs

of

the
1/2,
2,

following

linear

functions

(straight lines): 44. y kx, if

45.
46.
i/

= = x+

6,

if

= 0, 6 = 0,

1,

2,
1,

-1, -2.
1,

2.

0=1. 5* +2.
functions of degree
3

Construct the graphs of rational integral

two

(parabolas).

= 1, 2, -1. = y, 4 (x-l)\ = 0, 1, 2, -1. = 2, c = 3; 2) a = 51*. y = ax* + bx + c, 1) a=l, b 6 = 6, c = 0. = 2 f x x*. Find the points ol intersection of this 52.
f

47. y=--ax , if a=l, 2, 48. // *'-{- c, if c=0, 49. ,/=(*-*)', if *.

1/2,
1,

1, 1.

2, 0.

2,

50. y

if

</

if:

2,

t/

pa-

rabola with the

Ac-axis.

Construct the graphs of

the

following rational integral func-

tions of degree above two: x* (cubic parabola). 53*. y 2 +(*-!)'. 54. </ x' 55. t/ 3x-\-2. x\ 56. y 2x'-x*. 57. y

= = = = =

Construct the graphs of tions (hyperbolas):

68*.

the

following

linear

fractional func-

0=4.

18

_ _
Introduction to Analysis

[Ch. 1

59.

-.

61*.

62 *-

y= *</

Construct the graphs of the fractional rational functions:

63.

=*+

65*.
66.

-.
y=.
i/
*/

67*.
68. 69.

=r (WtYc/i of Agnesl). ,^rj 2x =x (Newton's serpentine).

t
.

y=*-h^.

70. y

=^

(trident of Newton).

Construct the graphs of the irrational functions:

71*. */=]/*: 72.

73*.
74.

y=t/x._2 y=-*/x

(Niele's parabola).

y=x\fx
f/=
^

(semicubical parabola).

75*.
76.
77.

y=j/25
Vx
2

(ellipse).

(hyperbola).

y- >=,. J^l-A __ 78*. y = + x y ^^

2

(cissoid of Diodes).
.

x 1/25 x 79. r/ Construct the graphs of the trigonometric functions: 83*. */=-cotjc. 80*. y sinx. 84*. y sec x. 81*. y cosx. 85*. y = cosec x. 82*. /=-tanx.

==

86.

{/-/4sinx
/

if
if
\

/4

= 1,

10,
2,
rv

1/2, 3,
Jl

2.

87*.
88.

y^smnx,

n=l,
*

1/2.
3ll

y= sin(x 89*. y = 5sin(2x

cp),

if

9 = 0,

ft

-J-,

-j-

~T*

3).

Sec. 2]

Graphs

of

Elementary functions

19

Construct the graphs of the exponential and logarithmic functions:

101.

102*. 103*. 104*.

105*.

= ax a = 2, l (?(e = 2, 718 ...)*). a =10, 2, 1, y = \oga x, = sinhx, where sinhx=l/2(ex e -x y = coshx, where coshx = = tanhx, where
,

if

if

*.

).

f/

f/

106. 0=10*. 2 107*. y=-e~* (probability curve).

108. ^

= 2""

*3
.

113.
.

y=
(/=-{/

109. //-logx 2 110. y-=log A:. 111. //=-log(logx).

112.

114.
115. 116.

/y==rV-log X
the

117

= = log"(cosx). ^ = 2-^ sin*.

t/

Construct

graphs

of the

inverse trigonometric functions?

118*. y--=arc sin*.

119*.
j/

122. # 123.

120*. 124. A: 121*, (/= arc cot x. Construct the graphs of the functions:
125.

= arccosx. # = arc tan*.

= arcsin~. x = arc cos--. # ^ = + arc cot x.

y=\x\.

126. y
127.
128.

= ^(x + \x\). = x\x\\ a) y

a)
|

b)

t/= sinA:+ sin jt|; b) 2 x when |jc|< 1. 3

y = log^^l x f/= sin x sinx|.

\|

129.

^-<

_l. whcn
* see p. 22 for

*)

About the number

more

details.

20

Introduction to Analysis

[C/i.

130. a)
of the

= #=[*], b) y x[x], where [x] is the integral part number x, that is, the greatest in.eger less than or equal
functions
in the polar

to

x.

Construct the graphs of the following coordinate system (r, cp) (r^O):
131.
r

132*.

133*.
134*.
135. r 136.
137.

/-

= l. f = 7r = r =
<*>

(spiral of Archimedes).

(logarithmic spiral).

(hyperbolic spiral).

/-

= 2cosip (circle). ' = -^- (straight line). = sec*y (parabola).

= =
=

138*. r=10sin3(p (three-leafed rose) 139*. r a(l fcoscp) (a>0) (cardioid). 2 I 143*. r a cos2(p (a>0) (lemniscate). Cjnstruct the graphs of the functions represented parametrically:
t* (semicubical parabola). 141*. x t\ y 142*. *=10 cos/, y=sin/ (ellipse). 3 1 143*. *=10cos /, 10 sin / (astroid). 144*. jc a(cos/-f / sin/), t/ a(sm / /cos/)

y=

(involute of a

circle).

145*. ^

146

'

147. xasfc'-t^143. jc 2cos f f

149. 150.

2- (branch of y=2 = # = 2 sin (segment of *-/t\ y=t x^a (2 cos/ cos2/), = a(2sin/
1
t
t

^'
^3,
f

J/

=
rTT'

^0//wm ^

Descartes).

/==

a hyperbola). a straight line).

sin 2/) (cardioid).

*/

Cjnstruct 'the graphs of the following functions defined implicitly:

151*.x
152.

= 2jc (parabola). 154. ^1 + ^! = = jc'(10 155. 156*. x T + y T =;aT (astroid).

153*.
2 i/

25 (circle). xy--= 12 (hyperbola).

*/

j/*

157*. x 158. *'

Sec. 2]

Graphs

of

Elementary Functions

21

* 159*. |/V y (logarithmic spiral). 8 160*. x* 3x// (folium of Descartes). y 161. Derive the conversion formula Irom the Celsius scale (Q to the Fahrenheit scale (F) if it is known that corresponds

=e =

a"

0C

to

32F

and 100C corresponds to 212F. Construct the graph of the function obtained. 162. Inscribed in a triangle (base 6^=10, altitude h

rectangle (Fig. 5). tion of the base x.

6) is a the area of the rectangle y as a funcExpress

Fig. 5

Fig

ACB = x (Fig. 6). angle area ABC as a function of Express # of this function and find its greatest value.

Construct the graph of this function and value. 163. Given a triangle ACB with BC a, AC

find

its

greatest

=b

and a variable

x.

Plot the graph

164.

Give

a graphic solution of the equations:

0;

a) 2x'

b) x*
c)

5x + 2 = x 1=0;

d)
e)
f)

I0'

= x\
4
5sin;c;

x=l
cot

= 0.1jc; logJt

x^x

(0<jc<jt).

165. Solve tjie systems of equations graphically:

a)

xy=10, x
xr/-6,
x
2
2

= 7\

b)
c)

d)
e)

+
j/

#=sinx,

= cos#

(0

<x<

2jt).

22

Introdnction to Analysis

(C/t.

Sec. 3. Lfmits

*!

1. The limit of a sequence. x lt .... X0, .... or

The
lim

number
a,

is

the limit of a sequence

xn

n >
if

oo

for

any
a
|

e>0
1.

there

is

number

N=N

(e)

such that

\xn

<e

when

n> N.
that
Urn n
-*

Example

Show

5L + 1.2.
rt-r
1

(1)

Solution.

Form

the difference

2*

+1

Evaluating the absolute value

of this difference,

we have:
e,

-2
if

<
(e).

(2)

n>-\ = N
Thus, for

every

positive

number

there will

be a number

Af=

such

N we will have inequality (2) Consequently, the number 2 is that for n the limit of the sequence x n (2n-\- l)/(n-fl), hence, formula (1) is true. 2. The limit of a function. We say that a function / (x) -*- A as x -+ a (A and a are numbers), or
lim f(x) x -a
if

>

= A,

for

every 8
|

>

we have
for

=6

()

>
f(jO

such that

\f(x)A <e
Similarly',

<

|x

a|<6.
lim
*
-> 00

= 4,
for
is

if

\f( X

)A\<*
lim

|x|>

/V(e).

The following conventional notation

*-*a
/(x)
x

also used:

= oo,
a
\

which means that

positive

f (x)

>

for

<

< 6 (E),
then

where E

is

number
limits.
ii

an arbitrary

3. One-sided
x -- a
f(a

If

0; similarly,

x
*

>a
lim
-

<a

and x
-+ a,

-* a,

and x
~
o

then

we

we write conventionally write * -^ a-f-0. The numbers

lim
/

0)=

f(x) and /(a

+ 0)=

(x)

*-*a + o

*re called, respectively, the limit on the left of the function f (x} at the point a and the //mi/ on the right of the function / (x) at the point a (if these

numbers

exist).

Sec. 3]

Limits
as jc-^o,

23
is

For the existence of the limit of a function and sufficient to have the following equality:
/(a
If

/ (x)

it

necessary

O)-/
following theorems.

the limits

lim /, (x) and lim f 2 (x) exist, then the x ->a x -> a

old:
1)

x
2)

lim -+ a
lim

[/,

(*)

+ /, (*)] = x lima
-+
(jc)J

/, (x)

+ xlimaf
-*

(x);

x-*a

[f,

(x) f 2

lim f, (x). lim f t (x); x -* a x -* a

3)

lim [f , x- o

W/^

(JK)J

=
*

lim
-#

/, (x)l
jc

lim
-*

^ (x)

(lim f , (x)
Jt

-^

^ 0).

The following two

limits are frequently used:

lim
AP

->-0

ILi=i

and
lim
1-J--L

lim

(l

a
a)

=* = 2
left

71828

Example

2.

Find the limits on the

/ (x)

right

and

of the function

= arc tan-

as x ->-0.

Solution.

We

have
lim x
.+

arc tan )= 2 x J +o fa \

and

f(-0)=
Obviously, the function
/ (x)

x->.

lim -

o \

faictanlW-42 /
A:

in this case

has no limit as x--0.

166.

Prove that as n

*oo the limit of the sequence

is

equal to zero. For which values of n will

we have

the inequal-

ity

(e is

an arbitrary positive number)? Calcula e numerically for a) e 0.1; b) e 167. Prove that the limit of the sequence

= 0.01;

c) 8

= 0.001

24

as

the inequality

_ _
Introduction to Analysis
rt

[CH. 1

>oo

is

unity.

For

which

values of

n>N

will

we have

K-l|<e
c)

(e

is

an arbitrary positive number)? Find N for a) e = 0.1; b) e = 0.01; 168. Prove that liin x*=:4.
X ->
2

= 0.001.

How
positive

should one choose, for a given positive number

e,

some

number

6 so that the inequality

2

|*

-4|<8
b) 8

should follow from

Compute 6
169.
a)
*
->

for a)

= 0.1;
X + +

= 0.01;

c)

= 0.001.
= oo.
notations:

Give the exact meaning of the Hoi log* = oo; b) lim 2*= +00; c)
+0
00

following
liai/(x)
X
-> 00

170.
a) *} b) V)
I

Find the limits

of the sequences:
*

i,

_ 2*3' _ 1
1
3
'

(_2n_
2/i~l
'
' '

)""

4
' '

...

1
1

1
5

'

'

'

'

c)

1/2;

1/2

1/2",

1/21/21/2",
.
.

d) 0.2,

0.23, 0.233, 0.2333,

limits:

Find the
171.

Hm
n
lirn
fl

a+4 + l,+ ... *\*

*

"*

172.

C+D

+
n

)(>.

+ 3)
l)

-oo

173

'

Hm

2n+11
2

J'

178*. lim
n
-* CD

Sec. 3]

Limits

179.
-o/%

Hm (Vn +
n -+
i
<

\f~n).

180. lim

When
x -+
oo,
it

seeking
is

the
first

limit

useful

of a ratio of two integral polynomials in n to divide both terms of the ratio by x , where

* as n is

the highest decree of these polynomials. A similar procedure is also possible in ing irrational terms.

many

cases for fractions contain-

Example
lim

1.

J2^-3)(3t-f^)(4A'-6)

Example

2.

*
lim
.

=.

lim

1.

181.
r

lim
-. or

^rrr. *
~'

*86.

lim
*

^~~^=J.
V
*
X*
-\- \

<x>

182.

lim
00

^^.
3*
O ^2
.,

187.

lim
-1 1-

__
1/
jc

183.

lim

+7
.

J"

188.

lim
->*
10-jA:

Y L
h

184.

lim
lim
-

43

8v

+5*

189.

lirn

185.

-r-r~c

^5
are integral

190.

lim

Vx + Vx
If

P(A-)

and Q

(x)

polynomials and P

(u)

or

(a)

then the limit of the rational fraction

lim

is

obtained directly. But if P(a) Q(a)=0, then

it

is

advisable to camel the binomial *

out of the fraction

P Q

(x)

once or several times.

Example

3.

lim

/'T

lim !*""!!)

xf ??

Hm

^^4.

26

Introduction to Analysis

101.

lim

^{.
*

198.

Um ^
*-+>
fl

_
in

\Ch.

192. lim
* _.
|

*-.
*

196. lim

The expressions containing irrational ized by introducing a new variable.

Example
4.

terms are

many

cases rational-

Find
lim

Solution. Putting

we

!+* =
Mm

have
lim

E=1
1

*/',

lim

"

199. lim
X -

200. lim

* -4^-. *~
l

201. ,'~ ,,. lim

x
.

3/ t/x

Another way of finding the limit of an irrational expression is to transfer the irrational term from the numerator to the denominator, or vice versa, from the denominator to the numerator.

Example
lim

5.

lim

x -+a(X

a)(Vx

_^
+ V a)
lim
!
!

*-> a

jc

-f

2\f~i

203.

lim

-. Q -49
j-^=
.

206.

lim

-=f. __

204.

li.n

*-*

207.

lim
*-+<

2
1

205.

lim *-+'

^L""
*
1

208.

lim ^-*o

Sec. #]

Limits

27

_
209.

212.

lim
X-

lim

[/*(*

+ a)

xj.

213
210. lim

'

^i
214.
li.
|

-6* 4 6-*).

211.

Hm(]/xfa
Jf--fCO

215.

The formula
llm X-

-i
It

r frequently used when solving the following examples. cos a. sin a and lim cos granted that lim sin *

*=

is

taken

for

Example

6.
lira

!!!

lim

216.

a)

lim;
-> CO
sill

227. a)
b)

lim

xsinl;
.

b)li.n^. X
217.
218.
219. 220.
221.
,.

lim x sin
X-*
00

*
-~-

3x

228.
229.

lim
Jt-M

(1

x) tan

sin

5*
'

lim X -0

sin

2*
=
.

* -+0

lim cot 2x cot f-^ *

\

x).
/

sin JTX

lim
M

sin BJIJC
l

230.

lim
*Jt

ji

lim ( n
n-*cc
\

sin-). n I

231.

lim

1-2

lim

222.

lim lim lim

232. 233.

lim

cosmx
tan
A:

- cosn
V*

sui

223.
224. 225.
226.

lim
JC

arc sin

lim
lim
I

crs^ tan*

236.
'

lim
sin six

'

"28

_ _
Introduction to Analysis

[Ch. 1

m.

nx

ta
-* 1

.=T.
I

24

n
!!?.

*""r

'"""

Jt

When

taking limits of the form

lim l<p(Jt)]* U) X * fl

-=C

(3)

one should bear

1)
if

in

mind

that:

there are final limits

lim
cp

(x)

A and

lim

\|?

(x)

= B,
then the problem of finding

then

C=4";
2)
if

lim (p(x)
is

= ^
/l

and

lim ty(x)^=

oo,

the limit of (3)

3)
if

solved in straightforward fashion; lim \|) (x) then co, lini(pU)=l and

we

put

q>(x)=

+a(x),

where a

(x)

-*

as x -+ a and, lien^e,
1

Hm a

(x)

(x)

Hm

[(p

(x)

- ij

ty (x)

where

= 2.718
7.

...
Find

is

Napier's number.

Example

lim

Solution. Here,
lim

Jf-^O \

(5111=2 X
lim x-*o

and

lim

hence,

Example

8.

Find

Solution.

We

have

lim
1

r-^(

J^

end

Hm

*2

^Sec

3]

Limits

Therefore,
lim
/

=0.

Example

9.

Find
lim
f

x ~~
\ t

Solution.

We

have

lim X-+ 06 X

^11=
-4- 1

lim (- CO

i
.

+T
,

Transforming, as indicated above, we have

In this case

it

is

easier to find the limit without resorting to the general

procedure:

Generally,

it

is

useful to
lim

remember

that

250.
"" 2 *"

li

244. lim(* X
X-K>\

3x4-2/
i

].

251. lirn(l
-.o

+ sinjc) *.
J_ *
;

/^i

2 \*a

245>

Jill ( 2?+T )
/
1

252**. a) lim (cos x)

X ~*
.

246.

... V

Hmfl
Iim(l

-) /

b)

247

f I)*.

30

When solving the problems that follow, limit lim/(x) exists and is positive, then
lim [In /(*)] x-+a

_ _
Introduction to Analysis
it

[Ch.
if

is

useful to

know

that

the

= In

[Hm
X-+Q

f (x)].

Example

tO.

Prove that

Solution.

We

have

lim X-*0

ln

X
is

X-+Q

Formula

(*)

frequently used in the solution of problems.

253. lim [In

*-

(2*+!)
X
.

254.

li

255.

,_*<> \

" limfjlnl/J-i^). lX/

260*.

llmn(^/a ^
V)

pCLX

256. lim *[ln(jt+l)

<-*--- 00

Inx].

261. lim262.
li

*
sin

\)

(a>0).

ptX
.

257.

lim.
Hm=.
ital!
the*

-*

-^o

258*.

263. a)
(a

lim
lim

259*.

>0).
(see

b)

x*

Problems 103 and

104).

Find

following limits that occur on one side:

264. a)

lira

*_^

fa

Hm
*" +

b)Jirn*
265.
*-*-*

p===.
267
-

1+ ' T

a/lLutanh*;
b)

a ) lim

limtanh*,
*->+

*-b) Hm
*-*+

where tanh^ =
266. a)
lira

^^~.

268. a) lim
b) |im

Sec. 31

Limits

31

269. a)

lim-^4i;
'

270. a)

Hm-^-; x~*

Construct the graphs of the following functions: 2 \im (cos "*). 271**. y

n->oo

272*.

y=lim
n-*c

xn
2
.

(x^O).

273. y
274.
t/

= \im
a->o

J/V-t-a

= li;n|
=
li

275.

t/

-*<

276. Transform
a

the

following

mixed

periodic

fraction

into

common

fraction:

= 0.13555...

Regard
277.

it

What

as the limit of the corresponding finite fraction. will happen to the roots of the quadratic equation

if the coefficient a approaches zero while the coefficients b and c are constant, and fc^=0? 278. Find the limit of the interior angle of a regular n-gon > oo. as n 279. Find the limit of the perimeters of regular n-gons inscribed oo. in a circle of radius R and circumscribed about it as n 20. Find the limit of the sum of the lengths of the ordinates

of the

curve

= e~*cos nx,

drawn

x 0, 1, 2, ..., n, as n *oo. 281. Find the limit of the sum of the areas of the squares constructed on the ordinates of the curve
at the points

as

on bases, where x=^l, 2, 3, ..., n, provided that n 282. Find the limit of the perimeter of a broken line

*oo.

M^.. .Mn

inscribed in a logarithmic spiral

Introduction to Analysis

[Ch.

oo), if the vertices of this broken line have, respectively, (as n the polar angles
<P,

== 0,

<PJ

=y

q>rt

=y

(Fig. 7) is divided into n equal parts, each pnrt serving as the base of an isoscelos triangle with base angles u ^45. Show that the limit of the perimeter of the broken line thus formed dilTers from the

283.

A segment AB = a

length of AB despite the fact that in the limit the broken line "geometrically merges with the segment AB".

Fig.

Fig

in half; the point C, divides a segment AB---1 divides a segment AC in half; the point C, divides a point C 2 C 2 C 3 in half, and so segment C,C in half; the point C 4 divides on. Determine the limiting position of the point C n when /i--oo. 285. The side a of a right triangle is divided into n equal which is constructed an inscribed rectangle parts, on each of Determine the limit of the area of the step-like figure 8). (Fig. thus formed if n *ou. 286. Find the constants k and b from the equation

284.

The

0.

(1)

is the geometric meaning of (1)? 287*. A certain chemical process proceeds in such fashion that the increase in quantity of a substance during each interval of time r out of the infinite sequence of intervals (tr, (i -f l)t) substance (/~0, 1, 2, ...) is proportional to the quantity of the available at the commencement of each interval and to the length of the interval. Assuming that the quantity of substance at the
n} after determine the quantity of substance Q nth part of if the increase takes place each the elapse of time t

What

initial

time

is

the time interval

*=

Find

Q^lhi

Sec. 4]

Infinitely

Small and Large Quantities

33

Sec. 4. Infinitely Small and Large Quantities

1.

Infinitely small quantities (infinitesimals).

If

lim a (x) = 0,
x->a
i.e.,
if

|a(x)|<e when
as

<
In

infinitesimal * oo. as x

a.

then the function a (x) is an a fi(e), similar fashion we define the infinitesimal a (x)
K
| \

<

also infinitesimals as
If

The sum and product of x-+a.

a(x) and p

limited

number
x

of

infinitesimals as x

+a are

(x) are infinitesimals as

*a and

lim SlJfUc, x-+a P (x)

where C

is some number different from zero, then the functions a(x) and p(x) are called infinitesimals of the same order; but if C 0, then we say that the function a (x) is an infinitesimal of Higher order than p (x). The function u (x) is called an infinitesimal of order n compared with the function p (x) if

lim

Q(x)
"

-C

'

where
If

<

C|

<

-f oo.

then the functions a

(x)

and p

(A*)

are called equivalent functions as x

*a:

For example,

for

>

we have
sinx~x;

tanx~ x;

ln(l-fx)~ x

and so

forth.

infinitesimals of different orders is equivalent to the lower. The limit of a ratio of two infinitesimals remains unchanged if the terms of the ratio are replaced by equivalent quantities. By virtue of this theorem, when taking the limit of a fraction
of

The sum

two

term whose order

is

lim

aPW
,
t

!>

as x *a we can subtract from (or add to) where a (x) >.0 and p (x) the numerator or denominator infinitesimals of higher orders chosen so that the resultant quantities should be equivalent to the original quantities.
>

Example

1.
,.

lim

i-

j/?T2? = lim a/7

,.

'

*-*o

2x

2.
ber
Af

there

Infinitely large quantities (infinites). If for an arbitrarily large numa x exists a 6(N) such that when 6(N) we have the

<

<

inequality

lfMI>tf.
then the function f(x)
is

called an infinite as x

>a.

2-1900

34

The definition of an infinite f (x) as x of infinitesimals, we introduce the concept

288. Prove that the function

_ _
Introduction to Analysis
> co
is

[Ch.

analogous. As in the case

of infinites of different orders.

is

an infinitesimal as x

*oo. For what

values

of

is

the ine-

quality

l/WI<e
fulfilled
if

e is

an arbitrary number?

Calculate for: a) e 0.1; b) e-0.01; the function 289. Prove that

c)

e-0.001.

is

an infinitesimal for x

>1.

For what values

of

is

the ine-

quality

!/(*)!<
fulfilled
if

e is

an arbitrary positive number? Calculate numeri-

cally for:

0.01; c) e a) e-0.1; b) e 290. Prove that the function

~

= 0.001.

x
is

an infinite

for

*2. In

what neighbourhoods

of |x

2|<8

is

the inequality

lf(x)\>N
fulfilled
if

is

an arbitrary positive number? Find 5 if a) #=10;

c)

b)

#=100;

291. Determine the order of smallness the surface of a sphere, b) the volume of a sphere if the radius of the sphere r is an infinitesimal of order one. What will the orders be of the radius of the sphere and the volume of the sphere with respect to its surface? 292. Let the central angle a of a circular sector ABO (Fig. 9) with radius R tend to zero. Determine the orders of the infinitesimals relative to the infinitesimal a: a) of the chord AB\ b) of the line CD; c) of the area of A/4BD.
o
of: a)

J2^

#=1000.

Sec. 4]

Infinitely Small

and Large Quantities

of

35

293. For

*0 determine the orders

d)
e)
1

smallness relative to

of the functions:
*\ *)

^*
\

cos
A:

*'*

+x

tan

sin

A:.

b)
c)

$/*'-

294. Prove that the length of an infinitesimal arc of a circle constant radius is equivalent to the length of its chord. 295. Can we say that an infinitesimally small segment and an infinitesimally small semicircle constructed on this segment as a diameter are equivalent?
of

Using the theorem

si "

of the ratio of
.

two

infinitesimals, find
.

296. lim

3*' s
!"

5*

298.

lim^

arc sin

297. lim
x

^o

ln(l--*)

_^= -*
1

299. lim

300. Prove that

when x

*0

the quantities

and

Y\

+xl
\x\ is
(1)

are equivalent. Using this result, demonstrate that small we have the approximate equality

when

VT+T1 +
Applying formula
a)
(1),

approximate the following:

1/L06;

b)

1/0^7;

c)

/lO;

d)

/T20

and compare the values obtained with tabular data. we have the following approxi301. Prove that when x mate equalities accurate to terms of order x 2
:

b)
c)
(1

d)

log(l+x)

where

= Afx, Af = log e = 0.43429...

02
;

n +x) &\

+ nx

(n

is

a positive integer);

Using these formulas, approximate:

*>

2>

0^7

3>

I<55

4)

^16;

5)

1.04'; 6) 0.93*; 7) log 1.1.

Compare

the values obtained with tabular data.

36

_ _
Introduction to Analysis

[Ch.

302.

Show

X+OQ the ~ P (x) = a.x n + a,x n +

that for
l

rational integral function

.
.

-f

an

is an infinitely large quantity equivalent to the term of highest n degree a x 303. Let x*oo. Taking x to bean infinite of the first order, determine the order of growth of the functions:
.

a)

*>-

100* -1,000;

c)

b)

7+2-

Sec. 5. Continuity of Functions

1. Definition of continuity.

function

/ (x)

is

continuous

when x =

(or "at the point g"), if: 1) this function is defined at the point g, that is, there exists a number / (g); 2) there exists a finite limit lim f (x); 3) this lim-

x-4
it

is

equal to the value of the function at the point

g,

i.e.,

llmf
*-*fc

(*)

= /().

(1)

Putting

where Ag

^0, condition
lim

(1)

may be
lim

rewritten as
(g)]

A/(g) =

l/(g+ Ag)-f

= 0.

(2)

or the function / (x) is continuous at the point g if (and only if) at this point to an infinitesimal increment in the argument there corresponds an infinitesimal increment in the function. If a function is continuous at every point of some region (interval, etc.), then it is said to be continuous in this region. Example 1. Prove that the function

y
fs

= sin x
x.

continuous
Solution.

for every

We

value of the argument

have
cos

Ay = sin
Since

<*

+ A*)-sin x = 2 sin

x+

sin

cos f

x+

si

lim

T=

and

2
it

follows that for any x

we have
lim A(/

Hence, the function sin*

is

continuous when

oo<x< +

Sec. 5]

Continuity of Functions

37

2. Points of discontinuity of a function. We say that a function /(x)has discontinuity 'at (or at the point XQ) within the domain of definition of the function or on the boundary of this domain if there is a break in the continuity of the function at this point.
a

x=*

Example
when x=l.

2.

The

function
is

f(x)=

(Fig.

10 a)

is
1,

discontinuous

This

function

not defined at the point x

and no matter

1-2

how we

choose the number /(I), the redefined tinuous for *=1. If the function f (x) has finite limits:

function

/ (x)

will not be con-

Hm
and not
all

/(*)

= f(*

-0)
),

and

Urn

/(*)

= /(
are equal, the nxQ
is

three

numbers f(x

a discontinuity of the first kind.

) /(* f (x In particular,

+ Q)
if

called

then *

is

For continuity
ficient that

called a removable discontinuity. of a function f(x) at a point

JC

Q,

it

is

necessary and suf-

38

In t reduction to Analysis

[Ch. I

Example
at

3.

The function

/(jc)=j-y
lim

has a discontinuity of the

first

kind

= 0.

Indeed, here,
/
(

+ 0)=

5!!L

==+ i

and

/(_0)=
of the

lim
jc-*-o

x
part

where
1,

Example 4. The iunction y = E(x), where E(x) denotes the integral number x [i.e., E (x) is an integer that satisfies the equality x = E(x)

0<<7<1],
i2,
...,

is

and

(Fig. 106) at every integral all the discontinuities are of the first kind.

discontinuous

point: x

+ q. = 0,

Indeed, if n is an integer, then /i. At all (/i 0)-=/il and (/i 0) other points this function is, obviously, continuous. Discontinuities of a function that are not of the first kind are called discontinuities of the second kind. Infinite discontinuities also belong to discontinuities of the second kind. These ane points * such that at least one of the one-sided limits, /(*<> 0) or /(*o 0) is equal to oo (see Example 2).

+ =

Example

5.

The function # = cos

(Fig.

lOc) at

the

point

x=0

has a

discontinuity of the second kind, since here:

lim cos 5L X X-+-0

both one-sided

limits are nonexistent

and

lim
Jt->

cosi
X

3. Properties of continuous functions. When testing functions for continuity, bear in mind the following theorems: of a limited number of functions continuous in 1) the sum and product some region is a function that is continuous in this region; 2) the quotient of two functions continuous in some region is a continuous function for all values of the argument of this region that do not make the
divisor zero; 3) if a function
t

f (x) is continuous in an interval (a, b), and a set of its values is contained in the interval (A, B), and a function cp (x) is continuous in (A B), then the composite function cp[/(*)J is continuous in (a, b). A function f (x) continuous in an interval [a, b] has the following properis

ties:
1) f (x)

boanded on

|/(*)|<M when
2) / (x) has a 3) / (x) takes

a<*<6;
on
all

[a,

6J,

i.e.,

there

is

some number
[a,

such that

minimum and

maximum
values

value on

b]\

between the two given values; matter what the if and fl (a<a<p<6), then no ithat is, number C between A and B, there will be at least one value JC Y (<Y<P) such that f(y)=*C. In particular, if f(a)/(p)<0, then the equation
f(a) = A

= /(P)

intermediate

has

at least

one

real root in the interval

(a,
2

p).

304.
of the

Show

that the function y

x.

=x

is

continuous for any value

argument

Sec. 5]

305. Prove that the rational integral tunction

_ _
Continuity of Functions
(a, 6),

39

is

continuous for any value of x. 306. Prove that the rational fractional function

is continuous for all values of x except those that make the denominator zero. 307*. Prove that the function y = Yx is continuous for x&zQ. 308. Prove that if the function f (x) is continuous and non-

negative in the interval

then the function

is

likewise continuous in this interval. 309*. Prove that the function y cos x is continuous for any x. 310. For what values of x are the functions a) tan* and

b) cotjc

continuous?

that the function # |#| is continuous. graph of this function. 312. Prove that the absolute value of a continuous is a continuous function. 313. A function is defined by the formulas

311*.

Show

Plot the

function

should one choose the value of the function A=f(2) so 2? the thus redefined function f(x) is continuous for # Plot the graph of the function y f(x). 314. The right side of the equation
that

How

f(x)
is

= lx sin
should one choose the value /(O)
jc

meaningless for x =

0.

How

so that f(x) is continuous for 315. The function

f(*)
is

= 0?

= arctan--^

in for

meaningless for x=--2. Is it possible to define the value of /(2) such a way that the redefined function should be continuous
jc

= 2?

40

Introduction to Analysis

[Ch.

316. The so that fix)

function f(x)
is

is

continuous for x =
;

not

defined
0,
if:

for

x=

0.

Define /(O)

a)

f(x) /(*)

= ^ y\__1 y x
/]
l
I

(n is a positive

integer);

b)
c)

cos*
A*

/(*)

= ln(\+x)

111(1

d)

/(

f)

/(*)

= * cot*.

Investigate the following functions for continuity:

317.
318. 3,9. 320.

y=

-.

324.

</

y=
yssi

-.
=

325. y

= arc tan = (!+

A:)

326.

</

arc tan
,

^=.
b)

y=

xs\n-.

329.

322.

*/

= -/
**

323.
330.

y=\n(cosx).

y=J
\

2#+l

for

'"T x>3.

P'ot the graph of this function.

irrational x value of x.

331. Prove that the Dirichlet function %(x) which is zero for and unity for rational x, is discontinuous for every
t

Investigate the following functions for continuity and construct their graphs:

332. y 333.

= \in\ y = lim (x arc tan nx).

Sec. 5]

Continuity of Functions

334. a) y

= sgnx,
is

b)

=x
I

sgnx,

c)

i/

= sgn(sinjt),
0,

where the

function sgn x

defined by the formulas:

1,

if
if if

*>0,

sgn x

0,

x=

-1,

*<0.

335. a) y xE(x), b) y xE(x), where E (x) is the integral part of the number x. 336. Give an example to show that the sum of two discontinuous functions may be a continuous function. 337*. Let a be a regular positive fraction tending to zero (0<a<l). Can we put the limit of a into the equality

=
which
is

(l

a)

l,

338.

Show

true for all values of a? that the equation

has a real root in the interval

339. Prove
least

(1,2).

that

any

polynomial

Approximate P (x) of odd

this root.

power has

at

one real root. 340. Prove that the equation

has an infinite number of real roots.

Chapter II

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS

Sec. 1. Calculating Derivatives Directly

1. Increment of the argument and increment of the function. If x and x l are values of the argument x, and y f(x) and t/ 1 /(jc 1 ) are corresponding values of the function y f(x), then

^x~x
is

x
(x,

called the increment of the argument x in the interval

xj, and

A0=0i
or
/

= f (x,) -f (x) = f (x + A*) r

<n

Fig.
is

11

where

called the increment of the function y in the and by AN). The ratio

&x=MA

same

interval

(jc,

*,) (Fig.

11,

5s

and

the slope of the secant of the graph of the function y=*f(x) (Fig. 11) is called the mean rate of change of the function y over the interval (x, *-f Ax). Example t. For the function

MN

Sec. 1]

Calculating Derivatives Directly

43

calculate
a)

Ax and A#, corresponding

to x=l.l; to x 2.

to a change in the argument:

fromx=l
from

b)

x=3 Solution. We
a)

have

Ai/

b)

= (l.l 5-1.1 + 6) Ax = 2 3 = At/ = (2* 5-2-1-6) (3*

2

Ax=l. 1

1=0.1,
1,

(I

5-

1+6) =

0.29;

5-3 -f- 6)--=0.

Example

2.

In the case of the hyperbola y

=
N

find

the

slope
.

of

the

secant passing through the points

Solution.
,
AJ/

M
3

3,

-)

and

10,
1

-r^
1

'

Here,

Ax=10

=7

and

Ay = ^ 1U

4= o

5*5U

Hence,

Ax~~

1
30'
derivative.

2. The

The derivative
is

y'=j-

of a function

y-=f(x) with

re-

spect to the argument x

that
is.

the limit of the ratio -r^

when Ax approaches

zero;

y>=
The magnitude

lim
AJC -> o

A*

>.

graph of the function y

of the derivative yields the slope of the f(x) at the point x (Fig. 11):

=
/'

tangent

MT

to

the

y'

tan

q>.

Finding the derivative

usually called differentiation of the function. The derivative y'=f' (x) is the rate of change of the function at the point x. Example 3. Find the derivative of the function
is

y
Solution.

= x*.
xi

From formula

(1)

we have
A*)*

Ay = (*+
and

2*Ax+ (Ax) 1

Hence,

'=
5*.

lim

Ax

L^

lim
AJC->O

One-sided derivatives. The expressions

/'_(*)= lim
AJ:-*--O

(*+**)-/(*) Ax

and

/(x)=

lim

Ax

'

44

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

are called, respectively, the left-hand or right-hand derivative of the function f(x) at the point x. For /' (x) to exist, it is necessary and sufficient that
/'.(*)

= /+(*).
the function

Example 4 Find

/'_ (0)

and

/'

(0) of

Solution.

By the

definition
/'_ (0)

we have

= =

lim

f^

(0)

lim A*--t-o

Ax

4.

Infinite derivative.

If

at

some point we have

lim

/(*+**)-/(*)_. Uoo,

then

we say that the continuous function / (x) has an infinite derivative at x. In this case, the tangent to the graph of the function y f(x) is perpendicular to the x-axis. Example 5. Find /' (0) of the function

Solution.

We

have

V=V*
=
]im

/'0)=llm *~ Ax

-=-=<2 y = x that corresponds

341. Find the increment of the function

to a
a)

change

in
1
1

argument:
to

b)
c)

from x= from x = from A: =

*=

to

xt xl
A:,

to

= 2; = = + h.
1
.

342. Find A// of the function

a)
0,

y=-i/xil:

AA:- 0.001;
AA:

b)
c)

^=

^=8,
a,

= ^=

9;
/Z.

343. Why can we, for the function y = 2;c 3, determine the increment Ay if all we know is the corresponding increment Ax = 5, while for the function y x 2 this cannot be done?

344. Find
tions:

the

increment
f 01

by and

the ratio

^ A
*

for the func-

a)
b)
c)

=
( Jg

"*^

andAjc =

2)

0.4;

y=l/"x
y

= \ogx

forx-0
for

x -100,000

and AJC = 0.0001; and A*90,000.

Sec.

1]

Calculating Derivatives Directly

45

which correspond Ay and ment fromx to x-(- Ax for the functions:

345. Find
-

to

change in argu-

a)

y-ax +
y-x';

6;

d) y
e)

b)

= /x; = 2*\

346. Find the slope of the secant to the parabola

y
if

==

~x

the abscissas of the points of intersection are equal:

a)

x,-l, x a -2;
2

c)

x^l,' x 2 =l+fc.
limit does the slope of the secant tend in the latter case

To what
if

/i->0?
347.

What
interval

is

the

mean

in the

l^x^4?
=

rate of change of the

function y

= x*

2/ 348. The law of motion of a point is s 3/ 5, where the distance s is given in centimetres and the time t is in seconds. What is the average velocity of the point over the interval of time from t~\ to ^ 5? 2* in the interval 349. Find the mean rise of the curve y

350. Find the

[x,

mean

rise of the

curve

j/

= /(x)

in the interval

f(x) by the rise of the curve y given point x? 352. Define: a) the mean rate of rotation; b) the instantaneous rate of rotation. 353. A hot body placed in a medium of lower temperature cools off. What is to be understood by: a) the mean rate of cooling; b) the rate of cooling at a given instant? 354. What is to be understood by the rate of reaction of a substance in a chemical reaction? 355. Let /(X) be the mass of a non- homogeneous rod over the interval [0, x]. What is to be understood by: a) the mean linear density of the rod on the interval [x, x+Ax]; b) the linear density of the rod at a point x?
is

x+Ax]. 351. What

to be understood

at a

M=

356.

Find
a)

the

ratio
b)

of

the
c)

function

*/

at the point
is

x=

2,

if:

Ax-1;

Ax = 0.1;

Ax -0.01. What

the deriv-

ative y'

when x^2?

46

_ _
Differentiation of Functions

[C/t.

357**. Find the derivative of the function y

358. Find {/'=
lirn

= ianx.

of the functions:

a)

t/

=x

f
;

c)

359. Calculate f'(8), if 1 360. Find /'(0), /'(I), /'(2), if /(*) *(*- 1) (x-2)V 361. At what points does the derivative of the function #* coincide numerically with the value of the function itself, /(#) that is, /(*) /'(*)? 362. The law of motion of a point is s 5/*, where the distance s is in metres and the time t is in seconds. Find the speed

at

= 3.

363.

Find

the

slope

of

the

tangent

drawn

at a point with abscissa x 2. 364. Find the slope of the tangent

(ji,

to

the

curve y = Q.lx*

to the

curve y=sinjt at
f \ / (*)

the point

0).
i

365. Find the value of the derivative of the function

at the point

= -i
x

x = X Q (x

+ 0). =~
of their intersection?

366*.

What

are the slopes of the tangents to the curves y

and y = x* at the point tween these tangents.

Find the
do not

angle be-

367**. Show that the following functions derivatives at the indicated points:
a)

have

finite

y=^?_
=l/xl
y

at at at

b) y
c)

x x

= |cosx|

*=

jt,

fc

= 0,

1,

2,

Sec. 2. Tabular

Differentiation

1. Basic
v
ty(x) are
1) (c)'

rules for finding a derivative. If c is a constant functions that have derivatives, then
5)

and

o>(jc) '

= 0;
)'-'
r ;

2)

(*)'=,;
t;';

6)

3)

7)-

==

(v

* 0).

4)

(cu)'=cu

Sec. 2]

__
I.

Tabular Differentiation

2. Table

of derivatives of basic functions n n- 1

(x )'

= nx

47

III.

(sinx)'

IV. (cosx)'

= cos*. = sin*.

V1T

(arrdn*)':=
(arccos*)'=
i*.

<

1).

VIII.

ZL.

<|*|<1).

IX. (arc
X.
XI.
XII.

jo'^y-pj.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII. (cothx)'
cosh 1 x
"

."""

XIX.

(arcsinhjt)'

= -^J==r.
V\+x*
1

XXI.
XXII.

(arc

tanh

x)'

(|jc|<l).

3. Rule
that
is,

for differentiating a
[<p (A-)],

/==/

composite function. If y f(u) and u where the functions y and u have derivatives, then

y
or in other notations

^/ dx~~ du dx'
This rule extends to a series of any finite

number

of differentiate functions.

48

_ _
Differentiation of Functions
of the function

[Ch. 2

Example

1.

Find the derivative

Solution. Putting #

=a

5
,

where w =
4

(*

2jc

+ 3),

by

formula
2
(jt

(1)

we

will

have
y'

= (u*)'u (* -2x + 3); = 5u

2

(2x-2)

= 10 (x-1)

Example

2.

Find the derivative

of the function
8

y = sin
Solution. Putting
(/

4*.

*;

= sinu;

u
2

4jc,

we

find
>-4

= 12sin

4xcos4jt.

Find the derivatives

differentiating 368-408).
a

of the

composite

following functions (the rule for function is not used in problems

A. Algebraic Functions
s
,. ouo. y

QO

V A
^

A V ~~ TEA 8

~]~

Ov AA
v^

*j.

Q7 Of i/.
.

11 t^

Qv3 JA
f

~~~ O v ^A. /" +f* y X

*

~f~

v~' A

Q5Q oOy.

<>

i/

==:

'":

;r-Jt-pJT

A V4 U.OA

Q7IS4T o/O

v* =X

370. y--=ax*

-f-

&A:

+ C.

372
373.

(,-a(-H-W".
if
.

379. il-

V^a

+6

380.

=
2jc
1

JC

374.

y==+n n

2.

381.

=i

B. Inverse Circular and Trigonometric Functions

382.
(/

383.

t/

= 5 sin ^ + 3 cos x. = tanx cotx.

386. 387.

y=arctan^-h
f/

arc cot x.

388

= -

S85.j/-2/sin(-(''-2)cos(.

389.

_('+"')' '"'-'.
^

Sec. 2]

_
y^K*-e*.

Tabular Differentiation

C. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 396. y

397.

_
*
.

49

390.

= e*arc sin x.

391. y

= (x-l)e*.

y^ ~.
y
*/

392.

r/

= 5J.

398

\j

393. (/==

399.
jc.

394. / (x) e* cos 2 395. #=:(A; 2

400.

=7 y = \nx\ogx

In

a log a

jc.

D. Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

401.
t/

= Jtsinhjt.
.

405.
406.
*.

402. y 403.

y=-Vcosh x
// t/ ^

= arctanx = arc J
(/

arctanh

t/

= tanhA: = ^iiL Inx

407.

(/

==
-

404

408. ^ //

x-

E. Composite Functions
In problems 409 to 466, use the rule for differentiating a composite function with one intermediate argument. Find the derivatives of the following functions:

40Q** "v u

Hi \

-i_^v ~~~- *jAi 2 \* ^r i~ \jAt

j
1

Solution.

Denote

3jt

= w; = 30w M ^
5jc*
;

then

t/

=w

j<)
.

We

have:

=3 u'^

10*;

i^
/

- 30a 29 -(3
I

\0x)

=30 (1 + 3jc

L. \

410. i/=|
411. 412.

410 f/ 10> ,._

>

'

"~56(2*

1)'

24(2^1)'

40(2x

I)''

414. t/=J/T^J?". 415.

y=^/

416. w=(a''.

50

Differentiation of Functions

417.

t/

= (3

2 sin*)
2 sin x) 4
.

5
.

_
2 sin x)*
(
3

[Ch. 2

- 10 cos x (3

Solution.

= 5 (32 sin y'

t

4
Jt)

-(3

2 sin x)'

= 5 (3

2 cos x)

418. j/=tanjc 419. y r/=J/coU

/coU.

423. j/ y
424. y

= 3 cos -- CGSJC 0-^-3 *

420. y

= 2x + 5 cos' *.
2
f

421*. x
422.
426.

427.

= cosec ^+sec 425. f f(x) = 6(1 _ 3cosx) {/= 1/1 + arc sin x. (arc sin x) y = J/arc tan *
/.
9
.

= |/ 3sin*--2cos* y=

428

y
t/

429.

430.
431.

y=/2ex + tart y = sin 3* + cos

-|,

Solution

f^

= cos 3^3*)' -sin 4 f 4V +

5
\

5 /

cos 2

/Yx

^ ^

Sm sin

x 5 "^2
f

432. t/=sin(x

433. /(x) cos(ct; 434. /(0=sin/si

,._
"

l+cos2*

436. /(x) 437.

t/

438.

= acot~ = ~ y = arc sin 2x.

=
441. y

Solution, y'

439. y

= arcsin^. = arccosJ/7.

= arc tan. =

440. /(x)

442. y

Sec. 2]

Tabular Differentiation

443.

AAA 444.
445.

t/

446.
452.

453.
454.

= 5e~*. 447. y = arc cose*. 448 0=1 = X = logsinjc. 5 449. = x 10'*. 450. y= ln(l *'). = ts'm2 451. y = \n* * In(lnjc). f(t) 5 sin x 4 arc sinx). y== \n(e* + = arctan (lnA:) + ln(arctan^). y = /In x+l + In (1/7+1).
t/
> .

51

j/

j/

t/

F. Miscellaneous Functions

455**. y=sin'5jccos*y.

15

10
3)'

458.

j/=

460.
461. y 462.

az

^-i-jc 2
x*

=
:

f/

= |4

463.

y=4-

465.

t/

=x

(a

__J
"2
(Jt-i-2)

1 '

468. 469.

|/

470. z

471.

/(0=(2/-

52

Differentiation of Functions

[C/t.

473. y
474.

= ln(]/l+e*-l)-ln(/l # = ^ cos'x (3 cos * 5).

2

475

...

= (tan

-2

l)(tan

x-HOtan 2 *-fl)
485. #

476. y=-ian*5x. 477. y

= arc sin = arc sin =

cos *

= ^ sin (x
2

).

486. y

*
.

478. j/=sin 479.

(O2

487. y
488. y

^
V
^
2

*/

= 3sinA:cos =
-o-

A;+sin'x.

= 4~- af c sin fx
\

I/
*

-) a /
. CL

480. w
481. y

tan *

ianx + x.

489. y

= K^

x*
8

+ a arc sin
2

^f +cotx.
2

490. t/=jt/a
491.

^-T +a

arc

sin-.

482. 483.

y=/a sin + p cos x. y = arc sinjc + arccosA;

jc
2

y=arcsin(l

484. y

= -^ (arc sin*)
=

arc cos jt.

492.
493. 494.

=jc-I y = ln(arcsin5x). y = arc sin (Inx).

5tan-i
-

495.

496.
497. 498. 499. 500.

</

arc tan
2

t/

= 36
= = =

arc tan

(36

+ 2*) Vbxx*.

t/

1/2 arc cot

=x.

/
i/

501.

502.

F( F

Sec. 2]

Tabular Differentiation

504.

y = ~e- (3sm3x
x
<

cos 3*).

507
l

505. y
/

= x"a-*". 508. y= K r = = I/cos *a 509. 506. 510. y = x 2 1/7+2 In (!+/*) = ln(a + *+/2ax + *'). 514*. 511. 5I2 ^ = !^' 515. y ^_ = 513. y _,_
*. /
j/
1 i
.

^
l

z
x
3

516.

517. y
518.

y=lnln(3

519. y 520.

=5 ^=
t/
l

522.

x-sin(lnx
1

^-)
COS X

524. /(*) 525. y 526. 527.

i/

=
1
.

= \l

=2

arc sln
sin

+ (!
'

arc cos 3x)

ux
'

u^?^^-

sm 8

m
'

3 cos' bx

528.

;/

= -Uln
= arc

tan^+2-:
=
n

529. y

tan In x.
In
2

530.
531.

y^lnarc sinx +
f/

jc-|

arc sin In x.

= arctanln

54

Differentiation of Functions

_
arc tan
.

[C/t.

633. t/= 534. y 535.

1Vsin*

1 arc tan x. = 1 In Ji- + 1 In J^| + 1 In (1 + *)- In (*'-*+ 1) + /(*) =

536. f(*)

=
a

537. y 538. y
539.

540.
541.

= s'mh*2x. = e * cosh px. y = ianh*2x. y = Insinh2jc.

t/

543. 544.

542. y=r. arc cosh In*. arc tanh (tan x).

545.

= # = arc cot h (sec*). y = arc tanh y^

= arcsinh~.
-^+-if:

546.

t/

= -2-(

A:a

547. r/=

548. Find y',

a)

y=\x\\

b)

= *|*|.
y'.
if

Construct the graphs of the functions y and

549. Find #'
550. Find

(x)

if 1

for

x<0,

551. Calculate

/'

(0)

if

/(*)
Solution,

-* cos 3*.
e~* cos
cos
3jc;
1
.

f
/'

= e~ x (3 sin 3x) = e (3 sin 0) e (0)

(x)
*

552.
553.

f(x)-ln(l+x)

+ arcsin.
(-gj^.

Find

/'(I).

y-tan ^.
/'

Find

554. Find

+ (0)

and /1(0)

of the functions:

b) / (x)

= arc sin
Y

^^

2 ;

e)

f(x)

= x sin

-^

l+e

Sec. 2]

Tabular Differentiation

55

555. Find / (0) -f xf (0) of the function f(x)=e-*. 556. Find /(3) (x 3)/' (3) of the function f(x) 557. Given the functions f(x) tar\x and (p(*)

= Y\ + x. = ln(l x)>
l

find tind

n0)
q/(or

558.

Given the functions /(x)=l

.

and

cp(jc)

sin^

nna find

2^
ff

(1)

559. Prove that the derivative of an even function is an odd function, and the derivative of an odd function is an even function.

560. Prove that the

a periodic function.

derivative of a periodic

function
the

is

also

xy' = d-x)y-

561.

Show
Show

that

the

function

y = xe~*

satisfies

equation
e <l uati

562.
xy'

that the

function

= (\-x*)y.
Show
that the function
1).

= xe~?
,

satisfies

the

563.
tion

y=

satisfies
lrlx

the equa-

xy' = y(y\i\x

G. Logarithmic Derivative

A logarithmic derivative of a function logarithm of this function; that is,

= f(x)

is

the

derivative

of

the

~y
Finding the derivative
tion.
is

fM
first

sometimes simplified by
of the

taking logs of the func-

Example. Find the derivative

exponential function

where u = y(x) and v ty(x). Solution. Taking logarithms we get

In

v In u.

Differentiate both sides of this equation with respect to x:

(In y)'

= v' In u + v (In a)',

~~
1

or
1

whence

56
or

_ _
Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

564. Find y'

if

Solution.

In

2 = ^- In x + In (1
u

x)

In

(1

+ x + 3 In sin x +2 In cos x;
2
)

y'

21, (1) = _- --ui

i

3
y'

x
1

2x _- i-4-32
,

cosx

1-j-x

sin x

-2smx
cosx

whence

=y

2x

-^
x
.

-~pj

+ 3cotx--2 tan xj

565. Find
Solution.
In

y\
y
/'

if

y = (smx)
-/'

x In sinx;

= In sin x + x cot x;

= (sin x) x (In sin x + x cot x).

first

,Ln the following problems find y' after function y f(x):

taking logs of the

Sec. 3. The Derivatives of Functions Not Represented Explicitly

1. The derivative of an
derivative
y' x

inverse

function.

I!

function

y=f(x) has

a
is

^ 0,

then

the

derivative of the inverse

function

x=/-

(t/)

*~7

Sec. 3]

The Derivatives

of

Functions Not Represented Explicitly

57

or

=
dy

_ dy'

Tx
Example
1.

Find the derivative x

if

Solution.

We

have y x

=1+1=^1 x x
t
I

hence,

x
*>

=
t

-7-. x-\- 1
If

\s

2. The derivatives of functions represented parametrically. related to an argument x by means of a parameter t

a function

*-

then

*t
or, in other notation,
*JL

t^dx'
dt

Example

2.

Find

^, dx

if

a cos

t,
/

y = a sin
Solution.

We

find

=
dt

a sin/ and -r-

d\

= acosf.

Whence

_
dx
a
sin
/

_
function.
If

>

3. The derivative
and y
is

of an

implicit

the

relationship between

given in implicit form,

F(x,y) = Q,
then to find the derivative

(I)

y' y' in the simplest cases it is sufficient: 1) to x calculate the derivative, with respect to x, of the left side of equation (1), taking y as a function of x\ 2) to equate this derivative to zero, that is, to put

~F(A:,f/)

= 0,
/'.

(2)

and

3) to solve the resulting equation for

Example

3.

Find the derivative

yx

if

0.

(3)

Solution.
ito

Forming the derivative

3*'

of the left

side

of (3)

zero,

we

and equating

it

get

+ 3y V -3a (y + xy') = 0,

58

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

whence
y

,_* ay ~~axy*'
xy
f/

581. Find the derivative

a)

if

c)

= 0.
#'=^
.dy
*

In the following problems, find the derivative

the

functions y represented parametrically:

582.
589.
(

x = acos*f,

\ y

583.

590.

= b sin* x = acos* y=b sin

8

t.

t,
1.

cos

T^nr
584.
591.
sin
?=

V coslr

x
585.
592.

= arc cos
arc sin
__
*~ ^

y
(

586.

593.
'

y~=e:
^

587.

= a( In tan + cos = a(sin + cosO.

-2-

sin

^)

>

588.
t

cos/).
^

595. Calculate

when
:

f
/t cn a sin

= 4= a(t = a(l
sin/

if

sin

/),

cos/).

///i

Solution.

-r-~

a(l

cosO

cos/

Sec. 3]

The Derivatives

of

Functions Not Represented Explicitly

59

and
S1

fdy\

"T
I

596.

Find
~.
i

^ **
dv dx

when

=
,

if<
i

597.
698.

Find

when

= 44
ji

-r

if

= tlnt, in/ y=^ x = e cosf, / = ^ sm^. \

x
'

<

<

f/

Prove that a function # represented parametrically by the

equations

satisfies

the equation

599.

When x = 2

the following equation

2
jc

is

true:

= 2x.

Does

it

follow from this that

when

x = 2?

600. Let y differentiation of

= Va*

_
.

(x*)'

= (2x)

x*.

Is
*

it

possible to perform term-by-term

x
In the

+ y*^0'?
it

examples that follow

of the

is

required to find the deriva-

tive

y'

= :r
2x

implicit functions y.
609.

601. 602. 603.

5//+10 = 0.
-

a cos
tan//

5 + ? =1
x
8

6I0
8

'

-t-y

--=a

611.

xy-

604.
605.
606. 607.
608.

x'-

l/^ +

K^ = /"a.
'/a*.

613.

^=

l/S + /~* =
/'=
y
0.3 sin y

614.

= *.

616.

arctan

^-

= -^

60
2

Differentiation of Functions

(Ch.

617. 619.

1/x

+ y = care tan
y'

618.

x*

Find

at the point

A! (1,1),

if

Solution.

Differentiating,
2*/'

#=1, we

obtain

= l+3f/',

we get whence

2y'
0'

==y* + 3xy*y'.
1.

Putting

and

620. Find the indicated points:

a)

derivatives y' of

specified

functions y at the

y)

for
for

x=

b)
c)

x+l ye = e # =
y
2

for

*= x=

and and
and

y=l;
*/=!;
r/=l.

Sec. 4. Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative

1. Equations of the tangent and the normal. From the geometric significance of a derivative it follows that the equation of the tangent to a curve will be t/ ) (* y = f(x) or F(x,y)=Q at a point

where

y' is the Q

line passing

value of the derivative y' at the point (X Q y Q ). The straight through the point of tangency perpendicularly to the tangent is called the normal to the curve. For the normal we have the equation
,

Y\
2. The angle between angle between the curves
curves.

The

d and

at their

common
angle
co

point
to

(*

10 {Z

is

the
Q

between
these
get

A and

point Using a familiar formula of analytic geometry,

.

y Q ) (Fig. 12) tangents curves at the

,

the

we

3. Segments associated with the tangent and the normal in a rectangular coordinate system. The tangent and the normal determine the following four

Sec

4]

Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Deriiative

61

segments (Fig.

13):
t

= TM

is
is is is

the so-called

S t = TK
n

segment

of the tangent,

NM

S n = KN

the subtangent, the segment of the normal, the subnormal.

St
Fig.
13

/f

Sn N

Since

KM = \y

and tan

y = y' Q

it

follows that

j/o

4. Segments
tion
r

associated with the tangent

and the normal

in a polar sys-

tern of coordinates. If a en in polar coordinates

= /(q>),

curve is givby the equathe

then

formed by the tangent

radius vector r (Fig. 14), defined by the following formula:

OM

MT

angle

u.

and the
is
.

\Af

The tangent

and the normal together with the radithe point of tangency and with the perpendicular to the radius vector drawn through the pole determine the following four segat the point us vector of

MT

MN

Fig.

14

ments

(see Fig.

14):
t

= MT

is is
is

n=

MN

S t = OT S n = ON

the segment of the polar tangent, the segment of the polar normal, the polar subtangent,

is

the polar subnormal.

62

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

These segments are expressed by the following formulas:

to

621. What angles cp are formed with the x-axis by the tangents 2 x x at points with abscissas: the curve y

a)

x = 0;

b)

x=l/2;

c)

x=l?

2x. Whence Solution. We have y'^\ 45; b) tan 9 0, q>=0; l, <p a) tan cp 135 1, (Fig. 15). c) tan q> q>

= =

622. At

2
Fig. 15

what angles do the sine and y= s'm2x interof

sect

the

axis

abscissas

at

the

origin? 623. At what angle does the tanianx intersect the gent curve y

axis of abscissas at the origin? tx 624. At what angle does the curve y e*' intersect the line x 2? straight 625. Find the points at which the tangents to the curve 4 20 are parallel to the jc-axis. 12x* y =z 3* -f. 4x* 626. At what point is the tangent to the parabola

3 0? 5x y 627. Find the equation of the parabola y~x*-}-bx-\-c that is tangent to the straight line x y at the point (1,1). 628. Determine the slope of the tangent to the curve x*+y* Q at the point (1,2). 2 629. At what point of the curve y 2x* is the tangent perto the straight line 2 0? pendicular 630. Write the equation of the tangent and the normal to the
parallel to the straight line

+ =

xy7 =

= + = 4x3y
,/-

parabola
at the point
Solution.

y=

with abscissa x = 4.
have y
f

We
1

= [y'] x= i = -T-

7=;
x

whence

the

slope

of

the *

tangent

is

Since the point of tangency has coordinates

= 4,

y = 2,

It

follows that the equation of the tangent is 1/4 (* 4) or x Since the slope of the normal must be perpendicular,
*,

#2 =
4 (x

4# + 4 = 0.

= -4;
t/2 =
4) or

whence the equation

of the

normal:

4x

+y

18

0.

Sec. 4\

Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative

63

631. Write the equations of the tangent and the normal to the 4# 3 at the point (2,5). 2x* curve y = x' 632. Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve

at the point (1,0).

633. Form the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curves at the indicated points: tan2x at the origin; a) y
b)

= y = arc

sin

^^

at

the

point

of

intersection

with

the

A:-axis;
c)

d)
e)

y = arc cos 3x at the point of intersection with the y-axis; y = ln** at the point of intersection with the #-axis; ~x at the points of intersection with the straight y=e
}

line

y=

1.

634. Write the equations of the tangent point (2,2) to the curve
t*
'

and the normal

at the

635. Write the equations of the tangent to the curve

at the origin

and

at the

point

= j=

curve

2xy = Q at the point (1,1). 638. Write the equations of the tangents and the normals to the curve y = (x 3) at the points of its intersection 2)(x l)(jt with the #-axis. 639. Write the equations of the tangent and the normal to the 4 curve y* = 4x 6xy at the point (1,2). 640*. Show that the segment of the tangent to the hyperbola xy = a* (the segment lies between the coordinate axes) is divided in two at the point of tangency. 641. Show that in the case of the astroid x 2 8 + y*t* = a*/ J the segment of the tangent between the coordinate axes has a constant value equal to a.

636. Write the equations of the tangent and the normal to the x* 6=0 at the point with ordinate y 3. 2x y* 637. Write the equation of the tangent to the curve x* y*

+ +

64

_
642.

___
Show

Differentiation of Functions

that the normals to the involute of the circle

_
t

[Ch. 2

x = a(cost

sin/),

y = a(sinf

cost)

are tangents to the circle 643. Find the angle at which the parabolas y (x 2 _. x i ntersect. 4 _|_ 6* y 2 x and y 644. At what angle do the parabolas y

2)

and
inter-

= x*

Sect? 645.

that the curves y 4x 2x 8 and y are tangent to each other at the point (3,34). Will
at

Show

= x*

-\-

10

we have

the

same thing
646.

(2,4)?
that the hyperbolas

Show

intersect at a right angle. 647. Given a parabola y* 4x. At the point (1,2) evaluate the lengths of the segments of the subtangent, subnormal, tangent,

and normal. 648. Find the length of the segment 2* at any point of it. curve y
649.

of the

subtangent of the
2 2

Show

that in the

equilateral

length of the normal at any point is of this point. 650. Show that the length of the segment of the subnormal 2 2 2 a at any point is equal to the abscissa in the hyperbola x y

a the y hyperbola x to the radius vector equal

of this point.

651.
x*

Show

that the segments of the subtangents of the ellipse

jjr+frl

an d the circle

x -+y

= a*

at

points

with the same

abscissas are equal. What procedure of construction of the tangent to the ellipse follows from this? 652. Find the length of the segment ol the tangent, the normal, the subtangent, and the subnormal of the cycloid
(
\

x = a(ts'mt), a(t y = a(l

.

an arbitrary point t~t 653. Find the angle between the tangent and the radius vector of the point of tangency in the case of the logarithmic spiral
at

654.
tor
r*

Find the angle between the tangent and the radius vecthe point of tangency in the case of the lemniscate 1 a cos 2q>.
of

Sec. 4]

Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative

65

655. Find the lengths of the segments of the polar subtangent, subnormal, tangent and normal, and also the angle between the tangent and the radius vector of the point of tangency in the case of the spiral of Archimedes

at a

point with polar angle

<p

= 2jt.

Find the lengths of the segments of the polar subtangent, subnormal, tangent, and normal, and also the angle between the tanat an gent and the radius vector in the hyperbolic spiral r=
656.
r rQ cp arbitrary point cp 657. The law of motion of a point
;
.

on the *-axis

is

Find the velocity of the point at / in centimetres and / is in seconds).

= 0, ^

and

(x

is

658. Moving along the #-axis are two points that have the 2 5t and #=l/2/ where t^O. following laws of motion: x=\00 With what speed are these points receding from each other at the time of encounter (x is in centimetres and / is in seconds)?

659. The end-points of a segment AB the coordinate axes OX and OY (Fig. 16).

^5 m
A
is

moving

are sliding along at 2 m/sec.

A
Fig.
17

What

is the rate of motion of B when A is at a distance OA = 3 m from the origin? 660*. The law of motion of a material point thrown up at an angle a to the horizon with initial velocity V Q (in the vertical plane OXY in Fig. 17) is given by the formulas (air resistance is

3-1900

66

disregarded):

_ _
Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

#=i; /cosa,
where
/

*/

i>

/sin a

^-,

is

the time and

trajectory of motion speed of motion and

661.

g is the acceleration of gravity. Find the and the distance covered. Also determine the
its

direction.
r/

point

is in

motion along a hyperbola

so that its

abscissa

What

is

x increases uniformly at a rate of 1 unit per second. the rate of change of its ordinate when the point passes

y*=\8x does the ordinate increase at twice the rate of the abscissa? 663. One side of a rectangle, a 10 cm, is of constant length, while the other side, b, increases at a constant rate of 4 cm,'sec. At what rate are the diagonal of the rectangle and its area increas30 cm? ing when 6 664. The radius of a sphere is increasing at a uniform rate of 5 cm/sec. At what rate are the area of the surface of the sphere and the volume of the sphere increasing when the radius

through (5,2)? 662. At what point of the parabola

becomes 50 cm?
665.

point

is

in

motion along the spiral

of

Archimedes

(a

so that the angular velocity of rotation of its radius constant and equal to 6 per second. Determine the rate of elongation of the radius vector r when r 25 cm. 666. A nonhomogeneous rod AB is 12 cm long. The mass of a part of it, AM, increases with the square of the distance of the from the end A and is 10 gm when 2 cm. moving point, Find the mass of the entire rod AB and the linear density at any point M. What is the linear density of the rod at A and S?

=10

cm)

vector

is

AM =

Sec. 5. Derivatives of Higher Orders

1. Definition of higher derivatives. A derivative of the second order, or Ihe second derivative, of the function y=f(x) is the derivative of its derivative; that is,
</"

(</')'.

The second derivative may be denoted

</".

as
or

or

^.

f"(x).

If

* = /(/)

is

the law of rectilinear motion of a point, then

is

the accel-

eration of this motion.

Sec. 5]

Generally, the ith

_
t.

Derivatives of Higher Orders

a derivative of order (n

derivative of a function y f(x) is the derivative 1). For the nth derivative we use the notation

_
parametricaKy.
be

67
of

(v
t

or

~^,

or

(n)

(x).

Example

Find the second derivative

y

of the

function

= \n(\

x).

Solution.

/.JZL; /
=

2. Leibniz rule. If the functions u q>(x) and v=ty(x) have derivatives to the nth order inclusive, then to evaluate the nth derivative of a product of these functions we can use the Leibniz rule (or formula):
up
(uv)
<">

= u<"
of
(

3. Higher-order derivatives

functions

represented

If

*
i^

= q>(0, = *(0,
can
successively
calculated

then the derivatives y' x

= -r

==
f/^jc

^2

by the formulas

xt

xt

For a second derivative

we have

the formula

Example

2.

F^nd

w
/
,

if

Solution.

We

have
-

If

_
/

& cos
.

f
.

"~~ "~~~

&

(a cos*),

asm*

LUl

and
.

(acosO

-asln<

osln

68

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch.

A. Higher-Order Derivatives of Explicit Functions

In the examples that follow, find the second derivative of given function.
667. y 668. y
th<

= x* + 7x' = e*
2
.

5x

+ 4.

671.

//

=
2
.

672.
673.
2
.

669.

y=sm*x.

670. y j
675.

= \n t/\+x
v

674.
V^
I

y= (arc sin x) = acosh u

*/

Show

that the function

y=

OY
2

-\

satisfies the

differ

ential equation

676.
tial

Show

that the function y

equation y"
677.

2y'+y = e
the

= -^-x e x
2

satisfies
x

the

differen

x
.

Show
Show
f

that
that

equation y" 4-3y'

678. tion y" 679. 680. 681. 682. 683.

= -|-2y
the

function

y=-C

e"

for all constants

satisfies the equa 4y s 2 5x + 7x 2. Find y"' if y = x 5 Find /'"(3) if /(*) - (2^: 3) Find y v of the function # = ln(l+x). Find t/ VI of the function y==sin2x. Show that the function y = e~ x cosx satisfies the differ ential equation y lv + 4y = Q. 684. Find /(O), f (0), T(0) and /'"(O;

+29y = 0.
, f

function y

= e 2x s'm5x
.

+ C 2 e' 2x C and C
l

satisfies th
2
.

if

The equation of motion of a poin along the jc-axis is

f(x) 685.

= e x sinx.

X-100-H5/
the
f
t

O.OOU 8

Find the velocity and the acceleration

point
686.
for

times

= 0,

=\

an

=10.

is in motion around with constant anguls Fig- 18 velocity CD. Find the law of motion of i1 projection M, on the x-axis if at time / = the point is at Q (a, 0) (Fig. 18). Find the velocity and the ac celeration of motion of M,. at the in What is the velocity and the acceleration of tial time and when it passes through the origin? What are the maximum values of the absolute velocity and th

circle

+y = a

point 2

absolute acceleration of Ai,?

Sec. 5]

where n

the nth derivative of the function 3 natural number. 688. Find the nth derivatives of the functions:
js

687. Find

_
a)
a)

Derivatives of Higher Orders

_
y=
(

69

y^T^x*

and

b)

y^^**'

689. Find the /zth derivative of the functions:

j/=sinx;

e)

b)4, = cos2*; = e~ *; c) y
9

f)

y=^j\ = yJ;
J/

g)
h)

y=sin*jr,

d)

|/=ln(l+x);

y=

690. Using the Leibniz rule, find y

a)

{n

if:

y = x.f\
x y = jc .e-*
2
//
;

d)y =
e)

b)
c)

= (!
if

= x*

2
A:
)

cos x\

691. Find

(n)

(0),

~
d^u

B. Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions Represented Parametrically and of Implicit Functions

In the following problems find

692. a)

= \nt,

'

b)

= arc tan/, \0-l

x
\ y
iv

c)

* = arc sin/

693. _,

:asin/;
:

"'

= 0cos'/,

= a(l -cos/); x = a (sin/- /cos/), = a(cos/-f-/ sin/).

f

696. Find

70

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2
2

d*u

697. Find
698.
tions x

* = ln(l-f-/
y=
for
t
.

),

ax 2

for

/=0,
2

if

{
\

Show
t,

== sin

^ + be~ iV y = ae'

that y (as a function

*

of

x)

defined

by

any constants

the equaand 6

satisfies the differential

equation

In the following examples find

699.

y'"
f

=
s

= sec, { = tan/. \ y = ^"'cos/, y-e-<*tnt. {x

(

'

701.

<
1

r/

7 2 ' Find
function

x = e -1 = ^
/
.

^.
,

'

if

703.
jt'"

Knowing
/,

the
if

of the inverse function

y = f(x), x = f~*(y).
a

find

the derivatives x",

704. Find
Solution.

x'

+ y*=*l.
differentiating

By

the rule for

composite

function

we have

2* + 2i0'=0; whence

= y'

Substituting the value of #',

-j we
^

and

/=-

^^
1

-2^;^.

finally get:

+ **_ *
if
it

if is

In the following examples derivative y" of the function y 705. y*

= f(x)

required to determine represented implicitly.

the

706.
707.
708.

^+f=
|y

l.

# = *-}- arc tan

|/.

Having the equation y = x + \ny

find

and

-j

709. Find

at the point (1,1)

if

5xy +
if

2x

= 0.

710. Find y" at (0,1)

711. a)

The function y

is

defined

implicitly

by the equation

= 0.

Find

at the point (1,1). b)

Find

if

i/

==a 8 .

Sec. 6]

Differentials of First

and Higher Orders

71

Sec. 6. Differentials of First and Higher Orders

differential. The differential (first-order) of a function the principal part of its increment, which part is linear relative to the increment Ax dx of the independent variable x. The differential of a

= f(x)

1. First-order
is

Fig.

19

function

is

equal to the

product of its

derivative

by the differential of the

independent variable
dy--=y'dx,

whence
u y
If is an arc of the graph tangent at M. (x, y) and
,

dy dx

'

MN

of

the function

= f(x)

(Fig.

19),

MT

is

the

PQ = Ax-=dx,

then the increment in the ordinate of the tangent

and the segment AN by. Example 1. Find the increment = 3x 2 x. y Solution. First method:
A//

and

the

differential

of

the

function

= 3 (x + Ax)
At/

(x

+ Ax)

3x 2

+x

or

= (6*
1)

1)

Ax + 3 (Ax) 2
1)

Hence, Second method:

t/'

dy = (6x

Ax = (6x

dx.

= 6x
At/

1;

df/

= j/'dx = (6x
of
2

1)

dx.

and Ax = 0.01.
Solution.

Example

2.

Calculate
(6x

and dy

the
1

function

y = 3x
2
)

for

x=l

A/ =

l)-Ax
<fy

and

(6jt

+ 3 (Ax) = 5- 0.0 + 3- (0.01 = 0.0503 Ax = 5- 0.01 = 0.0500.

1)

72

Differentiation of Functions

[C/t.

2. Principal properties of differentials. = 0, where c = const. 1) dc 2) d*- Ax, where x is an independent variable.
3)

4) 5)

= cdu. dv. v) = du d (uv) udv + v du.

d(cu)

d(u

7)

A*

differential to approximate calculations. If the increment argument x is small in absolute value, then the differential dy of the function y = f(x) and the increment At/ of the function are approximately

3. Applying the

of the

equal:
that
is,

A # =^ dy,

whence
3. By how much (approximately) does the side of a square change 2 to 9.1 m 2 ? area increases from 9 Solution. If x is the area of the square and y is its side, then

Example

if

its

It

is

given that #
At/

=9
in

and A*

0.1.

The increment mately as follows:

the side of the square

may

be calculated approxi-

ky^zdy--=y' Ax

j=z

-0.1

= 0. 016m.
is

4. Higher-order

differentials.

second-order differential

the differential

of a first-order differential:

We

similarly define the differentials of the third and higher orders. If y f(x) and x is an independent variable, then

But

if

= /(),

where w

= cp(x),

then

d*y

= y"' (du) + 3y" du

9

d*u

+ y' d'u
M).

and so

forth.

(Here the primes denote derivatives with respect to

tion

712. Find the increment Ay and the differentia! dy of the func2 # 5* -f x for x 2 and A# 0.001.

Sec. 6}

_
,

Differentials of First

and Higher Orders

find

713.

Without calculating the derivative,

_
=

73

d(l-x')
for

x=\
714.

and Ax =

The area

of a

square S with

side x

is

Find the increment and the

differential of

this

x*. given by S function and ex-

plain the geometric significance of the latter. 715. Give a geometric interpretation of the increment and differential of the following functions: nx*\ a) the area of a circle, S b) the volume of a cube, v=^x\ 716. Show that when Ax *0, the increment in the function

corresponding to an increment Ax in x, is, for any x, equivalent to the expression 2* In 2 A*. 717. For what value of x is the differential of the function 2 y = x not equivalent to the increment in this function as Ax >0? 718. Has the function y = \x\ a differential for x = 0? 719. Using the derivative, find the differential of the function
//

= 2X

cos x for x

=y

and Ax

--=

720. Find the differential of the

function

for

0.01. 9 and x 721. Calculate the differential of the function

Ax-

for

x-^-J

and

Ax^.
727. y

problems find the differentials of the given functions for arbitrary values of the argument and its increment.
In the following

722.
723.

y^'-m<,=

= x\nx

x.

724.

#= arc sin

729. r

725. //--=arctan~.
726. y e~ \ 731 Find d//

730.

= cot s = arc

q>

-f

cosec

(p.

lane*.

if

x*

+ 2xy

y*

= a*.
=

we obtain 2x dx + 2 Whence

Solution. Taking advantage of the invariancy of the form of a differential, x dy) 2y dy (y dx

74

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

In the following examples find the differentials of the functions defined implicitly. 732.
733.

=
X

734.
735. Find dy at the point (1,2), if 736. Find the approximate value of sin
Solution. Putting

y'y = 6x*.
31.

arc30=-jr-

and Ax = arc

1=^, from formula

(1)

(see

3) we have

sin

31=^ sin 30

+ ^~ cos

30=0.500+0.017-J~^=0.515.

tial,

737. Replacing the increment of the function by the differencalculate approximately:

a) cos

b) tan
c)

61; 44;

d) In 0.9;
e) arc

tan 1.05.

e*\

738. What will be the approximate increase in the volume of a sphere if its radius 15 cm increases by 2 739. Derive the approximate formula (for \&x\ that are small compared to x)

#=

mm?

A*

Using

it,

approximate

V5

Y\7, /70, /640.

740. Derive the approximate formula

and find approximate values

741.

for

j!/TO,

j/70, jI/200.

Approximate the functions:

for
for
__

*=1.03; * = 0.2;
* = 0.1;

c)

/(x)- !/"}=
y=e
l

for

d)

~ x*
for
/

x =1.05.

742. Approximate tan 453 20". 743. Find the approximate value of arc sin 0.54.
744.

Approximate

Sec. 7]

745. Using

_ _
Mean-Value Theorems

75

Ohm's

law,

= --,

show
in

that a small change

in

the current, due to a small change found approximately by the formula

the

resistance,

may be

A/
746. Show that, relative error of 1/
in

A.
length

2/

of the radius, a error of approximately in calculating the area of a circle and the surface of a sphere. 747. Compute d*y, if y co$5x.

determining the

results in a relative

Solut ion.

d y = y" (dx =
2

25 cos 5* (dx) 2

748. u
749. 750.
751.
//

= x\ = arccosx,

find d*u.
find d*y. find d*y.

{/^sinxlnx,
e

752.

753.
754.

755.

= ^, find d'z. z = **-*, find d'z. z = flnd d4 2=TJ, M = 3sin(2jt-f 5), find = e* cosa sin(;t sin u),
*'
//

d"w.
find d y.
n

Sec. 7. Mean-Value Theorems

1. Rolle's
b,

theorem. If has a derivative

function
at

/' (x)

the interval is continuous on f (x) every interior point of this interval, and

then the

argument

has

at

least

one

value

where a

< 5<

b,

such that

2. Lagrange's theorem. If a function f (*) is continuous on the interval and has a derivative at every interior point of this interval, then
where a
interval

<5<

ft.

3. Cauchy's theorem.

If

the functions

and for simultaneously, and F(b)^F(a)

a^x^b

a<x<b
t

f (x)

and F

(x) are

have

derivatives

that

continuous on the do not vanish

then

-f (a)
756.

_
function
f(x)

Show

that

the
g.

= xx*
Rolle

on

the

l<x<0

and

0<x<l

satisfies the

theorem. Find

intervals the

appropriate values of

76

of x,

_
Solution.

Differentiation of Functions

the

The function / (x) is continuous and different! able for all values = /(0) = /(1)=0. Hence, the Rolle theorem is applicable on 1) intervals and 0<*<_1, To find form the equation _ we
and /(

_
,

[Ch. 2

Kx<0

n*) = l-3* = 0. Whence

2

and

0<E <
1

fc^-J/l;

J/l

where

-i< g, <o

1.

757.
/(0)

The function

/(4) j/4 at the Rolle theorem hold for this function on [0.4]? 758. Does the Rolle theorem hold for the function

takes on f(x) 2) \/(x equal values the end-points of the interval [0.4]. Does

on the interval
759.

[0,

JT]?

Let

Show

that the equation

/'(*)

has three real roots.

760.

The equation

obviously has a root x

= 0.

Show

that this equation cannot have

any other

real

root.

761. Test whether the Lagrange theorem holds for the function

on

the interval value of

.

[2,1] and

find

the

appropriate

intermediate

all

Solution. The function f(x) values of A:, and /' (x)= 1 3x 2

h3ve
1

2 2 and 3^ 2 inequality

/(l)-/(-2y = 0-6

g=l; < < holds

1

continuous and difTerentiable for we by the = [l-(-2)]/ (E), that is, Lagrange formula, Hence, the only suitable value is 1, for which the
is

= xx*

Whence,
/

/'(E)2 =

Test the validity of the Lagrange theorem and find the intermediate point for the function f(x) x 4/s on the interval [ 1,1]. 2 763. Given a segment of the parabola y x lying between two points A (1,1) and 3(3,9), find a point the tangent to which is parallel to the chord AB. 764. Using the Lagrange theorem, prove the formula

762.

appropriate

sin (x 4- h)

sin

x = h cos

where

Sec. 8]

Taylor's Formula

77

* 765. a) For the functions /(x) whether the Cauchy theorem holds on
find E;

+2

and F(x)

= x'
[1,2]

test

the

interval

and

b)

do

the

same with
To,

respect to /(*)

= sin*

and F(x)

= cosx

on the interval

~1

Sec. 8. Taylor's Formula

If

function

f (x)

is

continuous and has continuous derivatives up to the

interval

(n
is

l)th order inclusive on the a finite derivative f (n} (x) at

a<x<6

each interior point

(or of the interval,

&<*<a),

and there
then Tay-

lor's

formula

fw = f (<o + (*-*) r (o) +

-V(a)

-V

w+

nl

where

a 0(jc In particular,
f

= +

a)

and
a

when
(0)

0<6<1,

holds true on the interval.

we have (Maclaurin's formula)

W =/
= ?
0jc,

(0)

+xf

r (0) +

+
(

"-'>

(0)

/<>

(I),

where

0<9<1.

766. Expand the polynomial /(A:) tive integral powers of the binomial x
Solution.
for

=
4;

A:

2;c

+ 3^ + 5

in posi-

2.
/'"

n*)=3jt

4A-

+ 3;
f'(2)

/'

(jc)

= 6^

(x)=6;

n^4. Whence
H;

= 7;r(2) = 8;r(2)

=6.

Therefore,

or
8
Jt

2x z

+ 3x + 5 =
8
.

1 1

+7

(.v

2)

+ 4 (x
in

2)

3
(A-

2)

767.

x Expand the function f(x)=e

powers

of

to

the

term containing (x-f-1)

Solution.
(n)
l

(x)

= e*

for all

n,

p)(

1)=JL. Hence,

where

+6(*+ 1); 0<G<1.

768. Expand the function /(x) the term with (x 1)*.

lnjt in

powers

of

up

to

78

in powers of x up to the term containing x e* in powers of x up to the term contain770. Expand f(x) n~ l ing x 771. Show that sin(a /i) differs from

_
769.

Differentiation of Functions

Expand 9

/ (x)

= sin x

_
for

[Ch. 2

and to the term containing x*.

sin a

+ h cos a
approximate formulas:

by not more than l/2/i 772. Determine the origin

.

of the
2

a)

b)

VT+x&l+x y* yi+i&l+x~x*,
,

\x\<l,

\x\<\
formula

and evaluate their errors. 773. Evaluate the error

in the

774.
in

Due

to

its

own

weight, a heavy

suspended thread
small \x\

lies

a catenary
of the

line

y = a cosh.
is

Show

that

the

shape

thread

approximately

expressed

by the parabola

775*.

Show

that for \x\<^a, to within

(^-J

we

have

the

approximate equality

Sec. 9.

The L'Hospital-Bernoulli Rule

for

Evaluating Indeterminate Forms

oo

1. Evaluating the indeterminate forms

functions
/ (x)

and
u
oo

Let
\

the

single-valued

a </i; the derivative be differentiate for 0<|# of one of them does not vanish. * a\ that If f(x) and q>(*) are both infinitesimals or both infinites as x
(p

and

(x)

is,

if

the quotient

^-4

at

x = a,
.
.

is

one

of the

indeterminate forms --

or

oo
i

then
*-+<*

00

lim /(*)
(p (x)

^lim
x-+a

(*)

q>' (

x)

provided that the limit

of the ratio of derivatives exists.

Sec. 9]

_
rule

V Hospital-Bernoulli
is

Rule for Indeterminate Forms

00.

The
If

also applicable
/

when a =

_
q>'
f

79

fix)
,,

the quotient

again

yields an

indeterminate

form,

at the point
(x) satisfy

all

of one of the two above-mentioned types and /' (x) and the requirements that have been stated for f(x) and q? (x), pass to the ratio of second derivatives, etc.

= a,

we can then

However,

it

should

be

borne
of

in

mind that the

limit of the ratio -^-~

may
(see

exist,

whereas the ratios

the

derivatives do not tend to any limit

Example 809). 2. Other indeterminate forms. To evaluate an indeterminate form like 0oo, transform the appropriate product fi(x)*f t (x), wne re lim/, (jt) = and
K+O.

/(*)
lim/ 2 (*)
*->a

= oo,

into thequetient

^^
*

(the

form

(T^T\ /i (X)

( the

orm -). oo

M*)
In the case
of

the indeterminate form oo

f 2 (x)

oo,

one should transform the

l

appropriate difference /,(*)

first

into the product / t (x) L

if

/ 1

x )j

and

evaluate the indeterminate form 7*7^;

r

lim

(X)

x-+a i\

7^7^=1, \x
)

then

we

re-

duce the expression to the form

(the

form

).

/Tw
The indeterminate forms I, 0, 00 are evaluated by first faking loga rithms and then finding the limit of the logarithm of the power [f l (x)]^ (x} (which requires evaluating a form like 0oo). In certain cases it is useful to combine the L'Hospital rule with tht finding of limits by elementary techniques.

Example

1.

Compute
lim

JL1
x

*->o cot

(form "). 7 oo

Solution. Applying the L'Hospital rule

we have
lim
jc-*o
.

JEfL^llm pL*r x+ocotx jc-o(cot*)

lim

We

get

the indeterminate form

-jp

however,

we

do

not

need to

use the

L'Hospital rule, since

Um
C-frO

sint

Hm
~~*-H)

sin

We

thus finally get

"

JC->0

COt X

80

Differentiation of Functions

[Ch. 2

Example

2.

Compute
*-M)V sin

limf-J- x

L^ x J

(form

oo

oo).

Reducing

to a

common denominator, we
lim
x-+o \ sin
2

get
v (fonn

(4__J_Ulim*.!z^lf x x J x-o x sin x

2
z

'

Before applying the L'Hospital rule, we replace the denominator of the 2 2 fraction by an equivalent infinitesimal (Ch. 1, Sec. 4) * sin A;~ x*. obtain
ter

lat-

We

The L'Hospital
lim
(

rule gives

L)

= lim

A "~ S

m *=lim-

Then,

in

elementary fashion, we find

_ ___
x-<> \ sin
2

cos 2x

,.

2 sin 2 *

Example

3.

Compute
8

lim (cos 2x)

X-M)

*2

00

(form

Taking logarithms and applying the L'Hospital

lim 2*p = X-+Q

rule,

we

get

lim In (cos
X-*0
J^

31ncos2*
X

= _ 6 lim
x-+Q

%X

= _6

Hence, lim
Jf->0

x
(cos 2x)

*^e-*.

ind the indicated limits of functions in the following

x '-

exam-

ples.

77G.

lim
,_>,

*'

Solution. lim

"
; X->1
OJi

^r 2 "~~ 7 /

~~

777.

lim
tj 11IU

xcosx
v

r
ji

sinx
,

779.

lir

I-*
'

*->il_si n :r

*7on

780.

is

lim

tan*

sin*

Sec. 9]

L' Hospital-Bernoulli Rule for Indeterminate

Forms

81

781.

,.

sec

2tan* 1+COS4*
2
A-

n
'

x +

785.

lim-

782.

^Ji
783.
,

lim^. tan5x
*-"
i .

*-cot^ 2
S

786.
787.
.

lim
1

[,

lim

s
.

lim
x->o

(1

cos x) cot

1.

n x lim -r-?=r
1

Solution,

lim

(1

^cos

x) cot

= Hm

^
Sill AT

cos A

'^- lim X->0

Sill

linrZi!iJ^(

788.

lim(l
,V-^l

A*)

Ian

~
^

792. 793.
794.

lim x" sin

X^X

-, V
'

789.
790.

lim arc sin x cot x.

X-+Q
ri

hnilnxln
lim
^
*i

(x

1).

lim(jc e?"*), v^o

.

n>0.

f^
\

n"^ lr
%

791. lim x sin

Solution.

A
lim

[-

A'

= lim
j

11

A
j

= lim
[

A
-7

T-

^^MiiA-l

(A

1)

~ >l

\nx
X

-1

*^

h~? 2 A'

795.
796.

lim lim

L__l
y
A)

_^/

AO J

797

limf-^^'
*

^Vc
2

^}
2cosx/
have
**

798.

lim

A;*.

Solution.

We

r/;

In

y=?x

In

A".

lim In

t/

= limjtln x

lim

= lim
j~

0,

whence lim//=l,

that

is,

ImiA^

l.

82

Differentiation of Functions

(Ch. 2

799. limx*.
a

804.

li

V-H
tan

800. limx4 * "*.

1

805. Hmftan^f) 4 /
X-+l\
1

\
*.

801. linue s/n

*->0

*.

806. lim (cot x) ln

X-H)
cos
ta

802.

lim(l-*)

807.

lta(I) x / x-*o \

".
*.

803.

lim(l+x
X-+0

)*-

808. lim (cot x)* in

809. Prove that the limits of

X
a)
sin*

cannot

be found

by the L'Hospital-Bernoulli

rule.

Find these

limits directly.

810*. Show that the area of a circular segment with minor and central angle a, which has a chord (Fig. 20), is

AB=b

CD=A

approximately

with an arbitrarily small relative error when a

->0.

Chapter III

THE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION AND THE GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS OF A DERIVATIVE

Sec.

1.

The Extrema

of

a Function of One Argument

of tunctions. Tlu Junction y f(x) is called on some interval if, fo. any points x and x 2 which belong to this interval, from the inequality A',<A- 2 we get the inequality / (*,)< 21a) </(*i) (Fig [/(*,)>/ (A,) (Fm. 21&)]. I! f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] and /' (x)>0 [/' (A')<OJ for a< .<b, then /(A) increases (decreases) on the interval [a, b\.

1. Increase and

decrease

increasing (decreasing)

ffxj

i,

xz

X
Fig. 22

(a)
Fifi.

21

ed into

In the simplest cases, the domain of definition of f (x) may be subdividincrease and decrease of the funca finite number of intervals of tion (intervals of monotonicity). These intervals are bounded by ciitic-' or f' (x) does not exist]. points x [where /'(jc) Example 1. Test the following function for increase and decrease:

Solution.

We

find the derivative

t/'

= 2x
a

= 2(*
scale

1).

Whence

oo<x<l, then onicity: (00, 1) and (1, -f oo). From (1) we have: 1) if oo, 1); 2) i/'<0, and, hence, the function f (x) decreases in the interval ( if l<A'< oo, then j/'>0, and, hence, the function /(*) increases in the interval (1, +00) (Fig. 22).

y'

for

x=l. On

number

we

get

two intervals

of

monot-

84

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3
of the func-

Example
tion

2.

Determine the intervals

of increase

and decrease

Solution.

Here,
for

is

discontinuity

of

the

function

and

(/'

,
i

o\ \2

<Q
2
3.

*^~

Hence, the

function y

decreases in the intervals

oo<*<
Example

and
Test the following function for increase or decrease:
/i y

~
.

v *s

y *a

'

Solution

Here,
(2)

find the points x l Q, we Solving the equation x* -x 0, x,= l 1, *2 at which the derivative y' vanishes. Since y' can change sign only when passing through points at which it vanishes or becomes discontinuous (in the given case, y' has no discontinuities), the derivative in each of the intervals 1, 0), (0,1) and (1, (00, 1), ( +00) retains its sign; for this reason, the function under investigation is monotonic in each of these intervals. To determine in which of the indicated intervals the function increases and in which it decreases, one has to determine the sign of the derivative in each of the intervals, To determine what the sign of y' is in the interval 00, inter1), it is sufficient to determine the sign of y' at some point of the val; for example, taking x= 2, we get from (2) f/' 12>0, hence, y'>Q in the interval (00, increases Similar1) and the function in this interval we find that y'<Q in the interval (1, 0) (as a check, we can take ly,
(

'

~
in

the

interval
in

Y\

/'A \

**

(0,1)

(here,

we can
(1,

use

x=l/2) and y'>0

the

interval

+00).

the function being tested inThus, creases in the interval ( oo, 1), decreases in the interval 1) and again increases in the interval (1, -f oo). 2. Extremum of a function. If there

(1,

exists a two-sided neighbourhood of a point X Q such that for every point X^X of this Q

neighbourhood we have the inequality f(x)>f(x Q ) then the point x is called the
J

Fig
for

23

minimum

point

of

the
)

function
is

f(x),

while the number

x lf the inequality any point xj^x l of some f(*)<f(x\) is fulfilled, then *, is called the maximum point of the function and is the maximum of the function (Fig. 23). The minimum f(x), /(*j) point or maximum point of a function is its extremal point (bending point), and the minimum or maximum of a function is called the extremum of the function. If xn is an extremal point of the function f then /' (* ) = 0, or (x),

of the function y neighbourhood of the point

mum

/ (x

called the

miniif

f(x).

Similarly,

Sec. 1]

The Extrema

of a

Function of One Argument

85

The

sufficient conditions for the existence

/ (x)

continuous function

and absence of an are given by the following rules:

extremum

of a

1. If there exists a neighbourhood (X Q 6, * 6) of a critical point * such that /'(x)>0 for X Q d<x<xQ and /'(jt)<0 for xQ <x<xQ d, then * is the maximum point of the function / (*); and if /' (*)<0 for * 6<*<x is the minimum point of the and /' (x)>0 for x <x<xe function 6\ then *

/(*)-

Finally,
sign

if

there
for

is

some

positive

number 6 such
is

unchanged
2.
/ (x). r If f (XQ)

0<|jc
$

X Q |<6,

then x

that /' (x) retains its not an extremal point of the

point;
(*
)

function
if

f' ( XQ )

(*

= 0,
)

=Q

and

f"

and /'"
of

(*

then X Q is the maximum and /"(*<,)<(), )>0, then x is the minimum point; but if f )^0, then the point X Q is not an extremal point.
(*

= 0,

let the first of the derivatives (not equal to zero at the function f (x) be of the order k. Then, if k is even, the is an extremal point, namely, the maximum point, if f (k) (* )<0; and it is the minimum point, if / (ft) (x )>0 But if k is odd, then A- O is not n extremal point. Example 4. Find the extrema of the function

More generally:
the

point x point X Q

<

i/

==2*

+3

Solution. Find the derivative

(3)

Equating the derivative

y'

to zero,

we

get:

Whence,

we
-/i,

find

the critical point

is

x l =*,

1.

From formula

(3)

we

have:

if

xif

where h
then

a sufficiently small

x-= function

\+h,
r/
f

/'<0*).

Hence,
of

positive number, then /y'>0; but I is the maximum point of the

and //max=-l. Equating the denominator

the expression of y' in (3) to zero,

we

get

i/

\\e find the second critical point of the function A'2 there 0, where for*/! we have no derivative //' For *== /i, we obviously have //<0; is the minimum point of the function y, and //>0. Consequently, * 2 m jn (Fig. 24). It is also possible to test the behaviour of the function 1 at the point x by means of the second derivative

whence
is

/=--4^Here, r/"<0 for

1 is the maximum I x, and, hence, *, point of the function. 3. Greatest and least values. The least (greatest) value of a continuous function f (x) on a given interval [a, b] is attained either at the critical points of the function or at the end-points of the interval [a, b].
p

to determine the sign of the derivative y', one can *) If it is difficult calculate arithmetically by taking for h a sufficiently small positive number.

86

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of a

Derivative

[Cfi.

Example

5.

Find the greatest and least values

of the function

on the interval
Solution. Since

P/2

it

follows that the critical points of the function y are *,

and

Fig. 24

Comparing the values

of the function at these points and the values function at the end-points of the given interval

of the

we conclude
the

(Fig.

25)

that the function attains

its least

value,

m=l,
A4 = ll

at

point

at the point

x=l (at *=2 /i

J

the

minimum

point),

and

the greatest value

(at the right-hand end-point of the interval).

Determine the
1ions:
811.

intervals

of decrease

and increase
i

of the func-

y=l
{/
{/

812. 813. 814.

= (* 2) y = (A:+4) = *'(*- 3).

2
.

4*

jf.

*>-

817.

=
= (x

818.

Sec. 1]

The Extrema

of

a Function

of

One Argument

819.

y^ \-V~x.

823.

y = 2e*
y

-'*.

820. y

821.
822.

= x -f sin x. y = x\nx. = arcsin(l-f-x).

t/

24
825

'

_. 2~<*.
g

^T"

Test the following functions x* 826. y 4*4-6.

= +
We
to

for extrema:
of

given function, value of the argument x= 2. Since i/'<0 when x< 2 is 2, and y'>Q when *> 2, it follows that *= the minimum point of the function, and #min 2. We get the same result by utilizing the sign of the second derivative at the critical point y"~< ~

Solution.
y'

find

the

derivative
the

the

Equating

zero,

we

get

critical

827. y 828. {/ 829. (/

--

= =

Solution,

We

find the derivative

y'

= 6*

4-

6x

12

=6

2
(jc

+*

2).

2 Equating the derivative y' to zero, we get the critical points x,= and *,= !. To determine the nature of the extremum, we calculate the second derivative ^"^ 6 (2* 4-1). Since /( 2 2)<0, it follows that x,= is the maximum point of the function y, and #max 25. Similarly, we have the function y and t/*(l)>0; therefore, x 2 =l is the minimum point of

i=

2.

<-

12 )
1

2
'

840.
2)'.

yt/

I)

(*

841.

= =

je

ln(l+*).

842. #

843. y
844. 836. V
/

=
,_

= rr4=^.

845> 846. y
847.
f/

837. t/=

^_.
1)'.
citi -+ sin ^. v ^k*.
I

838.

w=J/(^
it */ ===

= x'e-*. = -. X
-

OQQ ooy.

O cin O v z sin ZA

/1ft // oto. M

ar/* idii ^ /t-~drc fan ^t.

^

Determine the
indicated

least
(if

and greatest values

the
interval
is

intervals

of the functions on the not given, determine the

88

_
849.
850. 851.
!/

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

least

of a Derivative

[Ch. 8

greatest

and

values of the function throughout the domain

of definition).

= rih&. -= x(lOx). y y= sin + cos

4
A;

853

V = x* on the

interval

1,3].

854. y
A;.

= 2x* + 3*

12*

+
f

a)

852. #
855.

= arc cos x.

b)

on the interval on the interval

1,6];

[10,12],

Show

that for positive values of

*we

have the inequality

856. Determine

nomial

y*=x*+px + q

imum

3 when t/ 857. Prove the inequality

e*
1

coefficients p and q of the quadratic triso that this trinomial should have a minJt= 1. Explain the result in geometrical terms.

the

> +x
lhat

when x

4* 0.

Solution. Consider the function

In the usual

way we

find

this function

has a single
0,

minimum

/(0)

Hence,

/(*)>/ (0)
and so e*
as

> +x
1

when x when x

^ 0,

we

set

out to prove.

Prove the inequalities: x sin x 858. x

^<
o
JL

<

when *>0.

859.

cos*>l
A:

when
when

860.

~<ln(l +x)<x

861. Separate a given positive number a into two summands such that their product is the greatest possible. 862. Bend a piece of wire of length / into a rectangle so that
the area of the latter is greatest. 863. What right triangle of given perimeter 2p has the greatest area? 864. It is required to build a rectangular playground so that should have a wire net on three sides and a long stone wall it on the fourth. What is the optimum (in the sense of area) shape of the playground if / metres of wire netting are available?

Sec.

1]

The Extrema

of

a Function

of

One Argument

89

865. It is required to make an open rectangular box of greatest capacity out of a square sheet of cardboard with side a by cutting squares at each of the angles and bending up the ends of the
resulting cross-like figure. 866. An open tank with a square base must have a capacity of v litres. What size will it be if the least amount of tin is used? 867. Which cylinder of a given volume has the least overall surface? 868. In a given sphere inscribe a cylinder with the greatest volume.

869.

In a given sphere inscribe a cylinder having the greatest

lateral surface.

870. In a given sphere inscribe a cone with the greatest volume. 871. Inscribe in a given sphere a right circular cone with the greatest lateral surface. 872. About a given cylinder circumscribe a right cone of least volume (the planes and centres of their circular bases coincide). 873. Which of the cones circumscribed about a given sphere has the least volume? 874. A sheet of tin of width a has to be bent into an open cylindrical channel (Fig. 26). What should the central angle cp be so that the channel will have maximum capacity?

D
N

M
Fig. 27

875. Out of a circular sheet cut a sector such that when made into a funnel it will have the greatest possible capacity. 876. An open vessel consists of a cylinder with a hemisphere at the bottom; the walls are of constant thickness. What will the dimensions of the vessel be if a minimum of material is used for
a

tical

OB of the door of a ver877. Determine the least height h so that this door can pass a rigid rod tower of length /, the end of which, M, slides along a horizontal straight line AB. The width of the tower is (Fig. 27).

given capacity?

ABCD

MN

d<l

90

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3

878. A point (x # ) lies in the first quadrant of a coordinate plane. Draw a straight line through this point so that the triangle which it forms with the positive semi-axes is of least area. 879. Inscribe in a given ellipse a rectangle of largest area with sides parallel to the axes of the ellipse. 880. Inscribe a rectangle of maximum area in a segment of the parabola y* 2px cut off by the straight line x 2a.
,

881.

On

the curve y

=
1

-\-

Xt

find a point at

which the tangent

forms with the A>axis the greatest (in absolute value) angle. 882. A messenger leaving A on one side of a river has to get to B on the other side. Knowing that the velocity along the bank that on the water, determine the angle at which the is k times messenger has to cross the river so as to reach B in the shortest possible time. The width of the river is h and the distance between A and B along the bank is d. 883. On a straight line AB=a connecting two sources of light A that (of intensity p) and B (of intensity </), find the point receives least light (the intensity of illumination is inversely pro-

portional to the 884. A lamp

of radius
so that
r.

square of the distance from the light source). suspended above the centre of a round table At what distance should the lamp be above the table
is

an object on the edge of the table will get the greatest illumination? (The intensity of illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of the light rays and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
light source.)

885. It is required to cut a beam of rectangular cross-section ont of a round log of diameter d. What should the width x and the height y be of this cross-section so that the beam will offer maximum resistance a) to compression and b) to

I
i/J

bending?
Note. The resistance of a beam to compresof its crossis proportional to the area to the product of the section, to bending width of the cross-section by the square of
sion
its

height.

886. A homogeneous rod AB, which can rotate about a point A (Fig. 28), is carrying a load Q kilograms at a distance of a cm from A and is held in equilibrium by a vertical force P applied to the free end B of the rod. A linear centimetre of the rod weighs q kilograms. Determine the length of the rod x so that the force P should be least, and find P mln
Fig.
2
.

Sec. 2]

_
is

The Direction

of Concavity.

Points of Inflection

91

887*. The centres on a single straight

locity v strikes strikes C of mass
fi,

line.

m. What mass should B have so that C will have the greatest possible velocity? 888. N identical electric cells can be formed into a battery in different ways by combining n cells in series and then combining the
allel.

of three elastic spheres A, B\ C are situated Sphere A of mass moving with vewhich, having acquired a certain velocity,

in pargroups (the number of groups is ] The current supplied by this battery is given by the formula

resulting

~~

NnS

where

resistance,

the electromotive force of one cell, r is its internal and R is its external resistance. For what value of n will the battery produce the greatest
<

diameter y of a circular opening in the which the discharge of water per second Q will be greatest, if Q = cy Vhtj, where h is the depth of the lowest point of the opening (h and the empirical coefficient c are

current? 889. Determine

the

body

of a

dam

for

constant). 890. If x lf # 2 ..., x n are the results of measurements of equal precision of a quantity x, then its most probable value will be that for which the sum of the squares of the errors
,

0=2 (*-*,) 1=1

is

of least

value (the principle of least squares).

is

of

Prove that the most probable value of x the measurements.

the arithmetic

mean

Sec. 2. The Direction of Concavity. Points of Inflection

1. The concavity of the graph of a function. We say that the graph of a differentiable function y f(x) is concave down in the interval (a,b) [concave the arc of the curve is below (or up in the interval (a p 6,)] if for for the tangent drawn at any point of the interval (a, b) lt above) or of the interval (a,, &.)] (Fig. 29). A sufficient condition for the concavity downwards (upwards) of a graph y f(x) is that the following inequality befulfilled in the appropriate interval:

a.<x<b

a<x<6
=

rw<o
(Fig. 29).

irw>oj.
,

2. Points of inflection. A point [* f (jc )] at which the direction of concavity of the graph of some function changes is called a point of inflection

92

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

For the abscissa
there
is

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3

point of inflection x of the graph of a function derivative f (* ) or /" (x ). Points at which Q or f (x) does not exist are called critical points of the second kind. f'(x) The critical point of the second kind x is the abscissa of the point of inflec* an * the intervals x 6 tion if I" (x) retains constant signs in .d
of the

f (x)

no second

x?

where 6 is some positive number; provided these signs are

Jc

<x<

< <

+ 6,

opposite.

And it is not a point of inflection if the signs of f (x) are the same in the above-indicated intervals.
Example 1. Determine the intervals of concavity and convexity and also the points of inflection of the

y~f(x)

Gaussian curve

Solution.
I i

We

have

bx
Fig. 29

a,

b,

X
and

Equating the second

second kind

derivative y* to zero,

we
*o

find the critical points of tHe

7=r

and

T=-

These points divide the number scale OO<A:< OO into three intervals: 1 (00, xj, II (*j, x 2 ), and III (x +00). The signs of t/' will be, respec2
,

Fig. 31
-f(this is obvious if, for example, we take one point in each lively, +, of the intervals and substitute the corresponding values of x into y ) Therefore:
,

1)

the curve

is

concave up when

oo<
-=^

<
V

7= and F2
==
2
.

V 2

F=

< x <-f oo;

(

2) the

curve

is

concave down when

<x<

The points

-=^

\V2

VeJ

r=]

are

points of inflection (Fig. 30). It will be noted that due to the symmetry of the Gaussian curve about the #-axis, it would be sufficient to investigate the sign of the concavity of x this curve on the semiaxis +00 alone.

< <

Sec. 3]

Example

__
Asymptotes
2.

93

Find the points

of

inflection of the graph of the function

y=*/7+2.

Solution.

We

have:

It

is

right of (1), we find that y" does not exist for x 2. Since y" for 2 and f/"<0 for 2, it follows that ( 2,0) is the point of inflection (Fig. 31). The tangent at this point is parallel to the axis of ordinates, since the first derivative y' is infinite at x 2.

obvious that y" does not vanish anywhere. Equating to zero the denominator of the fraction on the

*>

>

x<

Find the
of the

intervals of concavity and the points graphs of the following functions: 6x* 12x + 4. 891. y = x* 896. y cosx.

of

inflection

892.
893.

y = (x + l)\ y = -4r o
.

897.

898.
899.
\2x.

X-\-

= y=x y=x
//

sin*.
2

In x.

894.
895.

ff

X
i
,

9
.

12

y=i/4x*

900.

= arc tanx y = (l+x*)e*.

x.

Sec. 3. Asymptotes

1. Definition. If a point (#,/) is in continuous motion along a curve f(x) in such a way that at least one of its coordinates approaches infinity (and at the same time the distance of the point from some straight line tends to zero), then this straight line is called an asymptote of the curve. 2. Vertical asymptotes. If there is a number a such that
y
Jim /(v)--=
00,

then the straight line x

3

a Inclined asymptotes.

is

an asymptote (vertical asymptote).

there are limits
llm
X
->>

If

+ 00

and
lim [/(*)X-++ 00

Ml = *i.
(a

then the straight line y k l x+b l will be an asymptote 0, a right horizontal asymptote). asymptote or, when ^

right inclined

If

there are limits

llm

94

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of a Derivative

[Ch. 3

and
Urn

then the straight

or,

k zx y b^ is an asymptote (a left inclined asymptote horizontal asymptote). The graph of the function y f(x) (we assume the function is single-valued) cannot have more than one right (inclined or horizontal) and more than one left (inclined or horizontal) asymptote. Example 1. Find the asymptotes of the curve

when

fe

= 0,

line

a left

Solution. Equating the denominator

lotos-

to zero,

we

get

two

vertical asyinp-

x=
We

and

x=l.
>

seek the inclined asymptotes. For x

+ oo

we obtain

kl

lim

=
x)

lim

*-+o>
b =l

~l,
v

}^x z
x

lim

(// *

= lim

y^2

=0,

\
\
-/
Fig. 32

hence, the straight line y

=x

is

the right asymptote. Similarly,

when*

oo,

we have
fc

Hm
lim
AC->~

~=

1;

fc

=
Is

Thus, the
totes
is

left

simplified
2.

Example

(Fig. 32). Testing a curve for asympconsideration the symmetry of the curve. Find the asymptotes of the curve

asymptote
if

y= -x

we take

into

Sec. 3]

Solution. Since

__
Asymptotes
lim
t/

95

oo,

is a vertical the straight line x asymptote (lower). Let us now curve only for the inclined right asymptote (since x>0). We have:

test

the

k=
b
lim (y *-*+ 00

X++OD X
x)

lim

=
lim #->+<

1,

\nx

oo.

Hence, there is no inclined asymptote. If a curve is represented by the parametric equations x cp(0i */ ^(0 then we first test to find out whether there are any values of the parameter / for which one of the functions cp (t) or \|> (/) becomes infinite, while the other remains finite. When (p(/ )=oo and ty(t ) = c, the curve has a horizontal asymptote y c. When \j)(f ) = oo and (p(V ) = c, the curve has a vertical asymptote x = c. If <pU ) = *(*o)=< and

lim

then the curve has an inclined asymptote y kx+ b. If the curve is represented by a polar equation r /(cp), then we can find its asymptotes by the preceding rule after transforming the equation of the curve to the parametric form by the formulas x r cos cp /((p) cos q>; r sin <p = / (q>) sin (p. y

Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

901.
11

-,

^rr.

908. u
909. y

=x

= e-

903. y

910. i/=

911.

905.
906.

y^Y^^l.

912.

y==.

913

907. </=
r

914. x

* ~~"

/;

j/

=
spiral r

915. Find the asymptote of the hyperbolic

96

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of a Derivative

[Ch. 3]

Sec. 4. Graphing Functions by Characteristic Points

In constructing the graph of a function,
first

find its

domain

of definition

and then determine the behaviour of the function on the boundary of this domain. It is also useful to note any peculiarities of the function (if there are any), such as symmetry, periodicity, constancy of sign, monotonicity, etc. Then find any points of discontinuity, bending points, points of inflection, asymptotes, etc. These elements help to determine the general nature of the graph of the function and to obtain a mathematically correct outline of it. Example 1. Construct the graph of the function

Solution, a)

The function
0(0,
lim
0).

is

odd,

The function exists everywhere except at the points x 1. and therefore the graph is symmetric about the point
are

This simplifies construction of the graph

b)

The

discontinuities

x=

and

jc

1;

and

lim

J/=

oo

and

t/=oo;

hence, the straight lines

#=1
-x

V-M + O are vertical asymptotes of the

X->--10 graph.
c)

We

seek inclined asymptotes, and find

,=
bl

lim
X -> +
oo

= 0,
oo,

lim
#->-t-oo

thus, there is no right asymptote. From the symmetry of the curve it follows that there is no left-hand asymptote either. d) We find the critical points of the first and second kinds, that is, points at which the first (or, respectively, the second) derivative of the given function vanishes or does not exist.

We

have:

derivatives y' and \f are nonexistent only at that is, only at points where the function y itself does not exist; and so the critical points are only those at which y' and y" vanish. From (1) and (2) it follows that

The

x=l,

y'=Q
r/"

when x= when x =

V$\
and

x=
and
(1,

3.

Thus,

y' retains a
l),
(

in each of the intervals constant_ sign

(l,
3,

00,

J/T),
of

(-V3,
intervals

(1,

1),
(

V$)

and (V~3

+00),
(0,
1),

00,

3),

1),

To determine the signs of y' (or, respectively, y") in each of the indicated intervals, it is sufficient to determine the sign of y' (or y") at some one point of each of these intervals.

(1,

/
3)

in

each
(3,

the

0),

and

+00).

Sec

4]

Graphing Functions by Characteristic Points

97

It is convenient to tabulate the results of such an investigation (Table I), calculating also the ordinates of the characteristic points of the graph of the function. It will be noted that due to the oddness of the function r/, it is enough to calculate only for Jc^O; the left-hand half of the graph is constructed by the principle of odd symmetry.

Table I

e)

Usin^ the results

33).

of

the investigation,

we

construct

the

graph

of

the

function (Fig

-/

Fig. 33

4-1900

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3]

Example

2.

Graph the function

In x

x
Solution, a) The domain of definition of the function is 0<x<-f-oo. b) There are no discontinuities in the domain of definition, but as 0) of the domain of definition we have approach the boundary point (#

= limw = lim
JC->

we

JL? =
X

oo

X-*0

Hence, the straight line jc (ordinate axis) is a vertical asymptote. c) We seek the right asymptote (there is no left asymptote, since x cannot tend to oo ):

k=
.

lim
X<-++
00

-^ X

0;

lim # x->+<

= 0.
j/

The

right asymptote is the axis of abscissas: find the critical points; and have d)

= 0.

We

Inx
3

y'

and

y" exist at all

points

of the

domain
that
o

of
is,

definition of the function and

y' = Q

when ln*=l,

when x =

<?;

(/'=0

when

Inx^y,
is

that

is,

when x~e*l*.

We

form a table,, including io the characteristic points

the
it

characteristic points (Table 11). In addition useful to find the points of intersection of

34
1 the curve with the coordinate axes. Putting / 0, we find * (the point of intersection of the curve with the axis of abscissas); the curve does not intersect the axis of ordinates the e) Utilizing the results of investigation, we construct the graph of lunction (Fig. 34).

-h

CM CM

CO

'

"
>

-~

> C a c.u

non

100

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3

its

Graph the following functions and determine for each function domain of definition, discontinuities, extremal points, interits

vals of increase and decrease, points of inflection of the direction of concavity, and also the asymptotes.
916. y

graph,

=x

3x*.

"
918.
919.

9
\

u = (x

y= = y= y= =
(/ (/ </

921.
922. 923.

924.
925.

926. y==

928.
929.

930.

=,-

__

,6

3*'+!
932.
933. 934. 935.

936.

938.

y = 2x + 2-3'l/(xl-

_
l

z
.

963

'

#=

Sec.

/>]

Differential of

an Arc. Curvature

101

964. y

=
sin

976.

y=

arc cosh

*
\

-7-

4 /

965. */= sin*- sin 2*. 966. (/ COS*-COS2*. 967.

968.

= y = *-l-sin*. y = arc sin (1 /F).

978. ,,=

<>arcsin

K
>

979. ^
953.
,,

= garcun* = n sin x
j

970. 971. 972.

982
tan
A;.

and
973.

i/

974.

f/

= x arc tan - when when * = 0. y= = 2 arc cot*. = + arc tan*.

Af

983.

984

985.

= lnA:-arc tan*. In cos x. y = cos^ = arc tan(ln = arc sin In (*' 4-1).
,/ ,/

je).

y==x
987. y

-^-

975. y

= lnsin*.
exercise
is

=
in

A good

to

graph the functions indicated

the

Fxam-

ples 826-848. Construct the

graphs of

following functions

represented

parainelrically. l 2/. 988. x=--t* //----/ 2t, sin/ (a>0). 989. x=--acob*/, te~ 990. jc /e', y fl / 4-g991. x i/=2/ + ea (cosh / a (sinh/ 992. x /), i/

+
l

= = =

y^a =

I)

(a>0).

Sec. 5. Differential of an Arc. Curvature

1. Differential of an arc. The differential of an arc s of represented by an equation in Cartesian coordinates x and y the formula

dshere,
if

J/~(d*)
is

_
2

a
is

plane curve expressed by

(dy)

',

the equation of the curve

of the

form

a)

//

= /(*),

then ds

b)* = /,Urt.
c)

then

ds

= q>(0, y = +(0,
f/)

then

ds-

d)

^(*,

= 0,

then

ds^-

V F* + F
'
.

2
/;

V F'

102

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3
of

Denoting by a the angle formed by the tangent (in the direction increasing arc of the curve s) with the positive ^-direction, we get
cos

a = -3dy -r

dx
,

ds
.

sina
In polar coordinates,

ds

Denoting by p the angle between the radius vector of the point curve and the tangent to the curve at this point, we have
a 008 P

of the

= dr
/

'

sin

2. Curvature of a curve. The curvature K of a curve at one of its is the limit of the ratio of the angle between the positive direcpoints and N of the curve (angle of contintions of the tangents at the points

gence) to the length of

the

arc

M ^MN^\s
iim

when

.V

(Fig.

35),

that

is,

K=
\\hore

Au
o

As

AS

= ^,
rfs

is

point

the angle between

the

positive

directions

of

the

tangent jt the

arid the .v-axis.

The radius
curvature,
i.

of

curvature

is

the reciprocal

of

the absolute value of the

e.,

The

circle

K=

where a

is

the

radius

of

the

circle)

and the straight

line (/C

= 0)

are lines of constant curvature.

Sec

5]

Differential of

an Arc. Curvature

103

We have the following formulas for computing the curvature in rectangular coordinates (accurate to within the sign): 1) if the curve is given by an equation explicitly, y f(x), then

2)

if

the curve

is

given by an equation implicitly, F(x,

y)

0,

then

Fxx. Flx
F'

Fxy
'

Fx F
'y

F'yy

Fv
3

/j

3)
/
\j)

if

the curve

is

represented by equations in parametric form,

f

*=

(/),

then
*,' "

^
where
dx
dy -

y y

'

~~dt*
In polar coordinates,

~
equation
/(q)),

when the curve

r
z

is

given by the
rr"

we have

+ 2r'

where
,

= dr
dcp

and

d"r
-

dtp

3. Circle of curvature. The circle of curvature (or osculating circle) of a is the curve at the point limiting position of a circle drawn through v and two other points of the curve, P and Q, as P and Q M. The radius of the circle of curvature is equal to the radius of curvature, and the centre of the circle of curvature (the centre of curvature) lies on the in the direction of concavity of normal to the curve drawn at the point

>

the curve.

The coordinates X and Y computed from the formulas

of

the centre of

curvature

of

the

curve

are

X=xThe evolute
curve.
If

L ,,
,

-jf-r
the

{j

of a

curve
for

is

the locus

of

centres

of

curvature

of

the

in the

formulas

determining the coordinates

as the current coordinates
of

of the centre of
a

ture
lute,

we regard X and Y

then these formulas yield parametric equations parameter x or y (or /, if the curve itself is represented by equations parametric form) z Example 1. Find the equation of the evolute of the parabola // x
.

curvapoint of the evoof the evolute \vith

in

104

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3

Solution.

X=

4* 8

1
,

Y--

+ 6*

Eliminating

the parameter x,

we

find

the equation of the evolute in explicit form,

o'

+ ^lT")
is

The
evolute.

involute

of

curve

is

curve
is

for

which the given curve

to

an
the

The normal
length of the arc

MC
CC

of the
l

involute P 2
is

tangent

the evolute

P,;

of the evolute

equal to the corresponding

increment

the radius of curvature CC, in AfC; M,C, that is why the involute P 2 is also called the evolvent of the curve P, obtained by unwinding a taut thread wound onto P, (Fig. 36). To each evolute there corresponds an infinitude of invowhich are related to different initial lutes, lengths of thread. 4. Vertices of a curve. The vertex of a curve of the curve at which the curvature is a point has a maximum or a minimum. To determine the vertices of a curve, we form the expression of the curvature K and find its extremal points. In place of the curvature K we can take the

radius
points
if

of

curvature

7-7^
I

and seek

its

extremal

36

Example
y
a cosh

the computations are simpler in this case. 2. Find the vertex of the catenary
(a

>
a

0).

Solution.
1

Since

// J

= sinh
a
/?

and J (/"
2

cosh
a
rf/?

it

follows

that

tf

a cosh

, 2

x a

and, hence,
J

= acosh
we

X
.

We
y

have -j- = sinh2 dx a

Equating M 6

I")

the derivative -j
critical

ax

to zero,

get sinh 2

0,

whence

we
and

find

the

sole

point *

=Q
Q,

Computing

the second derivative

putting

into

it

the
is

value x
the

we

*=
of

minimum
the

a point of the radius of

catenary.
a).

get

-r-y-

,=

A:

cosh2

a a curvature (or of
the

> 0.
the
f/

Therefore,

maximum
is,

curvature) of
the point

The vertex

of

catenary

= acosh

thus,

(0,

Find the differential of the arc, and also the cosine and sine of the angle formed, with the positive ^-direction, by the tangent to each of the following curves:
993. *
2

2
*/

=a

(circle).

994. ~2

995

+ ^-=l (ellipse). y* = 2px (parabola).

Sec. 5]

996. x 2 / 8

_
-f
2/
t/

Differential of an Arc. Curvature

2 /'

=a

(astroid).

_
b).
<p

105

997. 998. 999.

y = acosh (catenary). x = a(ts\nt)\ y = a(lcost) (cycloid). x = acos*t, y = asm*t (astroid).

Find the differential of the arc, and also the cosine or sine of the angle formed by the radius vector and the tangent to each of the following curves: 1000. r^atp (spiral of Archimedes).
1001.
1002.

= (hyperbolic spiral). r = asec*-|- (parabola).

r

1003. r

= acos*=

(cardioid).

1004. r=za.v (logarithmic spiral). 2 a 1005. r a cos2q) (lemniscate). Compute the curvature of the given
points: 1006. y 1007. x*

curves at the indicated

= x* 4x* ISA' + xy + y* = 3 at
2

at the

coordinate origin.
(1, (a,
1).

the point

1008.

*' at the point (1, 1009. * /*, f/ 1). 2 2 2a eos2q> at the vertices cp 1010. r 2 1011. At what point of the parabola t/

+ = =

=1

at

the vertices

0)

and 5(0, and

= n.
the curvature

= 8x
1 .

is

equal to 0.12S?
1012. Find the vertex of the curve y^-e* Find the radii of curvature (at any point) of the given x* (cubic parabola). 1013. y
lines:

1014.

5 + S =1
8

(ellipse).

1015. *
1016. 1017.
circle).

= -!^. * = acos y = as\n*t (astroid). = a(cosM sin 0; y = a(s\nt

/;
A:

/?osO

involute

of

1018. r ae k v (logarithmic spiral). 1019. r- a(l -f-coscp) (cardioid). 1020. Find the least value of the radius of

curvature of
of

the

parabola

y* = 2px.

1021. Prove

that

the

radius of

curvature

the

catenary

y = acosh

is equal to a

segment

of the normal.

coordinates of the centre of Compute curves at the indicated points: given

the

curvature of

the

106

Extrema and the Geometric Applications

of

a Derivative

[Ch. 3

1022. xy=l at the point (1, 1). x* at the point (a, a). 1023. ay* Write the equations of the circles curves at the indicated points:

of

curvature of the given

1).

x* 1024. y Gjc+10 at the point 1025. y e* at the point (0, 1). Find the evolutes of the curves: 1026. y* 2px (parabola).

= =

(3,

1027.

= J + g=l

(ellipse).

1028. Prove that the evolute of the cycloid

x~a(t
is

sin/),

y = a(l

cost)

a displaced cycloid.

1029. Prove that the evolute of the logarithmic spiral

r
is

also a

1030.

Show
x

logarithmic spiral with the same pole. that the curve (the involute of a

circle)
/)

= a (cos +
/

sin

/),

#=-a(sin
//

/cos

is

the involute of the circle

;c

= acob/;

= asm/.

Chapter IV

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

Sec.

1.

Direct Integration

1. Basic rules of integration. 1) If F' (A-)--- MA), then

where C
2) 3)

is

^Af(x)dx=-A
\
If

an arbitrary constant. f f (x) dx, where A

U'H:
f2
(

is

a constant quantity.

[ft

v )l

dv

( fj

(*)/*

f f2

O)
(v),

dx.

4)

f f

(x)dx-~F(\-) -f-C

and

/-cf

then

In particular,

r J

ax

a
integrals.

2. Table

of standard

II.

\
f*

=
dA'

III
,*r

IV

\ 2 s J X -f- a dx C \
) A'

-r-:

==
; 5

\:

a
I

arctan

|-C

=
(a

v:

arc cot

+C
'

(a

^ 0).
'

-= 2

a*

~-,T-

2a

+C
a+v
-f-C

yS-

0).

dx
r

(a*Q).
(a^O).

V.
VI.

dx

VII.

(>0); fc x d* =

108

__
VIII.
\
f

Indefinite Integrals

sinxdA;=

cosx +

C.

_
cot x |-f-C.

[Ch. 4

IX.

cosxdx=sinx + C.
COS 2

X
XI.

J XII XIII.

--= x
sin
2

cotx+C.
'

smx
cosx
f

tan

H-C = In

cosec x

XIV.

sinhxdx=coshx-|-C.

XV.

XVL
XVIL
Example
f (ax
2

dx

1.

+ bx + c) dx=

Applying the basic rules

tion,

1,

2,

3 and the formulas of integra-

find the following integrals:

1031.

5dVd*.

1040.

1032-5(6^ + 8^3)^.
1

033.
r

(x

-i

a) (x 4 b) dx.
3

034.

J (a

+ bx

1042 ' U4 ^'

)* clx.

(V
J

_
V x)

-- dx v
,,

'

j/51

1035.
1036.
T

yZpxdx.

1043.

'~ n

1037.
J

(nx)

"

1045
dx.

^x
'

f
}

^4+^

'

1046
1038.

'

1039.

^+ljc-/x-dx.

1047

'

Sec

1]

Direct Integration

1048*. a)
b)

tan *dx;

1049. a)

_
b)

109

Jtanh *d*.
1050.

Jcoth'jtdx.

$3Vdx.

differential. Rule 4 considerably sign expands the table of standard integrals: by virtue of this rule the table of integrals holds true irrespective of whether the variable of integration is an independent variable or a differentiate function.

3. Integration under

the

of the

Example

2.

2
1.

where we put u

5*

2.

We

took advantage of Rule 4 and tabular integral

1

Exa m p.e

xdx
3.

d(x

2
)
1

We

implied u
4.

2
jc
,

and use was made

of

Rule

and tabular

integral V.

Example

( x 2 e xl}

dx-^~
4

( e*' d

3
(jc )

i-e^ + C by

virtue of Rule 4 and

tabular integral VII.

In examples 2, 3, and form before making use of

we reduced the given

integral:

integral

to

the following

a tabular

/ (<P (*)) <p' (*)

dx\
is

I (u)

du

where a

(p (x).

This type
ples 2 and
a)
3,

of

transformation

Some common transformations

are:

called integration under the differential sign.

of differentials,

which were used

in

Exam-

dx=^d(ax-\

b)

(a

0);

b)

xdx =
of

^d(x

and so on.

Using the basic rules and formulas

tegrals:

integration,

find

the following in-

,053.

112

Indefinite Integrals

[C/i.

1140. f-^f-. sinh x

J

1143.
1144.
' .

[tanhxdx.
(cothxdx.
J

H41. f-*_. J cosh x

r* /f

1142

J sinh x cosh x

Find the indefinite

1145.
< 1

integrals:

(x 1/5=1? dx.
i
I

1163.

f-^-.
*J

Ad 46.

v*

A \f

]cos@

J?=CT1

,,47.

f^d,.

" M -j
1165
-

1148. \xe-**dx.

'

ftan/JC
jcdx

djt
1 i
,-

1166.

U50.
1151.

Jl_!d*.
i
--

,, 67 .

JV^L
l

<ioo

sinx
sin

~ cc^s

A*

i/^c' V e

1168.

J
I

A: -f-

cos x

dx.
2

Jx + cos*
1169.
sin SA:

51

f v

"-^) v ^

1170.

J
'

^tan^-2
>

,)

ff 2 -|--^- )-^-. 2x*+l/ 2x*+l ^

ilax

I179 1172.
5

1157.

^a

cosxdx.
dAt>

3<

1173.

.rfy.

[
"

7^Ti

1174.
J

+ !'
to

f-i^=.
1160. 1161.

M7.:.

f
^
^

fl

_t ^

Jlan'aArdx
!

(<
H76.

jsin -Jdx.
(

j -j^*
.

!!!_!-.

K4-tan'x

ii77. f _

sinajtcosax' J si

Sec. 2]

Integration by Substitution

113

l/T=3

Sec. 2. Integration by Substitution

1. Change of variable in an indefinite integral. Putting

where

is

new variable and

cp

is

continuously differentiable function, we

will have:

The attempt is made to choose the function q> in such side of (1) becomes more convenient for integration. Example 1. Find

way

that

the

right

Solution.

It

is

natural to put

V~x

1,

whence

A-

=/ 2

-}- 1

and dx = 2tdt.

Hencu,

Sometimes substitutions

of the

form

are used.

Suppose we succeeded

in

transforming
t

the integrand f(x)dx to the form

f(x)dx=g(u)du where u = q>(jc).

114

If

[g(u)du

_
is

Indefinite Integrals

known, that

is,

_
2 x2
,

[Ch. 4

then

Actually,

we have already made use oi this method in Sec. 1,3. Examples 2, 3, 4 (Sec. 1) may be solved as follows:
Example
2.

= 5#

2;

cfw

= 5c(x;

dx

-du.

_ -~

'
1

+c_
,

Example

3.

= x*;

du

2xdx;

xdx = -

Example

4.

jc

s
;

du

= 3x
-

dx\

x dx

2. Trigonometric

substitutions.

~a sin

1)

If
/;

an integral contains the radical ]fa z

_
V*
^.
2

the usual thin^

is

to put

whence

2)

If

an

integral

contains

the
2

radical

a2

we

put

xawct,

whence
/^x
If

a2

= a tan

3)

an integral contains the radical V'V

+a

2
,

we put* = atan/; whence

It should be noted that trigonometric substitutions do not always turn out to be advantageous. It is sometimes more convenient to make use of hyperbolic substitutions, which are similar to trigonometric substitutions (see Example 1209).

For more details about trigonometric

Sec. 9.

and hyperbolic substitutions,

see

Example

5.

Find

dx.

Sec. 2]

Integration by Substitution

1J5

Solution. Put

xlant.
/ /

Therefore,
1

dx=
f sec
t

cos 2

r-r
/

y~x*+l *
1?

f V~ian 2 J
tan 2
dt
sin
2
/

+
J
/

dt

cos'
/

cos !
si "
2
*

<

J
*

sin 2

cos 2
^/

dt
/
,

_
1

"~ f

~~ f
/

4- cos2

cos
/

sin

M~
|

/-cos/

^ J cos

f
/

cos/
/

~~

2 J sin

= In

tan

+ sec

-J
1

+ C = In

tan

/ -{-

V\

-j-tan

tan<

1191. Applying the indicated substitutions,

integrals:

find the following

c)

f
e)
\

COS

A'

d*

Applying suitable substitutions,

1192.
1193.

find

the following integrals:

csinA )"

S*(2x+5)"djc.
1
('

>97. n1198.

+ *..d*.
J!

l+^A,, 99<

1194.

f-

JxK2t+l
**

1195. r

Applying trigonometric substitutions,

tegrals:

find

the

following

in-

,201.
,202.

('-=*. *' K
l

1203.

f J

iZEl'dx.
^

-=.

1204*.

U6

__
1205.
J

Indefinite Integrals

\Ch. 4

(f^+idx x

1206*.
1207.

f ff 2 J x y 4

__
x2

1208. Evaluate the integral

r
J

dx

/*(!-*)

by means

of the substitution

x=sin

/.

1209. Find

by applying the hyperbolic substitution x = as\n\\t.

Solution.

We have:

]Aa

+x =
2

]/~a

+a

suih 2

/=a cosh

and

dx=a cosh

/d/.

Whence
\

ya

-\-x

dx=

a cosh t-a cosh

f ctf

~~~2~

Since
__ x

~
and

we

finally get

where C 1=^C

In a

is

new

arbitrary constant.

1210. Find
C

putting x

= a cosh/.

Sec. 3. Integration by Parts

A formula for integration on tiable functions, then

\

by

parts.

If

= <p(*)

and u

= i|)(*)are

differen-

udv = uv

vdu.

Sec. 3\

Example

_
1.

Integration by Parts

Find

_
x*
,

H7

x In xdx.

Putting u

In*, dv

xdx we have da
%

dx
v

~~9

Whence

dx

x*

Sometimes, to reduce a given integral to tabular form, one has to apply the fcrmula of integration by parts several times. In certain cases, integration by parts yields an equation from which the desired integral is determined. Example 2. Find
\

e* cos x dx.

We
V

have

e* cos x dx

xd

(sin x)

e* sin x

x sin

AT

dx

sin

+
\

+
Hence,
\

x d (cos x)

e* sin x

-\-

x cos x

e* cos x dx.

e* cos x dx

x sm .v-j-e^cos x

V e

x cos x dx,

whence
cos v dx --

(sin

x -f- cos

.v)

-f C.

Applying the formula of integration by

integrals:

parts,

find

the following

1211.
^

\nxdx.

1221.

x sin x cos x d\
a

1212.
1213.
1214. 1215.

Jarclanjcdx.

1222*
$

(jt

+5x+6)cos
\nxdx.

Jarcsin

A-rfjc.

1223.
^

x*

Jjcsiiucr/.v.

1224.

Jln'xd*.

Jjccos3A'Jx.
J

1225.

(^djc.
J

1216. Urfjc.
1217.

1226.
1227.

f^d*. K A
Jjcarcsmxdjc.
\n (x

Jx-2-*rfx.

Jjcarctanjcdjc.

1218**.
1219*.

JjV'd*.
(x ^2A' + 5)^*dA:.
2

1228.

1229.

+ V T~x*) dx.

1220*.

'-

1230

'

118

Indefinite Integrals

[C/i.

1231

1234

'

JisFr**'235.

eax *

mb * dx

1232.
1233.

Je*sinxdx.
$3*cosjtdx.

$sin(lnx)dx.

Applying various methods,

2

find the following integrals:

1236. (x*e~* dx.

1246.
J

V\-x
jttan 2*d;t.
2

1237.
1238. 1239.

\e
2

*dx.

1247.
1248.

(x

-2x + 3)\nxdx.

^x\n~dx. f^dx.
fllL^d*.
2

1249.
J

cos (In x)dx.

1240.
1241.

1250**,

1251*.
:

2
-|

a2)2

'

1242.

jc

arctan3jcdA:.
(arc tan
2
A:)
2

1252*.
1253*.
\

1243.
1

{ j

dx.

^ j

1//1

-4-

x dx.
.

244.

( (arc sin

jc)
,

dx.

254*.

-4^-

*n/ir

1245.

fare
\

sin

^2

^.

Sec. 4. Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial

1. Integrals of the form

f
\

mx + n
2-7-7

7dx.
the

The

principal calculation procedure the form

is

to reduce
z

quadratic trinomial to
(1)

ax z

+ bx + c = a(x-}-k)

-{-l,

where k and

/ are constants. To perform the transformations in (1), it is best to take the perfect square out of the quadratic trinomial. The following substitution may also be used:

If m=0, then, reducing the quadratic trinomial to the form the tabular integrals III or IV (see Table).

(1),

we

get

Sec

4]

Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial

1.

119-

Example
dx

H-

-7

-(-*)
g 5 \2

Qi

=-o*~7= arc -o 2

tan
4

(-TJ+S '*?
If m&Q, then from the numerator out of the quadratic trinomial

"S?+c.
we can take
the derivative

f
J
a.v

-+.
2

+^

and thus we arrive at the integral discussed above.

Example

2.

f J

->
;5=^n
i

,v d
-

^J

f"
A

'-x-i

IV
2.
Integrals of the

2x-l

form

d*.

The methods
is

of calculation

are similar to those analyzed above. 0, and VI, if a lar integral V, if a

The

>

integral

finally reduced

to

tabu-

< 0.
dx
1

Example

3.

dx

f*

4jt

Example
r

4.

^+3 ^^ *" 2 f yV+2x + 2 J ^ ^ + 2x4-2

^ ^JC

J20

Indefinite Integrals

[Ch. 4

3.

Integrals

of

the

form

f J (mx

+ n)
i

V^ax'

+ bx + c

By means

of the in-

verse substitution

mx+n
Example
5.

these integrals are reduced to integrals of the form

2.

Find
dx

Solution.

We

put

whence

4.

Integrals of the form

]T ax*-\-bx

+ cdv.

By taking

the perfect square

to

out of the quadratic trinomial, the given integral is reduced following two basic integrals (sec examples 1252 and 1253):
1)
('

one

of the

a*

A'

dx

= 4 fa^x* + ^ arc sin ^ 2

(a

+ C;
c/

>

0);

2)

Vl?
6.

Example

sin

Find the following

integrals:

1256.

,c S '' 00 '

xdx

^7^+

Sec. 5]

Integration of Rational Functions

j

121

oKn \o\J.

---

<

<

c r\

dx

1270.
v2

dy
*~

O *7 1

f*
t

J
'

1272.

V~2 {-3* d* r
I

2* 2
1273.
1

J
f

/"*l/"o

'

1-7/1

,H4.
1265.

f~=.
V %
1

xdx

>1J
-

^
5

1266.
1267.
1268.

."~

dx.

1277
197 n 1278
,

t'

x
cJJt

-,-^ /5, -2,

2
2
-v

dK.
f-1

sin
(

dA

T^PTTT^TlTInjfdi

JYKI

1'-^=.

279

i'

J x

^ _ ilnA._ !n
1

Sec. 5. Integration of Rational Functions

t. The method of undetermined coefficients. Integration of a rational function, after taking out the whole part, reduces to integration of the proper rational fraction

where P
rator
If

(x)

and Q
is

(x)

(A-) are integral polynomials, and the degree lower than that of the denominator Q (A-).

of

the

nume-

Q(jr)
.
.

= (*

a)*.

.(A'-/)\

/ are real where a, distinct roots of the polynomial Q (x), and a, .... ., K are natural numbers (root multiplicities), then decomposition of (1) into

partial fractions

is

justified:

^
To
calculate the undetermined coefficients A lt A 2t ..., both sides of the identity (2) are reduced to an integral form, and then the coefficients of like powers of the variable x are equated (llrst method). These coefficients may likewise be determined by putting [in equation (2) or in an equivalent equation] x equal to suitably chosen numbers (second method).

122

Indefinite Integrals

[C/t.

Example

1.

Find

xdx (*-!)(* +
Solution.

"

1)

We

have:

Whence
t

(x\).

(3)

a) F/rsf

method of determining the

t

coefficients.

We
)

the form x^(A-{- B^ x 2 -{-(2A-{- B 2 )x-\-(A ents of identical powers of x we get:

B2

rewrite identity (3) in Equating the coeffici-

Whence
,
b)
<3),

=i

= _i

,,4.
Putting

Second method of determining the

will have:

coefficients.

x=\

in identity

we

1=4-4,
Putting x
1,

i.e.,

'/ 4

we

get:
1

-2,

i.e.,

B2 =

/2.

Further, putting *

= 0,

we

will have:

Hence,

TJ
*

~~
v A
1

T t

4-1
\ x J A

AT

Example

2.

Find

Solution.

We

have:
""

x(x
tind
1

I)
2

1(JC

1)*

=A

(*
it

I)
is

+ Bx (x

1)

+ Cx.

(4)

advisable to combine the two methods of determining coefficients. Applying the second method, we put * in identity (4). We get 1=4. Then, putting jc=l, we get 1=C. Further, app2 lying the first method, we equate the coefficients of x in identity (4), and
solving this example

When

get-

= 4 + 0,
4=
1.

i.e.,
l,

B=
and

1.

Hence,

fl-=

C=l.

Sec. 5]

In t egration

of

Rational Functions

123

Consequently,

/=
If

f dx
\ J X

f*

r- = ln 7+ jc1 J (*l)
,

dx

p
\

dx

1
,

'

JC
'
'

In
'

JC

1
'

r-f C.
A1

the polynomial

(x)

has complex roots a

ib of

multiplicity k, then

partial fractions of the form

(5)

will enter into the

expansion

(2).

Here,

Bk are undetermined coeflicients which are determined and A lt B lt .., A k by the methods given above For k~\, the fraction (5) is integrated direct,

ly;

for

k>\,

use

is

made

of the reduction

method;

here,

it

is

first

advi\

z sable to represent the quadratic trinomial x

px~{-q in the form

x-\-~

-f-

~]

and make the substitution

3.

A--J-

z.

Example

Find

Solution. Since
A
2
-|

4x

52

then, putting x -\-2---z,

r==

wo

got

*\._ dz=z

_j_^

Hit i!ini

j2

jrc

tan ?

-- -- arc

tan

z=

2. The Ostrogradsky method.

P(x)

If

(A)

has multiple roots, then

p

A'(v)

"-

(.Y)

A
(6)

where Q,

(A:)

is

the greatest

common

divisor of the polynomial

(x)

and

its

derivative Q'

(A-);

arc, respectively,

undetermined coefficients, whose degrees by unity than those of Q, (A-) and Q 2 (x). The undetermined coeflicients of the polynomials X (x) and Y (x) are computed by differentiating the identity (6). Example 4. Find
(A-)

and

(x)

are polynomials with

less

C
}

dx

U'-

124

Indefinite Integrals

[Ch. 4

Solution.

dx

Ax z + Bx + C
we

?Dx

-\-Ex

+ F ax
.

Differentiating this identity,

get

Dx z +Ex
3x*(Ax* + Bx

\=(2Ax-\-B)(x*

1)

+ C) + (Dx* + Ex + F)(x*
we
will

i).

Equating the coefficients of the respective degrees of x,

have:

D = 0; E
whence

4 = 0;

2fl--=0;

D + 3C = 0;

+ 24 = 0;
= 0;
P

+ F==

1;

5=
and, consequently,

~; C = 0; D = 0; O
9

F= -4 O
1

C
(x

^ _ ~
2

x
8

1)

3^ -l

__ 2

dx

3 J x8

To compute the
-^
r

integral

on the

right of (7),

we decompose

the

fraction

into partial

fractions:
1

x8
lhat
is,
1

= L (x + + 1) + MX (x
2
A:

1)

+N

(A:

1).

(8)

Putting
,of

#=1, we
we
find
.

get

L=-.
<j

Equating the coefficients of identical degrees of x on the

(8),

right

and

left

or

Therefore,

dx
1

_
i

dx
\_
1

r
1

\yS J *

o J x

^\V

J j

Q\
]X

~~ =ll

11-1
'

and

^^^^^(J^\\ + ^ ln \ x
Find the following
integrals:
'

^ +^^
l

mian

^^+ C

'

1280

'

1282

'

Sec. 6]

Integrating Certain Irrational Functions

5 *' + 2 * * - 5* + 4* dx

125

1284 ' **
1285
'

12Q1 29J
'

f j (Ii_4jt

dx

+ 3)<J

dx c J *(*

+ !)*
d*

-~
-r-g^gdx. ^"* "
I

1296.

C
C/
rt

^4

, I

.--.
*
I

'

C*

R V2

Av

1288.

-290.

.Tjpfc
J^Sf*.
J^d*.

1299. .300.

l291 '

'292.

Applying Ostrogradsky's method,

find the following

integrals:

Applying

different procedures, find

the integrals:

l306

'

I3 7 '

rf *-

l312

'

l309

Sec. 6. Intagrating Certain Irrational Functions

1.

Integrals of the

f.rm
i

/? <s

a rational function and p lt q v p a

q z are whole numbers.

12J

Indefinite Integrals

[Ch. 4

Integrals of form (1) are found by the substitution

where n is the least Example 1. Find

common
I

multiple of the numbers a* dx

</,,

q2

...

Solution.

____dx

J V"5jc=T-- J/2?=l""j

_
A

The substitution
f 2z'dz
z
2

2,x

leads

to

an integral

of the

form

-^ =2

r^i "
2
1

=2
= (1+
Find the integrals:
13 15.
J
2

/23T-i)

f-^^djc. /*-!
r
dx

1321.

('J^Zdjc.
J .v-f-2
c

1316.

7,7==.
-. ('-. ---J

1322.
J

(o

--^7= A
(jv

-A)

1-

1U7.
.

/v+l

^.--.
I-

1323.

)/(v+l)
1324.

v+1

1325.

,320.

2.

Integrals of the form

"

ai*

t,

+c

- dx,

(2)

where P n Put

(x)

is

a polynomial of degree n

dx

where Q n _i(x) cients and A, is

a polynomial of degree (n with undetermined coeffi1) number. The coefficients of the polynomial Q n -i(x) and the number K are found
is

by differentiating identity

(3).

Sec. 6]

Integrating Certain Irrational Functions

2.

Example

Whence

A-,

Multiplying by V^* we obtain

+4

and equating the coefficients

of identical

degrees oi

=
Hence,
-

D-0;

X=_

3. Integrals

of the

form
dx

i; They

a)

V ax
substitution:

are reduced to integrals of the form (2) by the

Find the integrals:

1326
.

j__^_.
(-f^dx.

1329.

1327.

1330.

-^ fv
Vl-i

-^^rfjc.

1331.
FA'
2

X+l

4.

Integrals of the binomial differentials

(5)

where m, n and p are rational numbers. Chebyshev's conditions. The integral (5) can be expressed in terms of a finite combination of elementary functions only in the following three cases: 1) if p is a whole number;
"

2)

if

is

=z

whole number. Here, we make the substitution a + bx n =

s
t

where

is

the denominator of the fraction p;

is

m
3)
if

+p

whole number. Here, use

is

made

of the substitution

128

Indefinite Integrals

(Ch. 4

Example

3.

Find

Solution. Here,

x.

m=-^;n = -r ;p = -^;
integrability.

-1+1 T -2
:

=2.

Hence,

we have here Case 2 The substitution

yields *

= (z

I)

dx=\2z*

(z*

\Y dz

Therefore,

= 12
where
e

f (2

),fe=J2ef_

+ J/T

Find the
1332. 1333. r
*

integrals:
~
z

1335

'

dx

133G f 0.
J
2
.v:

^(2

T
3

+
,

3
JC

,334.

* f_-

337.{
J

i'

r*

1+

Sec. 7. Integrating Trigonometric Functions

1. Integrals of the form

:

'm..

0)

where
1)

m
If

and n are

integers.
is
'

m^2/j+l
,

an odd positive number, then we put x cos " xd ( cos

^)
\
( 1

s l(]Zk

cos 2 x) k cos" xd (cos

A:).

We

do the same Example 1.

if

is

an odd positive number.

( sin 10

x cos 8 * dx

f sin 10 x (1
sin
11

sin x)
13
.v

(sin *)

sin

Sec.

7]

the integrand 2) If m and n are even positive numbers, then formed by means of the formulas
sin
2

_
2.

Integrating Trigonometric Functions

__
=
v
.

129

(I) is trans-

*= y (1

cos 2*),
sin JCGOS

cos

*= y (1 + cos 2*),

x=
f (cos
'

sin 2*.

Example

f cos
2

= =

p sin - 6x1 \
1

-- -

3x

sin

3* dx
,

3* sin 3*) 2
,

sin
2

3x dx

f /
\

3^>

J \ x

-1

cos 6* dx

=
.

f
\

(sin 6A:
,

Zc
2

sin

2C cos fi ax 6x o^)

cos 12* n ^

= sin

, 2

GA:

c \ dx cos 6^
/

sin 12AC

3)

If

m=
dx

[i

and

n=

v are integral negative

numbers

of

identical

parity, then

cos

In particular, the following integrals reduce to this case:

Example

3.

J COS X

f C -^-= J sec xd (tan *)= J (l+tan*x) = tan x-p--=- tan '* + C. o

8
jc

d (tan

x)

_1 r ""-

tan 2

5-1900

130

Indefinite Integrals

[Ch. 4

4) Integrals of the

form

f tan

w xdx

(or

cot w xdx),

where

is

an

in-

tegral positive

number, are evaluated by the formula

(or, respectively, cot*

= cosec* x
2
.

1).

Example
=
tan
1

5.

\
.

tan*xdx=
tv

V tan x (sec*x
,
,

1)

dx=-^-^
~

tan*xdx =

P.
\

tan* x
-5

=
5

3 J 5) In the general case, integrals 7 m>n of the form (1) are evaluated by means of reduction formulas that are usually derived by integration by parts.

(sec*x

l)dx=

tanx + x+C.
,

Example
sin

6.

J cos* x
A;

cos

dx

2^^"j -^
c

C cos x

.
,

f
cos x

sin

Find the integrals:

1338.
1339.
1

Jcos'xdx.
Jsin'xdx.
J

1352.

J
sin sin
2

{;
sin

COS

-2

'T

340.

x cos x dx.
x
-jr

1353.

1341.
1342.

C J
\

cos

x
-~-

dx.

1354.
J

sin*

1355. 1356.

JsecMxdx.
!

1343.

Jtan

5jcdA:.

1344.
1

sm*xcos*xdx.
sin
1
A:

1357.
1358. 1359.

jjcot'*d*.

345.

cos x dx.

1346.

Jcos'Sxdx.

1360.

' COS X

1362.
1363.

sin'xi/cosxdx.
dx
.

f J

V sin x cos*

1364.

f-==.
J l^tan*

Sec. 7]

_
sin

Integrating Trigonometric Functions

2.
V

Integrals of the form

sin

mx

cos

nxdx,

sin

_
rnx
sin

131

nx dx and

cos

mx cos

nx dx. In these cases the following formulas are used;

[sin

1)

mx cos nx = -~ mx
sin

(m + n) x + sin (m
(m
n)

n) x] ;

2) sin

nx

= -^

[cos
c

cos(m

+ n) x]\
x].

3)

cosm*cos ^^
7.
I

=
sin

-9-

(m

n)*-fcos (m-f/i)
\

Example

9* sin

xdx=

8* -^ [cos

cos

lOjt]

dx=*

Find the integrals:

1365.
^
J

sin

3jc

cosSxdx.
A:

1369. 1370.
1371.

J cos(aA:

f
sin
(co/ -f-cp)

1366.

sin 10* sin 15

d*.

sin

a>/

dt.

1367.

f cos f sin

~ cos
|-

^-

djc,

^
J

cos x cos* 3x dx
sin x sin 2* sin

1368.

sin

~ djc.

1372.

3* dx.

3.

Integrals of the form

f
/?

(sin *,

cos x) dx,

(2)

where R
1)

is

a rational function.
of substitution
.

By means

x
t,

tan

whence
2*

integrals

of

form
t.

(2)

are

reduced

new variable Example

8.

Find
f J

__
1

to integrals

of rational

functions by the

+ sin x + cos
we
wil1

*E

/.

Solution.

Putting

tan -pr^*'

have

f*

132

Indefinite Integrals

[Ch.

2) If

we have

the identity

R(
Ihen

sin*,

cos*)

s/?
*

(sin*,
/

cos*),
integral (2) to a

we can
Here,

use

the

substitution

tan

to reduce the

rational form.

sin

jg

COS*=

,-

and

*=arc
Example
9.

tan/, dx

Find

Solution. Putting

Jnn-'sin
2

<3 >

tan* = f,

=
:j

^,
dt

dx =

dt

-jz
r

we

will

have
dt

= -^=arctan
K
2
that

(/

/"

2~)

+ C = -7= arc tan 2

F
(3)
is

/T tan *) +
if

C.

We

note

the

integral
it

denominator
example,

of the fraction are first

is

evaluated faster divided by cos 2 *.

to apply

the numerator and

In individual cases,
1379).

useful

artificial

procedures (see, for

Find the
1373
'

integrals:

J 3

+ 5*cos*
*!.

'

1382 *'
.

dx
J 3
sin 2

+ 5 cos
**

'

1374.

J sin *

C^

+ cos *
,

1383*. f
iooyi*
10 or
1

2 J sin *

-|-

3sin *cos *

cos 2 *
'

'

cos*

1384 *385.

dx
X r-. dx. 3 cos*) Sin2x <*si n
,

JiHiJT 5sln*cos*
P
\

T
.

(1

1386.

J.

100T 1387.
1388
'

jj
Is. n

COS

^
S

p-j-^-rfx

1389*.

mi-.

^^.

*-6 sin* + 5
sin*) (3

^
'

sin*)

I39

o-.j |;;;;;i::;>.

Sec. 8]

Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

133

Sec. 8. Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

Integration of hyperbolic functions is completely analogous to the integration of trigonometric functions. The following basic formulas should be remembered:
1)

cosh 2 X
2

sinh 2

*=l;
1);

2) sinh

*=

~ (cosh 2*
Y (cosh 2x+
Find

3) cosh

x=

1);

4) sinh x cosh x

= ~ sinh 2x.
V

Example
Solution.
2

1.

cosh 2 *djt.

We

have

f cosh x djc-=r~(cosh 2x + \)dx

jsinh

2x +

Example
Solution.
( cosh
8

2.

Find
\

cosh 3 ****.

We
f

have

xcU=

cosh 2 xd (sinh

x)=

(l

+ sinh

Jc)d(sinhA:)

=
. ,
,

= smh x-\
Find the
1391.
1392.
1393.
integrals:

Jsinh'jtd*.

1397.
1398.

^cosh'xdx.

1394.

sinh'* cosh*

1396

C 2 J sinh

^
A:

cosh 2

1402.

A;

Sec.

9.

Using
of the

Trigonometric

and

Hyperbolio

Substitutions

for

Finding

Integrals

Form
(1)

is

a rational function.

134

Indefinite Integrals

the of squares, t
of integrals:

Transfor Transforming the quadratic trinomial ax* + bx-\-c into a sum or difference integral (1) becomes reducible to one of the following types

_
by

[CH. 4

2)

R R

(z,

m* +

z*) dz\
z )

3)

(z,

Vz 2

dz.

The
1) 2 2) 2 3) 2

latter integrals

are,

respectively,
/,

taken

means

of substitutions:

= msin/ = mtan/ = msec/

1.

or z or 2 or z

= m tanh = msinh/, = m cosh/.

Example

Find
dx

==/.

(x+\Y
Solution.

We

have

Putting

*+l = tan2, we
dx

then have dx
sec 2
2

= sec*zdz
f cos 2
x
.

and

= f tan
\
-

zdz

~ dz =

zsec2~"J

Example

2.

Find

Solution.

We

have

Putting

Sec. 11]

Using Reduction Formulas

135

we

finally

have

Find the integrals:

1403.

S/3-2jt-x'd*.
"

1409.

W-6*-7d*.

1404. 1405.

1410.

1406.

Sec. 10. Integration of Various Transcendental Functions

Find the integrals:

1415.
2

J (*
2

+ I)
cos
2

2x

dx.

1421.

1416.
1417.
1418.

$*
]

SJCC/A;.

1422.
1423.
1424.

(*-/=
J

^
1

x s\nxcos2xdx.
2

J
2

f^lnj^djc. *
I

$e *sin
x

jcdjt.

J J
?

In (x
jc

+ /FT?) djc.
(5jc
5

1419.

\^e
^ A'e

smxsmSxdx.
x

1425.

arc cos

1420.

cos x dx.

1426.

smxsinhxdx.

Sec. 11. Using Reduction Formulas

Derive the reduction formulas for the following integrals:

1427.

/..Jj-^,,;

find /.

and

/,.

1428. /

=$

sln"xdje; find / 4 and

/,.

136

Indefinite Integrals

[Ch. 4

1429.

/w

J^h;;

find

I*

and
/ 10
.

7 4-

1430. 7 n

(x n e~*dx\

find

Sec.

12. Miscellaneous Examples on Integration

dx

1448.
5

xdx

JO+jt
x

1
)

KI-J
2^ j
x

J *'-2*+2
1433.
P

dx
dx.

1449. 1450.

xdx
C
..

j y^i

T
2

+1
t

dx
dv
'

J
dx
dx

1452. 1453.

dx dx

P
'

J (x* r

+ 2)
dx

'

t/

f-7^ A
y l/^v2 * r

1455.
l

Jx-2A' +

dx

C__^L_
1457.
f J *
'

VT^X*

,458.
'

J
5jt

1442.

J
1443.

f
1460.

-1

1461

dx
-

1444.
1462.

IHB^T^
sin' A;

J/ Jl a!+i)'
(

ax

'-^^

1463.

1446.

r
P
y2

dA;

f^ ^
COS '
\

1464.

cosec'SxdA;.

1447.

j^===d.

1465.

Sec. 12]

Miscellaneous Examples on Integration

137

1466.

484.

sinh ^ cosh

A:

dx,

M67.J.-(f,4
f*

1485

fsinh^l-A
J

d)c

!468 l469

'

J 2sinx

+ 3cosx-5
"
dx
f.

-+w-*J2

,)sinh'*"
1488.
2* J e

1470. .471.
1472.

]>
d.v
"

C_^_,. 2e*
rfx.
i

j sin
J
j-

jc

sin

2x

1489.

dx

1474.

<

aX
sin*

1491.
a*

CJiLdx.
2

JV? +
2

1492.

J(x

1)

10~ *cfx.

1493.
1476. 1477. 1478.
J
A:

J/?Tirfx.
(

sin x dx.

/\

>

src tdn x

1494.

dx.

^*V'djt.
Jxe^djc.
J
I

1495.

(Varc

sinyd.v.

1496. 1497.

J cos(lnx)dA:.
1

1479.
1480.

x'

\nYT=xdx.
>-

dv
i

J (x

3x) sin 5*

rfjc.

J
r*

.j-^z

1498.
*^i*

Jxarctan(2x+3)dx.
fare sin

1481.
2>

sin*

-s-

cos

"2"^*.

1499.

V^ dx.

(sin

+ cos x)*'

1500.

1483.

C-

Chapter

DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Sec. 1. The Definite Integral as the Limit of a

Sum
into

1. Integral sum. Let a function f (x) be defined on an interval and a=xc <Xt < < x n = b is an arbitrary partition of this interval n subintervals (Fig. 37). A sum of the form
.

(1)

where
/

= 0,

1,

2,

...

(n

1),

is is

called the integral sum of the function f (x) on [a, b]. the algebraic area of a step-like figure (see Fig. 37).

Geometrically,

S,,

10

Fig. 37

Fig. 38

2. The definite integral. The number of subdivisions n tends

to zero,
is

from

x=a

limit of the sum S nt provided that the to infinity, and the largest of them, Ax/, called the definite integral of the function f (x) within the limits to * &; that is,

max

(2)

A*j

-> o

Sec. 1]

The Definite Integral as the Limit

of

Sum

139

it is integrable on [a, b]\ If the function / (x) is continuous on [a, b], i.e., the limit of (2) exists and is independent of the mode of partition of the interval of integration [a, b] into subintervals and is independent of the choice of points / in these subintervals. Geometrically, the definite integral (2) is the algebraic sum of the areas of the figures that make up the curvilinear trapezoid aABb, in which the areas of the parts located above the #-axis are plus, those below the jc-axis, minus (Fig. 37).

The definitions of integral sum and definite integral are b. eralized to the case of an interval [a, b], where a Example 1. Form the integral sum S n for the function

>

naturally

gen-

on the interval
ing
[x it

by dividing the interval into n equal parts and chooscoincide with the left end-points of the subintervals x i+l ]. What is the lim S n equal to? n -+ CO 9 J Ax. and t Solution. Here, -. Whence c/ n n
[1,10]

points

|/

that

= 101 =
Hence

(Fig. 38),

lim
n
->> oo

S n -58-L.
2
arc of the parabola
0).

jc-axis,

Example 2. Find the area bounded by an and the ordinates * = 0, and x = a (a >
Partition
.

= x*

the

Solution.
parts

the

base a into n equal

of

Choosing the value

the

funcwill

tion at the beginning of each subinterval,

we

have

The areas of the rectangles are obtained by multiplying each yk

by the base

A*=

(Fig.

39).

Summing, we

get the area of the step-like figure

Fig. 39

Using the formula

for the

sum

of the squares of integers,

2>

n(n+\)(2n+\)
6

140

Definite Integrals

[Ch.

we

find

S
and, passing
'to

= g'n(n-l)(2n-l) 6H*
>

'

the limit,

we obtain
Sn =
n

S-

lim
n -*

lim
-* co

(-D(2-l) = al 6n

>

Evaluate the following definite integrals, regarding them as the

limits of appropriate integral sums:
b
i

1501.
a

dx.
T

1503.

x*dx.

-2
10

1502.

J(0 t +g*)<tt,
and g are constant.

1504.

J2*dx.
S

1505*.

j
i

x dx.
trapezoid

1506*. Find the area of a the hyperbola

curvilinear

bounded

by

by two ordinates: x = a and x = b 1507*. Find

X

(0<a<&),

and the x-axis.

sintdt.

Sec. 2. Evaluating Definite Integrals by Means of Indefinite Integrals

1. A definite integral with variable upper limit. continuous on an interval [a, b], then the function

If

function

f (t)

is

a
is

the aritiderivative of the function

F' (x)

f (x)\

that

is,

= f (x)

for
If

2. The Newton-Leibniz formula.

o

a<*<6. F' (*) = /(*)

th ^n

Sec. 2]

Evaluating Definite Integrals by Indefinite Integrals

(x)
is

Rl

The antiderivative F

computed by finding the

indefinite integral

Example

1.

Find the integral

Find

Find the derivatives

X

of the following functions:

\={\ntdt
1510.

f(jc)=Td/.
*

1512.

1513. Find the points of the

X

extremum

of the function

=
j!lild/
X

in the region

*>0.

Applying the Newton-Leibniz formula,

1

find the integrals:

1514.

l^~1

1516.

~*
X

Jdt.

1515.

^-. *

1517.

J*cos/<#.
'

-.

Using definite integrals, find the limits of the sums:

1520.

lim

n-

142

Definite Integrals

[Ch.

Evaluate the integrals:

A
8
.

J(jt*

2*

+ 3)d*.

dx

1522.

I
Jl

1523.
1536.
Jl

cos* a da.

1524.

JK*
2

2d*.
1537.

sin'cpdcp.

*
]'

1
1539.

JF
1

Jl

1540.
71

4~
l

iL
8

***

1541.

dx

JF=3F
1831. 1543.
.L
4
\ j

coshA:dA;.

Ins

1532.

sec a da.

f*

rfjt

*'

5 J cosh !'
In

sinh*xdjc.

Sec. 3]

Sec. 3. Improper

_ _
Improper Integrals
Integrals
t

143

1. Integrals of unbounded functions. If a function f (x) is not bounded any neighbourhood of a point c of an interval [a, b] and is continuous and c<x<>b then by definition we put for
in

a<*<c

b
J a

C-B
lim
C

(f(x)dx =

^a

f(x)dx

+e

lim

f(x)dx.

(1)

-*%+e

are finite, the improper inteIf the limits' on the right side of (1) exist and a or c thj b, gral is called convergent, otherwise it is divergent. When c definition is correspondingly simplified. If there is a continuous function F (x) on [a, b] such that F'(x) f(x)

when x

c (generalized antiderivative),

then

F(a).

(2)

If

|/(*)|<F(x) when

a<*<6
f

and

f a

F(*)dx converges, then

the

in-

tegral (1) also converges (comparison test).

and

lim

X-+C

(x)
1

x m
\

^A

oo,

0,

i.

e.,

f(x)~
\

^
I

when x-+

c,

then

1)

for

m<

the integral (1)

If

converges,
is

2) for

m^>l

the

integral (1) diverges. 2. Integrals with infinite limits.

<

the function / (x)

continuous

when

oo,

then we assume

\f(x)dx=
J

lim
b ->
oo

\f(x)dx J

(3)

and depending on whether there

the respective integral Similarly,
is

is a finite limit or not on the called convergent or divergent.

right

of (3),

oo

f(x)dx=

lim
a -^
oo

(f(x)dx

and

f
)

f(x)dx=

lim a->

oo

\f(x)dx. J

I'

I/WK^W
/W^rO
then
1)

and the

integral

[p(x)dx
a

converges,

then

the

infe-

gral (3) converges as well.

If

and
for

lim

f (x)

xm

= Ajt<x>
(3)

A^Q,

i.e.,
2) for

/(x)~-4 when

oo,

m>

the integral

converges,

m<l

the inte-

gral (3) diverges.

144

__
Definite Integrals

[C/i.

Example

1.

f 2 J x

&_

lim

e -K> J

-i

f 4? "f"* + e-*oJ* *2
e

lim

e->oVe

lim (I-lU e-*oV e (l-l

/

and the integral diverges. Example 2.

QO

=
Example
3.

lim (*rT^2= lim 2 &->< ft-oo J

1+^

(arc tan 6

arc

tan

())

=
2

Test the convergence of the probability integral

(4)
*r

Solution.

We

put
00
1 00

e~ x

dx=

<r*

dv+
is

C
1

e~ x dx.
*

The first of the two integrals on the right 2 the second one converges, since e~x <e~*

not an improper integral, while

when

x^\

and
l

dx=

lim

e~ b

+ e~

)=e~

'

hence, the integral (4) converges. Example 4. Test the following integral for convergence:

w
r j
'

^^

J?

Solution.

When x -++&>, we have

Since the integral

converges, our integral (5) likewise converges. Example 5. Test for convergence the elliptic integral

dx

Sec. 3]

Improper Integrals
is

145

Solution. The point of discontinuity of the integrand the Lagrange formula we get

x=l. Applying

where

*<*,<!.

Hence,

for

*-+
1

we have
1

/T ^
Since the integral
i

'

\\-xj
1

ff nr^y
converges, the given integral
(6)

v dx

converges as well.
(or establish their divergence):

Evaluate the improper integrals

xlnx
a

P AY

f1

1552.
i

-^.
oo

1560.

I
a
*L
a

1553.

J.

1561.

Jcotjcdx

146

_
00

Definite Integrals

1562.

kx

\eGO

dx

(*>0).

1565.

_
1

(Ch.

arc f - tan*

d*-

1566

1564.

Test the convergence of the following integrals:

100

1567.

f
j)

/*+2 */*+*

.-

**..,_

1571.

./*
^/l-jc

..

1570.

1574*. Prove that the Euler integral of the

fiist

kind

(beta-

function)

B(P, q)=*
converges when
ma-function)

p>0

and

q>0.

1575*. Prove that the Euler integral of the second kind (gam-

converges for

p>Q.

Sec. 4. Change of Variable in a Definite Integral

If a function f (x) is continuous over and *=-q>(0 It a function continuous together with its derivative cp' (t) over a<^<6, where a=*9(a) and &=cp(P), and /[<p(01 is defined and continuous on the intervtl

a<x<b

Sec. 4]

Change

of Variable in

a Definite Integral

147

then

Example

1.

Find
x*

V~a*x*dx
asin

(a

> 0).

Solution.

We

put
t\

dt.

Then

= arc sin
l

and,
Therefore,
IL

consequently,

we

can

take

= arcsinO = 0,

P=
a

arc sin

=y
x2

we

shall

have

C x2

VV

dx=\
jl
2

a2

sin

2
1

J/~a

a 2 sin 2
JL
Z

a cos

dt

IL
t
2

=a

f sin

cos

d/ =
-^-

f sin 2/

d/ =
-^-

(1

Jtfl

1576.

Can the substitution

A:

= COS/

be

made

in the integral

Transform the following indicated substitutions:

8

definite

integrals

by means

of

the

1577.
.

f(x)dx,

= arc tan/.

1578

ly=,

1581. For the integral

b

148

indicate an integral linear substitution

__
Definite Integrals

[Ch.

as a result of
respectively.

which the limits

of integration

would be
the

and

1,

Applying the indicated

integrals:

substitutions,

evaluate

following

1583.
a

1584.

x \Ve -\dx,

n
2

1586.

Evaluate
substitutions:

the

following

integrals

by

means

of

appropriate

1587.
'

f^=
____

A~

i5 8 9.

2 2
8

1538.

fi^^d*. *
dx

1590.

f J 2*4-

1^3*+

%=.
1

Evaluate the integrals:

a

1591.

C J

xV

x2

e + 5x4-\

1593.

tyax
o

x*dx.

271

1594.
i

fg-f x 53 cos
o

1595. Prove that

if

f(x)

is

an even function, then

Sec. 5]

Integration by Parts

149

But

if

f(x)

is

an odd function, then

1596.

Show

that
00 00
00

-00

~'T=
!L
1

dx

1597.

Show

that
2

arc cos
o

J
o

1598.

Show

that

T
C

f(s\nx)dx =

T
f

Sec. 5. Integration by Parts

functions If the interval [a, b], then

(x)

and

v (x)

are

continuously

differentiate on

the

(x) v' (x)

dx

= u (x) v(x) for

t;

(*) u' (x) dx.

(1)

Applying the formula

following integrals:
*L
2

integration

by

parts,

evaluate the

00

1599.

^xcosxdx.
e

1603.
oe

1600.

Jlnxd*.
1

1604.

e- aJC cos6A:dA:

(fl>0).

1601.

J*V*dx.
o

1605.
o

1602.

Je*sinxdx.

150

1606**. Show that for the gamma-function (see the following reduction formula holds true:

__
Definite Integrals

[Ch. 5

Example

1575)

From

this derive that

1607.

Show

T (n n\, \) that for the integral

+ =
n

if

is

a natural number.

= sin" /= [sm xdx =

n
f

cos

71

the reduction formula

n

n ~*

holds true.

Find /, if n is a natural Devaluate I 9 and 7 10 1608. Applying repeated

.

number. Using the formula obtained,

integration

by

parts,

evaluate the

integral (see

Example
B(p,

1574)

<7)

=
integers. in

where p and 9 are positive

1609*.
function):

Express the following integral

terms of

(beta-

m=
if

sin

x cos

and n are nonnegative

integers.

Sec. 6. Mean-Value Theorem

1. Evaluation of

integrals.
b

If

f(x)^F(x)
b

for

a<*<&,

then

^f(x)dx^^F(
If

X )dx.

(1)

f(x) and <p(x) are continuous

66
a
a

a
for

a<*<6

and,
6

besides,

(p(*)^0, then

mJq>(x)d*<J/(*)9(*)dx<M
where

j
a

W ^.
(x)

(2)

is

the smallest
[a,

and

is

the

largest

value of the function /

on

the interval

b]>

Sec. 6]

Mean-Value Theorem
if

151

In particular,

<p(#)s=l, then
b

m (ba) <.[f(x)dx*^M
a

(6

a).

(3>

The inequalities
lent equalities:

(2)

and

(3)
b

may

be replaced,
b

respectively,

by

their equiva-

and
b

-a),
a

where c and

are certain
1.

numbers lying between a and

b.

Example

Evaluate the integral

5L

M
2

Solution. Since

(Xsin'x^l, we
Jl

have

<
2'

i/l K 2
1.91.

'

that

is,

1.57

</<
b

2. The mean value

of a function.

The number

is

called the

mean value

of the function / (x)

on the interval

1610*. Determine the signs of the integrals without evaluating

them:

n b)

152

Definite Integrals

[Ch. b

1611.
integrals
i

Determine (without evaluating) which of the following

is

greater:
i

a)
1

V\+x*
2 2

dx

or

J
1

dx\

b) ^
2

x sin x dx

or

J x sin

x dx\

c)

e x*dx

or

Find the mean values

vals:

of the functions

on the indicated

inter-

1612. /(x) 1613. f(x)

1614. 1615.

=x =a

2
,

0<x<l.
2

f(x)=sm

x,

1616. Prove that (

J
o

dx

1/2+^

lies

between

^2

4 3

0.67 and -4=

V^2

0.70.

Find the exact value

of this integral.

Evaluate the integrals:

n
4

1617.

+ jfdx.

1620*.
JT

1618

djf

J gqpjj.

2JI

1619.

1622. Integrating by parts, prove that

200JI

10071

Sec. 7]

The Areas

of

Plane Figures

153

Sec. 7. The Areas of Plane Figures

1. Area in rectangular coordinates. If a continuous curve is defined in f(x) [f(x)^Q], the area of the rectangular coordinates by the equation y curvilinear trapezoid bounded by this curve, by two vertical lines at the

a
Fig.

40

a and x 6 and points x is given by the formula

by

segment
b

of

the jc-axis

(Fig. 40),

(1)

Example
straight

1.

lines x

Compute
\

the
3,

and

.v

area bounded by the parabola and the x-axis (Fig. 41).

X = -~ ^

the

y-fi(*)
Fig. 42 Fig. 43

Solution. The sought-for area

is

expressed by the integral

154

Definite Integrals

(Ch.

Example
the

2.

Evaluate the area

bounded by the curve # = 2

axes
are changed

*/

y*

and

/-axis (Fig. 42).

Solution. Here, the roles of the coordinate sought-for area is expressed by the integral

and so the

where the limits of integration y l 2 and i/ 2 =l are found as the ordinates of the points of intersection of the curve with the t/-axis,

a
Fig. 44

Fig. 45

In the

curves

/i(*XM*) wn

= M*)

more general case, if the area S is bounded by two continuous and y = f 2 (x) and by two vertical lines x = a and x = b, where
n

a<*<&

(Fig. 43),

we

will then have:

(2)

Example

3.

Evaluate the area 5 contained between the curves

y
<Fig. 44). Solution. Solving the Jiniits of integration: x,
set
1

=2
of

x 2 and

l
/

=JC 2

(3)

equations

(3)

and # 2 =1. By virtue

simultaneously, we find the of formula (2), we obtain

If

then

the curve is defined by equations in parametric form x q>(/), y y(t\ the area of the curvilinear trapezoid bounded by this curve, by two

Sec. 7]

The Areas
a and #=&), and

of

Plane Figures
of the

155
*-axis

by the

vertical lines (x integral

by a segment

is

expressed

where
a

f, are determined from the equations and 6 = <p( 2 ) [\|?(/)^0 on the interval [/ lt /,]]. Example 4. Find the area of the ellipse (Fig. 45) by using

= (p(/j)

/,

and

its

parametric

equations
I
c x

y
l

= a cos = bsint.
c
i

/,

Solution.

Due

to the

symmetry,
a,

quadrant and

then

multiply

it is sufficient to compute the area of a the result by four. If in the equation jc aco

we
/

first

put x
Therefore,

and then x

we

get the limits of integration

/,

= 0.

= = y and

ji

-i-S

(b

sin

sin /)

dt=ab(

sin

2 /

dt

=^

and, hence,

If a curve is defined in polar coordinates by the equation r~f (<p), then the area of the sector AOB (Fig. 46), bounded by an arc of the curve, and by two radius vectors OA and OB,

S nab. 2. The area in polar coordinates.

Fig. 46

Fig. 47
to

which
integral

correspond

the

values

cp,

=a

and

cp,=

p,

is

expressed

by

the

Example

5.

Find

the

area

contained

inside

Bernoulli's

lemniscate

(Fig. 47).

156

__
Solution.

Definite Integrals

By

virtue of the

symmetry

of the

quadrant of the sought-for area:

_
curve we

[Ch. 5

determine

first

one

Whence S = a2

1623. Compute the area bounded by the parabola y 4x x and the x-axis. 1624. Compute the area bounded by the curve y \nx, the e. ;t-axis and the straight line x x (x 1625*. Find the area bounded by the curve y 2) 1) (* and the x-axis. 1626. Find the area bounded by the curve y* x, the straight 8. line y=l and the vertical line x 1627. Compute the area bounded by a single half-wave of the and the Jt-axis. sinusoidal curve 1628. Compute the area contained between the curve y ianx,

y=smx

the x-axis and the straight

line

x=~

1629. Find the area contained between the hyperbola xy m*, and x 3a (a>0) and the x-axis. the vertical lines 1630. Find the area contained between the witch of Agnesi

x^a

u= x- + a
2

and the x-axis.

y~x*,
x
2

= 2py.

1631. Compute the area of the figure bounded by the curve 8 and the y-axis. the straight line y 1632. Find the area bounded by the parabolas y**=2px and

and the straight line f/ = 1634. Compute the area

line

1633. Evaluate the area

bounded by the parabola y = 2x

x.

x*

of a segment cut off by the straight 2 2x from the parabola y = x 1635. Compute the area contained between the parabolas y*=*x*,

y=3

*/=Y and
1636.

the straight line y

2

= 2x.
between
the

Compute the area contained

parabolas

y=

and y = 4
1637.

|x

Agnesi

y=

Compute the area contained z between the witch

1

of

and the parabola

f^.

1638.

Compute the area bounded by the curves y**e*>

straight line

and the

x=l.

Sec. 7\

1639. Find the area of the figure

_
l

The Areas

of

Plane Figures

__
!)

157

bounded by the hyperbola

= f2

and the straight

linex = 2a.

1640*. Find the entire area bounded by the astroid

1641. Find the area between the catenary

y = a cosh
the (/-axis and the straight line
f/

= ~(e +
2

x 1642. Find the area bounded by the curve a*y* 1643. Compute the area contained within the curve

(a*

2 ;c ).

= 9,

1644. Find the area between the equilateral hyperbola x* y* the x-axis and the diameter passing through the point (5,4).

1645. Find

the

area

between

the curve y

~i,

the

x-axis,

and the ordinate

1646*.

x=l
the

Find

area

(x>l). bounded

by the J

cissoid

2
r/ y

and

asymptote x = 2a (a>0). 1647*. Find the area between the strophoid

its

=o X 2ax
X

y*

=x

x ~~ a)2

and
the

2Jfl^~~

its

asymptote (a>0).
1648.

Compute

circle

jt

r/

=--8 is

and

1649. Compute the parabola x*=l2(y 1). 1650. Find the area contained within the astroid
jc

the area of the two parts into which divided by the parabola if =2x. 2 2 the area contained between the circle x y

= 16

= acos

/;

y= b

sin

/.

1651. Find the cycloid

the

area

bounded by the x-axis and one arc

f

of

x = a(t # = a(l

sin/), cos/).

1652. Find the area bounded by one branch of the trochoid

tefr***/and a tangent
to
it

<P<<

at its lower points.

158

Definite Integrals

(Ch.

1653. Find the area bounded by the cardioid

cos2/),

--

sin20.

1654*. Find the area of the loop of the folium of Descartes

*-r+T"

*-

a (1-f coscp). 1655*. Find the entire area of the cardioid r 1656*. Find the area contained between the first and second turns of Archimedes' spiral, r acp

(Fig. 48).

1657. Find the area of one of the leaves of the curve r acos2cp. 1658. Find the entire area bound2 2 a sin4cp. ed by the curve r 1659*. Find the area bounded by the curve r asin3cp. 1660. Find the area bounded by Pascal's limagon

Fig. 48

= 2 + cos

cp.

1661.

Find

the

area

bounded by the parabola

=a

sec

and the two half-lines

9=4-

and 9

1662. Fin'd the area of the ellipse r

= y. r =
-r
1

+ e cos
r

(e<l). v
'

cp

1663. Find the area bounded by the curve

a. lying outside the circle r 1664*. Find the area bounded by the curve x*

= 2acos3cp

and

+ y* = x* + y*.

Sec. 8. The Arc Length of a Curve

1. The arc length

in rectangular coordinates.

y=f(x) contained between two

points with abscissas x

The arc length s of = a and x~b

a
is

curve

' ' Example I. Find the length of the astroid * +/'*-= a (Fig. 49). Solution. Differentiating the equation of the astroid, we get

2 8

2 8

Sec. 8]

The Arc Length

of a

Curve

159

For this reason, we have

for th* arc length of a quarter of the astroid:

length of a curve represented parametrically. If a curve is <p(0 and y represented by equations in parametric form, # ty(t), then the arc length s of the curve is

Whence s = 6a. 2. The arc

"

where

and

t2

are values of the parameter that correspond to the extremities

of the arc.

Fig

49

Fig. 50

Example

2.

Find the length

of

one arc

of the

cycloid (Fig. 50)

x a(t [ \ j/=:a(l
Solution.

sin/),

cos/)-

We

have

-^=a(l

cosf) and -^

= asin/.
C

Therefore,

/=2a
The limits of integration of the arc of the cycloid. If a curve is defined the arc length s is

sln~-d/=

^=

and

= 2ji
r

correspond

to

the

extreme points

by the equation
P

= /(cp)

in polar

coordinates, then

where a and p are the values

the arc.

of

the

polar

angle

at

the extreme points of

160

Definite Integrals

[Ch.

Example

3.

Find the
is

length of

the

entire
cp

curve

asin-|to 3ji.

(Fig. 51).

The

entire curve

described by a point as

ranges from

Fig. 51

Solution.

We

have

r'

= a sin

-^- cos

therefore the entire arc length of

She curve

is
8JI

8JI

s=

J J/a*

sin

-|

+o

sin*
-|-

cos'
-f-

=a d<p
the

sin

-f-

rfq>

=^

y*

= x*

1665.

from the coordinate origin to the point x = 1666*. Find the length of the catenary y =

Compute the

arc

length

of

semicubical
4.

parabola

acosh-^-

from the

vertex

A
to

(6,a) to the point

1667.

x=0

Compute

B(b,h). the arc length of

of

x=l.
the

the parabola y

= 2}/"x

from

1668. Find the arc length the points (0,1) and (l,e). 1669. Find the arc length
to

curve y

= e*

lying between

of

the curve y

= lnx

from x

= /3
from
lying

*=K8.
1670. Find the
to

*=

arc

length of the curve y

arc length
-5.

= arc sin (e~*) = In secy,

2

jc=l.

1671.

Compute the
t/

of the

curve x

between

=
= e.

and

j/

1672. Find the arc length of the curve x

=1

= ^-y

-^\ny

from

to

Sec, 9]

Volumes

of Solids

161

1673. Find the length of the right branch of the tractrix

a+vV-t/
y

from y = a to

t/=&(0<6<a).

= x(x
to

1674. Find the length of the closed part of the- curve

a

3a)

1675. Find the length of the curve

t/

= ln ( coth ~-J

from

x=b (0<a<6).
1676*. Find the arc length of the involute of the circle
f

to

= 7\

1677. Find the length of the evolute of the ellipse

1678. Find the length of the curve

x=- a (2 cos/ y = a(2 sin/

1679. Find the length of the

cos 2/)

sin 2/).
first

turn of Archimedes' spiral

1680. Find the entire length of 1681. Find the arc length of
r = asec
2

the cardioid r that part of

line

= a(l + coscp).
the

parabola

-y

which

is

cut

off

by a vertical

passing

through

the pole. 1682. Find the length of the hyperbolic spiral rq>= 1 from the point (2,'/ 2 ) to the point C/,,2). ae m v, 1683. Find the arc length of the logarithmic spiral r r a. lying inside the circle

=
j

1684. Find

the arc

length

of

the curve

<p

=
-g-

(r

from

r=l

to

r = 3.

'

Sec. 9. Volumes of Solids

1. The volume of a solid of revolution. The volumes of solids formed by the revolution of a curvilinear trapezoid [bounded by the curve y&f (x) fhe AT- ax is and two a and x vertical lines x b\ about the x- and '(/-axes are
J

1900

162

Definite Integrals

[Cft.

expressed, respectively, by the formulas:

b
1)

Vx =ji

J a

y*dx\

2)

V Y =2n

J
a

xr/dx*).

Example 1. Compute the volumes of solids formed by the revolution of a bounded by a single lobe of the sinusoidal curve # = sinx and by the segment O<;*<JT of the x-axis about: a) the x-axis and b) the j/-axis.
figure

Solution.

a)

V^^-ji

b)

Vy=2n

xsinxdx=2jt(

xcosx + sinx)Jc ~2ji t

The volume of a solid formed by revolution about the t/-axis of a figure bounded by the curve x=g(y), the (/-axis and by two parallel lines y = c and
t/

= d,

may

be determined from the formula

obtained x and y.

from formula

(1),

given

above, by

interchanging

the

coordinates

If the curve is defined in a different form (parametrically, in polar coordinates, etc.), then in the foregoing formulas we must change the variable of integration in appropriate fashion. In the more general case, the volumes of solids formed by the revolution about the x- and (/-axes of a figure bounded by the curves /! /! (x) and y 2 f z (x) a and x b are, respectively, [where f\(x)^f z (x)] and the straight lines x equal to
t

= =

and
b

Example
circle x*

2.

+ (y

&)

Find the volume of a torus formed by 2 a 2 (6^a) about the x-axis (Fig. 52).

the rotation of the

*) The solid is formed by the revolution, about the (/-axis, of a curvilinear a, x trapezoid bounded by the curve y b, f(x) and the straight lines x and 0. For a volume element we take the volume of that part of the solid formed by revolving about the 0-axis a rectangle with sides y and dx at a distance x from the (/-axis, Then the volume element dVy=2nxydx, whence

V K =2JI

xydx.

Sec. 9]

Volumes

of Solids

163'

Solution.

We

have
I/,

=6

I^a

x 9 and y 2

= t>+ Va*x

Therefore,

(the latter integral

is

taken by the substitution

x=asi

-a

x a
Fig

52

The volume of a solid obtained by the rotation, about the polar axis, of a sector formed by an arc of the curve r F((p) and by two radius vectors ipr-=a, <p P may be computed from the formula

Vp = ~
2

C
JT \

r 8 sin cpd

q>.

This same formula is conveniently used when seeking the volume obtained by the rotation, about the polar axis, of some closed curve defined in polar
coordinates.
r

= asin2(p

Example

3.

Determine the volume formed

by the rotation

of

the curve

about the polar axis.

Solution.

= 2.--n\
.L
2

rsinq>d(p

yJia

sin

2(p sin q> dcp

= ^ Jia
3

sin

4
<p

cos 8

cp

dcp

jia

8
.

lOo

164

2. Computing the volumes of solids from known cross-sections. If S S(x) the cross-sectional area cut off by a plane perpendicular to some straight line (which we take to be the x-axis) at a point with abscissa *, then the volume of the solid is
is

__
Definite Integrals

\Ch. 5

where *, and x 2 are the abscissas of the extreme cross-sections of the solid. Example 4. Determine the volume of a wedge cut off a circular cylinder by a plane passing through the diameter of the base and inclined to the base at an angle a. The radius of the base is R (Fig. 53). Solution. For the *-axis we take th? diameter of the base along which the cutting plane intersects the base, and for the (/-axis we take the diameter of the base perpendicular to it. The equation of the circumference of the base
is

*2

+ =R
2
j/

2
.

The area

of the section
1

ABC

at
1

a distance

x from the origin

2
r/

is

S(x) = area A ABC = -^ ABBC = -^yy tana =^- tana.

,

Therefore, the sought-

for

volume

of the

wedge

is

y=

2~

f y2

tanad*=tana

(*

(R

1 *)<& = y tana R

1685. Find the volume of a solid formed by rotation, about the x-axis, of an area bounded by the x-axis and the parabola 1686. Find the volume of an ellipsoid formed by the rotation
of the ellipse ^r

+| =
-

about the x-axis.

of a solid

1687. Find the

the x-axis', of
xr-axis,

formed by the rotation, about an area bounded by the catenary y = acosh the

volume

and the straight lines 1688. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about a the x-axis, of the curve j/=sin x in the interval between x

xa.

and x = n. 1689. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about the x-axis, of an area bounded by the semicubical parabola if = x s the x-axis, and the straight line x== 1. 1690. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation of the same area (as in Problem 1689) about the {/-axis. 1691. Find-, the volumes of the solids formed by the rotation of an area bounded by the lines y = e*, x = 0, y = about: a) the x-axis and b) the y-axis. 1692. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about the t/-axis, of that part of the parabola j/ 2 = 4ax which is cut off by the straight line x = a.
,

Sec. 9]

1693. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about the straight line x a, of that part of the parabola y*=4ax which is cut oft by this line. 1694. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about the straight line y p, of a figure bounded by the parabola

_ _
Volumes
of Solids

165

2
t/

= 2p*

and the straight

line

= --

1695. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about the x-axis of the area contained between the parabolas y x* L

and

y= Y*.

1696. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about the x-axis, of a loop of the curve (* 4a)tf =ax(x 3j)

1697. Find the

of the cyssoid y*

volume
A8

of a solid
its

generated

by the rotation

= ^ _x

about

asymptote x = 2a.

1698. Find the volume of a paraboloid of revolution whose base has radius R and whose altitude is //. 1699. A right parabolic segment whose base is 2a and altitude h is in rotation about the base. Determine the volume of the resulting solid of revolution (Cavalieri's "lemon"). 1700. Show that the volume of a part cut by the plane jc 2a off a solid formed by the rotation of the equilateral hyperbola x* tf^c? about the *-axis is equal to the volume of a sphere of radius a. 1701. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation of a bounded by one arc of the cycloid x=-a (/ sin t), figure y=^ a (\ cos/) and the x-axis, about: a) the x-axis, b) the y-axis, and c) the axis of symmetry ot the figure. 1702. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation of acos 8 /, y bsm*t about the //-axis. the astroid * 1703. Find the volume of a solid obtained by rotating the cardioid r a(l -hcostp) about the polar axis. 1704. Find the volume of a solid formed by rotation of the acos 2 <p about the polar axis. curve r 1705. Find the volume of an obelisk whose parallel bases are rectangles with sides A, B arid a, ft, and the altitude is h. 1706. Find the volume of a right elliptic cone whose base is an ellipse with semi-axes a arid &, and altitude h. ^= a\ which are 1707. On the chords of the astroid *'/ {/'/ to the *-axis, are constructed squares whose sides are parallel equal to the lengths of the chords and whose planes are perpendicular to the A#-plane. Find tfte volume of the solid formed by these squares.

166

Definite Integrals

[Ch. 5

of

1708. A circle undergoing deformation the points of its circumference lies on

is

moving so that one the y-axis, the centre

describes an ellipse ^^-=1, and the plane of the circle is perpendicular to the jq/-plane. Find the volume of the solid generated by the circle. 1709. The plane of a moving triangle remains perpendicular to the stationary diameter of a circle of radius a. The base of the triangle is a chord of the circle, while its vertex slides along a straight line parallel to the stationary diameter at a distance h from the plane of the circle. Find the volume of the solid (called a conoid) formed by the motion of this triangle from one end of the diameter to the other. 1710. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinders z 2 z* a*. a and y 1711. Find the volume of the segment cut off from the ellip"'

+ =
z
2

tic

= * by the plane x = a. paraboloid |21712. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the hyperbo-

loid of

one sheet

^ -f

rj

^-=1 and

the planes 2
X2 U2

=
Z
2

and z
!

li.

1713. Find the

volume

of the ellipsoid ^2

+ ^ + ^2"=
the
is

Sec.

10. The Area of a Surface of Revolution

The area

of

a surface

arc of the curve y the formula

formed by the rotation, about a and x f(x) between the points x

= b,

x-axis, of

an expressed by

Vl+y'*dx
(ds
is

(1)

the differential ol the arc of the curve).

Zfta
Fig. 54

If

the equation

surface

$x

is

of the curve cbtained from formula

is

(!)

represented differently, the area of the by an appropriate change of variables.

Sec.

10]

The Area

of

a Surface of Revolution
rotation, about

167
the

Example 1. Find the area of a surface formed by 2 x-axis, of a loop of the curve 9i/ ;t(3 x)* (Fig. 54). Solution. For the upper part of the curve, when

(X*<3,
X ~^
2

we have
Fromfor-

= -- (3
(1)

x)

y~x. Whence

the differential of the arc

ds=

mula

the area of the surface

9

r_dx.

= 2n

\($6
of a surface

Example
of

2.

Find the area

x

the

cycloid

=a

(t

s\nt)\

y = a(l

formed by the rotation of one arc cost) about its axis of symmetry

(Fig. 55).

Solution. The desired surface is formed by rotation of the arc OA about the straight line AB, the equation of which is x na. Taking y as the independent variable and noting that the axis of rotation AB is displaced relative to the #-axis a distance na, we

will

have

Passing to the variable

/,

we obtain

da

(na

n
=

4na

nsin

/sin

y + sinf sin

~j

dt--

Fig. 56

y
of

in Fig. 56.

of a parabolic mirror AOB are indicated required to find the area of its surface. 1715. Find the area of the surface of a spindle obtained by rotation of a lobe of the sinusoidal curve about the

1714.

The dimensions
It
is

ys'mx

#-axis.

1716. Find the area of the surface formed

a part
of

the

tangential curve

t/

= tan*

by the rotation from Jt = to

A:==^-,

about the

jc-axis.

1717. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation, about the x-axis, of an arc of the curve y e-* 9 from x to x

168

Definite Integrals

\Ch. 5

1718. Find the area of the surface (called a catenoid) formed

about the x-axis from by the rotation of a catenary # = acosh x = to x = a. 1719. Find the area of the surface of rotation of the astroid 3
x'/'-i
/'/

-a

3 3
'

about the y-axis.

area
of

1720. Find the

JC

the surface of rotation of the curve

= -^/

y
+

In (/about the *-axis

from

y=\

to

y = e.

circle

1721*. Find the surface of a torus formed by rotation of the 2 x* b) ^=a* about the *-axis <b>a). (y 1722. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation of the

ellipse

^+^ =

about:

1)

the *-axis, 2) the y-axis

(a>6).

1723. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation of one arc of the cycloid x cos t) about: a) the a(t sin/) and r/ a(l x-axis, b) the y-axis, c) the tangent to the cycloid at its highest

point. 1724. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation, about the j^-axis, of the cardioid

x
t/

= a (2 cost = a(2sin/

cos

2/),

\
/

sin2/).

of the lemniscate r

1725. Determine the area of the surface formed by the rotation 2 2 a cos2<p about the polar axis. 1726. Determine the area of the surface formed by the rotation of the cardioid r 2a (1 +coscp) about the polar axis.

Sec. 11. Moments. Centres of Gravity. Guldin's Theorems

point

1. Static moment. The static moment relative to the /-axis of a material A having mass m and at a distance d from tha /-axis is the quantitv
static

Mi~md.
The
,

moment
,

with masses m,, m 2 ..., m n lying d lt d 2 ..., d n is the sum

relative to the /-axis of a system of n material points in the plane of the axis and at distances

M i=

2 m A=
!

(1)

where the distances of points lying on one side of the /-axis have the plus sign, those on the other side have the minus sign. In a similar manner we

define the static moment of a system of points relative to a plane. If the masses continuously fill the line or figure of the x#-plane, then the static moments about the x- and /-axes are expressed ^respectivex and not as the sums (1). For the cases of ly) as integrals and geometric figures, Itie density is considered equal to unity.

My

Sec.

II]

Moments. Centres of Gravity. Guldin's Theorems

1)

169

is

In particular: the arc length,

for

the curve *

= *(s);

we have
L

y=y(s) whare
t

the

parameter

(s) ds\

M Y =.

(s)

ds

(2)

(ds

= V(dx)* + (dy)*

is

the differential of the arc);

Fig. 57

Fig. 58

2) for a

vertical lines x

plane figure bounded by th3 curve y a and y b we obtain

= y(x),

ihz Jt-axis and

two

x\y\dx.
a

(3)

Example

1.

Find the

static

moments about

the x- and
//

/-axes of a triangle

bounded by the

straight lines:

~-f-^ a b

l,

= 0, =

(Fig. 57)

Solution. Here, y

= b II

~
)

Applying formula
ab*

(3),

we

obtain

and

of inertia. The moment of inertia, about an /-axis, of a imfe2 point of mass m at a distance d from the /-axis, is the number l t -=-tnd . an /-axis, of a system of n material points The moment of inertia, about with masses m lt m 2t ..., n is the sum
rial

2. Moment

170

where d lf d 2 ..., d n are the distances of the points from the /-axis. In the case of a continuous mass, we get an appropriate integral in place of a sum. Example 2. Find the moment of inertia of a triangle with base b and altitude h about its base. Solution. For the base of the triangle we take the x-axis, for its altitude,
the y-axis (Fig 58). Divide the triangle into infinitely narrow horizontal strips of width dy t which play the role of elementary masses dm. Utilizing the similarity of
triangles,

__
Definite Integrals

[Ch. 5

we

obtain
j L dm = b

h n
.

dy

and

Whence

3. Centre of gravity. The figure (arc or area) of mass

coordinates of the centre of gravity of a plane are computed from the formulas

moments of the mass. In the case of geometnumerically equal to the corresponding arc or area. For the coordinates of the centre of gravity (x, y) of an arc of the plane curve y connecting the points A[a f (a)] and B [6, f (b)], f (x) (a^x^b),
where

MX

and

My

are the static

ric figures,

the mass

is

we have
B
t>

b
( 2 y 1^1 +(y') dx

\yds -A
S

b
2

'}

dx

The coordinates

x^b, Q^y<^f(x) may

b

of the centre of gravity (x, y) of the curvilinear trapezoid

be computed from the formulas

b

~~

^xydx
a

-.(y^dx
*~~
f

X
b

O
where

a_
^

,3

S=f y dx
a

is

the area of the figure.

There are similar formulas for the coordinates of the centre of gravitv of 6 y volume. Example 3. Find the centre of gravity of an arc of the semicircle ,,2^n*- i,i^n\
(pig
59)

Sec

11]

Moments. Centres

of Gravity

Guldin's Theorems

171

Solution.

We

have

and

Whence

f,
yds-Hence,

'

,.

xJ ..

yV-.v

^=
y a
2

4. Guldin's theorems. Theorem 1. The area of a surface obtained by the plane curve about some axis lying in the. same plane
it

intersecting

is

equal
the

circumference of
the curve.

to circle

rotation of an arc of as the curve and not the product of the length of the curve by the described by the centre of gravity of the arc of

Theorem 2. The volume of a solid obtained by rotation of a plane figure about some axis lying in the plane of the figure and not intersecting it is equal to the product of the area of this figure by the circumference of the circle described by the centre of gravity of the figure.

Fig. 59

1727. Find the static moments a segment of the straight line

x o

about

the

coordinate

axes of

y
o

lying between the axes.

172

about

__
Definite Integrals

[Ch. 6

1728. Find the static

its

moments

of a rectangle,

with sides a and

&,

sides.

1729. Find the static moments, about the x- and t/-axes, and the coordinates of the centre of gravity of a triangle bounded by the straight lines x + y Q. a, x Q, and y 1730. Find the static moments, about the x- and (/-axes, and the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an arc of the astroid

_t_

_i^

-If/*

==aT

>

>

lying in the first quadrant. 1731. Find the static moment of the circle
r

= 2asin<p

about the polar axis. 1732. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an arc of the catenary

y = a cosh
from

a to x a. Find the centre of gravity of an arc of a circle of radius a subtending an angle 2a. 1734. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the arc of one arch of the cycloid
1733.

x=

= a(t

sin/); y

= a(\

cos/).

1735. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an area bounded by the ellipse 2 -|-=l and the coordinate axes (
1736. Find the coordinates bounded by the curves
of the centre of gravity of

an area

1737. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity bounded by the first arch of the cycloid x = a(t sin/), r/ = a(l cos/) and the jc-axis. 1738**. Find the centre of gravity of a hemisphere lying above the ;q/-plane with centre at the origin.

of

an area

of radius a

1739**. Find the centre of gravity of a homogeneous right circular cone with base radius r and altitude h. 1740**. Find the centre of gravity of a homogeneous hemi-

sphere of radius a
origin.

lying

above the jo/-plane with centre

at the

&?c. 12]

Applying Definite Integrals

to Solution of Physical

Problems

173

1741. Find the

its

moment

of

inertia of a circle of radius a about

diarneler.

1742. Find the moments of inertia of a rectangle with sides a and b about its sides. 1743. Find the moment of inertia of a right parabolic segment with base 26 and altitude ft about its axis of symmetry. 1744. Find the moments of inertia of the area of the ellipse
2
JC

^ + ^=1

U2

about

its

principal axes.

1745**. Find the polar moment of inertia of a circular ring and R t (R <RJ> that is, the moment of inertia with radii R^ about the axis passing through the centre of the ring and perpen}

dicular to its plane. 1746**. Find the moment of inertia of a homogeneous right circular cone with base radius R and altitude H about its axis. 1747**. Find the moment of inertia of a homogeneous sphere about its diameter. of radius a and of mass 1748. Find the surlace and volume of a torus obtained by rotating a circle of radius a about an axis lying in its plane and at a distance b (b>a) from its centre. 1749. a) Determine the position of the centre of gravity of

an arc of the astroid x -\-i/ T = a* lying in the first quadrant. b) Find the centre of gravity of an area bounded by the curves 2 = 2px and x* = 2py. t/ 17f>0**. a) Find the centre of gravity of a semicircle using Guldin's theorem. b) Prove by Guldin's theorem that the centre of gravity of a triangle is distant from its base by one third of its altitude
Sec.
12. Applying Definite
Integrals to the

Solution of Physical Problems

1. The path traversed by a point. If a point is in motion along some curve and the absolute value of the velocity o~/(/) is a known function of the time t, then the path traversed by the point in an interval of time is '. *

Example

1.

The velocity

of a point

is

= 0. 1/

m/sec.
the interval of time sec followis the mean velocity cf motion

Find the path

ing

the

commencement
this interval?

covered by the point ol motion.

in

7=10

What

during

174
Solution.

Definite Integrals

[Ch. 5

We

have:
10

.-Jo.irt-o.i
and

T = 250
m/sec.

t*

metres

=-=25
2. The work
of the x-axis,

of a force. then the work

If

a variable force

X=f(x)

acts in the direction

is

of this force

over an interval [x ly x z ]

A=
2. What work has to be performed to stretch a spring 6 cm, if kgf stretches it by 1 cm? Solution, According to Hook's law the force X kgf stretching the spring kx, where k is a proportionality constant. by x m is equal to 100v. we get and l kgf, 100 and, hence, X 0.01 Putting x Whence the sought-for work is

Example
1

a force of

X= m

X=

0.06

0.08

A=

100 x dx
j

= 50 x

= 0. 18

kgm
point of mass

3. Kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a material velocity v is defined as

and

mv*

The

kinetic
...,

mv m

2%

mn

energy of a system of n material points with masses having respective velocities t; lf v 2 ..., v n is equal to
,

kinetic energy of a solid, the latter is appropriately partitioned into elementary particles (which play the part of material points); then by summing the kinetic energies of these particles we get, in the limit, an integral in place of the sum (1). Example 3. Find the kinetic energy of a homogeneous circular cylinder of density 6 with base radius R and altitude h rotating about its axis with angular velocity CD. Solution. For the elementary mass dm we take the mass of a hollow cylinder of altitude h with inner radius r and wall thickness dr (Fig. 60). We have:

To compute the

Since the linear velocity of kinetic energy is

the

mass dm

is

equal

to

t;

/-co,

the elementary

Sec.

12]

Applying Definite Integrals

to

Solution of Physical Problems

175

Whence
r 9 dr^=

nco 6/?

fc

4. Pressure of a liquid. To compute the force of liquid pressure we use Pascal's law, which states that the force of pressure of a liquid on an area S at a depth of immersion h Is

where y

is

the specific weight of the liquid.

radius

Example 4. Find the force of pressure experienced by r submerged vertically in water so that its diameter is
61).

flush

semicircle of with the

water surface (Fig

Solution, We partition the area of the semicircle into elements strips parallel to the surface of the water. The area of one such element (ignoring higher-order infinitesimals) located at a distance h from the surface is
ds

^ 2xdh = 2
this

V'*
is

h2

dli.

The pressure experienced by

element

where y

is

Whence

the specific weight of the water equal to unity. the entire pressure is
r

=2
1751.
initial

C J

The velocity of a body thrown vertically upwards with velocity V Q (air resistance neglected), is given by the

ITS

Definite Integrals

\Cfi.

formula

ff'.

where t is the time that elapses and g is the acceleration of gravAt what distance from the initial position will the body ity. be in t seconds from the time it is thrown? 1752. The velocity of a body thrown vertically upwards with
initial

velocity

(air

resistance

allowed

for)

is

given

by the

formula

where

t is the time, g is the acceleration of gravity, and c is a constant. Find the altitude reached by the body. 1753. point on the x-axis performs harmonic oscillations

about the coordinate origin;

its

velocity

is

given by the formula

where t is the time and t; co are constants. Find the law of oscillation of a point if when / = it had an abscissa * = 0. What is the mean value of the absolute magnitude of the velocity of the point during one cycle? 1754. The velocity of motion of a point is v = te~"' Qlt m/sec. Find the path covered by the point from the commencement of motion to full stop.
,

1755. A rocket rises vertically upwards. Considering that when the rocket thrust is constant, the acceleration due to decreasing

weight of the rocket

increases by the law

/==^~^
if
/

(a

ftf

>0),

r 1756*. Calculate the work that has to be done to pump the water out of a vertical cylindrical barrel with base radius R and
altitude H. 1757. Calculate the work that has to be done in order to pump the water out of a conical vessel with vertex downwards, the radius of the base of which is R and the altitude H. 1758. Calculate the work to be done in order to pump water out of a semispherical boiler of radius R 10 m. 1759. Calculate the work needed to pump oil out of a tank

find the velocity at any instant of time /, is zero. Find the altitude reached at lima

the
/

initial

velocity

through an upper opening (the tank has the shape of a cylinder with horizontal axis) if the specific weight of the oil is y, the length of the tank H and the radius of the base R. 1760**. What work has to be done to raise a body of massm from the earth's surface (radius R) to an altitude ft? What is
the work
if

the body

is

removed

to infinity?

Sec.

12]

Applying Definite Integrals

to Solution of Physical

Problems

177

lie

1761**. on the

Two

What work
*2

=10 cm?
1762**.
length

electric charges * 100 CGSE-and e l==200 CGSE x-axis at points * and *, 1 cm, respectively. will be done if the second charge is moved to point

cylinder with a movable piston of diameter

/

and
the

= 80cm

D = 20 cm
pressure

is

filled

with

steam

at

p=10kgfcm

2
.

What work must be done

to halve the

volume of

steam with temperature kept constant (isoihermic process)? 1763**. Determine the work performed in the adiabatic expan3 of air sion and pressure (having initial volume u =l 2 8 10 m ? p _=l kgf/cm ) to volume u, 1764**. A vertical shaft of weight P and radius a rests on a bearing AB (Fig. 62). The frictional force between a small part a of the base of the shaft and the surface of the support in contact with it is F==fipa, const is the pressure of the shaft where p on the surface of the support referred to unit area of the support, while pi is the coefficient of friction. Find the work done by the frictional force during one revolution of the

ft

shaft.

disk of mass

1765**. Calculate the kinetic energy of a and radius R rotating with angular velocity G> about an axis that passes through its centre perpendicular to its plane. 1766. Calculate the kinetic energy of a right circular cone of mass rotating with angular velocity CD about its axis, if the radius of the base of the cone is R and the altitude is H. 1767*. What work has to be don? to stop an iron sphere of 2 me'res rotating with angular velocity w = 1,000 rpm radius R j about its diameter? (Specific weight of iron, y = 7.8 s/cm .) 1768. A vertical triangle with base 6 and altitude h is submerged vertex downwards in water so that its base is on the surface of the water. Find the pressure of the water. 1769. A vertical dam has the shipa of a trapezoid. Calculate the water pressure on the dam if we know that the upper base 20 m. a 70 m, the lower base 6=50 m, and the height h 1770. Find the pressure of a liquid, whose specific weight is y. on a vertical ellipse (with axes 2a and 26) whose centre is submerged in the liquid to a distance h, while the major axis 2a of the ellipse is parallel to the level of the liquid (h^b). 1771. Find the water pressure on a vertical circular cone with radius of base R and altitude H submerged in walei vertex downwards so that its base is on the surface of the water.

178

Definite Integrals

[C/i.

Miscellaneous Problems
1772. Find the mass of a rod of length / 100 cm if the linear density of the rod at a distance x cm from one of its ends is

= 2 + 0.001 x
5

g/cm.

1773. According to empirical data the specific thermal capacity of water at a temperature is

= 0.9983
What
from
of of

/C (0^/<100) 5.184xlO- + 6.912xlO/

0C

quantity of heat has to be expended to heat to 100 C?

g
2

of water

1774. The wind exerts a uniform pressure p g/cm on a door width b cm and height h cm. Find the moment of the pressure the wind striving to turn the door on its hinges.
1775.

What

is

the

force

of

attraction

of

a material

rod of

and mass on a material point of mass a straight line with the rod at a distance a from one
length
/

lying on of its ends?

1776**. In the case of steady-state laminar (low of a liquid through a pipe of circular cross-section of radius a, the velocity of flow v at a point distant r from the axis of the pipe is given by the formula

where p

difference at the ends of the pipe, |i is is the pressure the coefficient of viscosity, and / is the length of the pipe. Determine the discharge of liquid Q (that is, the quantity of liquid flowjng through a cross-section of the pipe in unit time). 1777*. The conditions are the same as in Problem 1776, but the pipe has a rectangular cross-section, and the base a is great compared with the altitude 26. Here the rate of flow u at a point M(x,y) is defined by the formula

Determine the discharge

of

liquid Q.

1778**. In studies of the dynamic qualities of an automobile, use is frequently made of special types of diagrams: the velocities v are laid off on the Jtr-axis, and the reciprocals of corresponding accelerations a, on the (/-axis. Show that the area S bounded v 2t and v l and v by an arc of this graph, by two ordinates v by the *-axis is numerically equal to the time needed to increase the velocity of motion of the automobile from v l to v 2 (accelera-

tion time).

Sec. 12]

Applying Definite Integrals

to Solution of Physical

Problems

179

1779.

horizontal

beam

of length

downward

vertical load
of

uniformly

/ is in- equilibrium due to distributed over the length

of the

beam, and

support

reactions

A and

fi(yl==5==-y-j

directed vertically upwards. Find the bending moment x in a cross-section x, that is, the moment about the point P with abscissa x of all forces acting on the portion of the beam AP. 1780. A horizontal beam of length / is in equilibrium due to support reactions A and B and a load distributed along the kx, where x is the distance length of the beam with intensity q from the left support and k is a constant factor. Find the bend-

ing

moment
Note.

Mx

in cross-section x.
of

The intensity

load distribution

is

the

load

(force) referred to

unit length.

1781*. Find the sinusoidal current

quantity

of heat released

by an alternating

during a cycle

in a conductor

with resistance

/?.

Chapter VI

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Sec. 1. Faiic Notions

1. The concept of a function of several variables. Functional notation. variable quantity 2 is called a single-valued function of two variables jc, y, if to each set of their values (x, //) in a givm range there corresponds a unique value of z The variables x and y are called arguments or independent variables. The functional relation is denoted by

= /(*,

y).

Similarly,

we

Fxample

1.

define functions of three or more arguments. Express the volume of a cone V as a function of

its

gen-

eratrix x and of its base radius y Solution. From geometry we know that the

volume

of a

cone

is

where h

is

the altitude of the cone. But h

**

2
-

Hence,

This
point
is

is

The value

the desired functional relation. of the function z^f(x.y)

(a.b).

that

is,

when

x=^-a

and y

at a bt

ing,

denoted by / (a,b) or f (P) Generally speakthe geometric representation of a funcz

f

tion like

(x,y)

in
is

rectangular

coordi63).
if

nate system X, Y. Z

a surface (Fig.

Example

2.

Find/

(2,

3)

and/1,

Fig. 63

Solution.

Substituting

r=2

and t/=

3,

we

find

Sec.

1)

Basic Notions

[SI

Putting

*=1

and replacing y by

~
1

we

will

have

SL\

*'
thai
is,

/(l.

of definition of a function. By the domain of definition of a function ? f(x, y) we understand a set of points (*, r/) in an jq/-plane in which the given function is defined (that is to say, in which it takes on definite real values) In the simplest cases, the domain of definition of a function U a finite or infinite part of the jo/-plane bounded by one or several curves (the boundan, of the domain).

2. Domain

)=f(*.

0).

Similarly, for a function of three variables u f(x, y, z) the definition of the function is a volume in At/z-space. Example 3. Find the domain of definition of the function
1

domain

of

2 x2 function has real values if 4 or x* + y 2 4. y inequality is satisfied hy the coordinates of points lying inside a circle of radius 2 with centre at the coordinate origin. The domain of definition oi the function is the interior of the circle (Fig 64).

Solution. The
latter

>

<

The

Fig. 64

Fiy

65

Example

4.

Find the domain

z

of definition of the function

= arc sin

|/

xy
is
if

Solution.

The

first

term
*
|

of the function

defined for

1<~
in

or
cases:

The second term has

real

values

xr/^O,

i.e.,

two
the

when
|

or
is

when

.The domain

of

definition

of

entire

function

shown

in Fig. 65

and includes the boundaries

of the

domain.

182

Functions

of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

3. Level lines and level surfaces of a function. The level line of a function 2 f(x, y) is a line / (*, y)-C (in an *r/-plane) at the points of which C (usually labelled in the function takes on one and the same value z

drawings).

The
iace

/ (x, y,

level surface of a C, at the z)

function of three arguments u~f(x, points of which the function takes value u~C. Example 5. Construct the the function z x*y. Solution. The equation of

z)

on

is a sura constant

level

lines

of

the level lines

has the form x 2 y

Putting
of level

=C
1,

or y

~ -j
....

C = 0,

2,

we

get a family

lines (Fig. 66).

Fig. 66

1782. Express the volume V of a regular tetragonal pyramid as a function of its altitude x and lateral edge y. 1783. Express the lateral surface S of a regular hexagonal truncated pyramid as a function of the sides x and y of the bases and the altitude z.
if

1784. Find /(1/2, 3), /(I, -1),

1785
z

Find
y
2

f(y,x),

f(

x,

y),

if

f(*,y)

__x

1786. Find the values assumed by the function

at points of the

parabola y

z
,

and construct the graph

of the

function

1787. Find the value of the function

Z
rrr
-

at points of the circle x 1788*. Determine f(x),

+y*=R
if

2
.

1789*. Find f(x, y)

if

Sec.

1]

1790*. Let *
z
if

__
Basic Notions

183

=x

when

1791**.

= V7+/(l/x 1). Determine the functions / y= 1. Letz = */(-V Determine the functions f and
when x=\.
the

and
z
if

1792. Find and sketch lowing functions:

a)

domains

of

definition of the fol-

b)

c) z

d)
e)
f) '

g)
h)

= 2 - x + arc cos z-l/l-^ + z = arc sin X 2 = V 7IT 2 =

2
;

z==Y\ x z=\-\-V

y
(x
//;

1793.

Find the domains

y

of

the following functions of three

arguments:
a)

u=-\x +

z\

c)

b) u

= ln(xyz):

w=--arc sin jc+arc sin #

d)

u = V\x

+ arc sinz;

z\

1794. Construct the level lines of the given functions and determine the character of the surfaces depicted by these functions:
a)

z^x + y;

d) z
2
;

b) 2
c) z

= ^+y

e)

= x*-y*;
= ln(*'+f/); = ar

O^
d) z

1795. Find the level lines of the following functions:

a) z b) 2

= /(y

a*);

1796. Find the level surfaces of the functions pendent variables: x y-\-z; a) u * ' ' b) u = c) u = J

of three inde-

= +

184

Sec. 2. Continuity

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

= /(*, y) there e >

2
is

1. The limit of a function.

as

A number A

is

approaches the point P (o. is a 6 > such that when < Q < 6, where Q = |/\x the distance between P and P', we have the inequality
the
point
(x, y)
I

called the limit of a function

ft), if

for

any
6)
1

a)*

+ U/

/(*,

In this case we write

lim X-K2
y-*b

y)A\<e. f(x, y) = A.
A
b).

2. Continuity and
continuous at a point

points of discontinuity.
(a,

function z=f(x, y)

is

called

b)

if

lim f(x x-+a

0)

= /(a,

A function that is continuous at all points of a given range is called continuous over this range A function /(AT, y) may cease to be continuous either at separate points (isolated point of discontinuity) or at points that form one or several lines (lines of discontinuity) or (at times) more complex geometric objects. Example 1. Find the discontinuities of the function

_*+>
Solution.
zero. But **

The function
-r/

or y

will be meaningless if the denominator becomes 2 x is the equation of a parabola. Hence, the given

function has for

its

discontinuity the parabola y

x2

1797*. Find the following limits of functions:

a)

liin(*?^)sinl;

c)li n

M;

e)lin-L;

1798. Test the following function for continuity:

ft x
/)

= / V\x*
I

if

when * 2 -r-// 2 <l, when x* 4-//*> 1.

functions:

1799. Find points of discontinuity of the

a) z

ln;

c)

e-

Sec. 3]

Partial Derivatives

185

1800*.

Show

that the function

SL

-{
is

when when

**
jt

</'

=^=0,

= =

rately,

continuous with respect to each of the variables x and y sepabut is not continuous at the point (0, 0) with respect to

these variables together.

Sec. 3. Partial Derivatives

t. Definition of a partial derivative. example, y constant, we get the derivative

If

f(x,y), then assuming, for

which

is called the partial derivative of the function z with respect to the variable x. In similar fashion we define and denote the partial derivative of the function z with respect to the variable y It is obvious that to find partial derivatives, one can use the ordinary formulas of differentiation. Example 1. Find the partial derivatives of the function

y
Solution. Regarding y as constant,

we
t

get
1

dz

dx

tan

x
y

cos 2

x
y

=
.

2x'

I/sin y

Similarly, holding x constant,

we
1

will
/

have
x
2*

dz

Example
arguments:

2.

Find the

partial derivatives of the following function of three

a
Solution.

= *y z + 2*

3y

+ 2 + 5.

2.

degree n

Euler's theorem. A function if for every real factor k

f (x,

y) fs called a

we have
ttf

homogeneous function of

the equality
(x,
//)

f (kx, ky) --=

186

Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6
all
its

rational integral function will be

homogeneous
for a

if

terms are of one

and the same degree. The following relationship holds of degree n (Euler's theorem):
xfx (x, y)

homogeneous

differentiable function

+ yfy (x, y) = nf (x, y).

Find the
1801. z

partial derivatives of the following functions: 1808. 2 3axy.

1809. 2 1810. 2 1811. 2

=
=

1806.

1807. z

= arc tan
1)

1814. Find /;(2,

and f (2, y

1)

if

f(x,y)
t f

xy
if

+L

1815. Find /;(!, 2, 0),

/i(l, 2, 0),

(l, 2, 0)

/(*, y,z)

= ln(xy-\-z).
in

Verify Euler's theorem ples 1816 to 1819:

1816. f(x,y) 1817. z
1820.
3

on homogeneous functions
t
.

Exam-

= Ax + 2Bxy-Cy
=

1818. /

=
J) ,

where

2
1821. Calculate

and y
57,

1822. 1823. 1824.

Show

that
that that that

= 2,

if

= ln(*'
if

Show Show
Show

x+
g+fj+S-0,

if

= u = (x-y)(y-z)(z- X
2

).

1825.

g+g+g-1,
y),
it

if

-*+J=J.

J826. Find

-.(,.

Sec. 4]

1827. Find z--^z(x y)

t

_
(J2

Total Differential of a Function

knowing that

_
g
and,
of a
y).

187

X 2 -4-

2
J/ ^- and z(x, y)

= slny

when *=1.

Through the point M(l,2, 6) of a surface z = 2x*+y* drawn planes parallel to the coordinate surfaces XOZ and YOZ. Determine the angles formed with the coordinate axes by the tangent lines (to the resulting cross-sections) drawn at their common point M. 1829. The area of a trapezoid with bases a and b and alti1828.

are

tude h

is

equal

to

S=

/,(fl

+ &) A.

Find

g, g,

using

the drawing, determine their geometrical meaning. 1830*. Show that the function

0,

has partial derivatives f (x, y) and fy (x, y) at the point (0,0), x although it is discontinuous at this point. Construct the geometric image of this function near the point (0, 0).
Sec. 4. Total Differential of a Function

= /(*i

1. Total
y)
is

increment of
the difference

function.

The

total

increment

function

Az-Af (x,
2. The

#)--=/(*+ Ax,

+ Aj/)-f (*,

a function. The total (or exact) differential of a function z f(x, y) is the principal part of the total increment Az, which is linear with respect to the increments in the arguments Ax and A//. The difference between the total increment and the total differential of
total differential of
is an infinitesimal of higher order compared with Q At/*. \^&x* function definitely has a total differential if its partial derivatives are continuous. If a function has a total differential, then it is called differenThe differentials of independent variables coincide with their incret table. ments, that is, dx=kx and dy=ky. The total differential of the function z /(x, y) is computed by the 'formula

the function

d2=

=^ dX +
,

dz

dz
d-y

dy

Similarly, the total differential of a function of three arguments u is computed from the formula
.

=/

(x, y, z)

du

= du dx -3.

dx

-j'

du ^- d y dy
,

+ -r- dz. dz
.

du

Example

1.

For the function

f(x
t

y)=x* + xyy
total

find the total increment

and the

differential.

J88
Solution.

Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6
2
;

f(x+Ax,

+ Ay) = (x -f Ax)
2

-f (x

+ A*) (y

-f-

Ay)

(y -f

Ay)

= 2x

= [(2x + y) A* + (x
.

Ax + AA

+x

Ay + y Ax + Ax Ay 2
2y) A^l

2y Ay

Ay

+ (A* + AA> Ay

Ay

2y) Ay is the total differential of Here, the expression d/ = (2x + y) A* -{-(* 2 2 infinitesimal of higher order is an the function, while (A* -f AJC* ) comared with VAx 2 +Ay 2 compared Example 2. Find the total differential of the function

AyAy

Solution.

3. Applying
For
sufficiently

Q= y Av 2 -f

Ay

2
,

imate equality

Az^dz

the total differential of a function to approximate calculations. small |AA:| and |Ay| and, hence, for sufficiently small we have for a differentiate function z f(x t y) the approxor

dz

= 10cm. How will 3mm and diminish R

fl

Example

3.

The

altitude of a cone is // 30cm, the radius of the base the volume of the cone change, if we increase by

by

mm?

Solution,

The volume

of the

cone

is

V = -~-nR 2 H. The change o

in

volume

we

replace approximately by the differential

AV =^ dV =

-j

n (2RH dR + R* dH) =

= lji(
3
-

2.10.30.0.1

+ 100.0.3) =

lOjiss

31. 4 cm*.

s 01 Example 4. Compute 1.02 approximately. Solution. We consider the function z^x^. considered the increased value of this function Ay 0.01. The initial value of the function z

The desired number may be when jc=l, y = 3, Ajc = 0.02, s l =l,

1- In 1-0.01

In x
8 Hence, 1.02
-

Ay = 3-1.0.02+

=0.06.

01

^ 1+0.06=1.06.
=
=

and the

f(x,y) x*y find the total increment total differential at the point (1, 2); compare them if 0.1 f Ay 0.2. a) Ax=l, A//-2; b) A* 1832. Show that for the functions u and v of several (for

1831. For the function

example, two) variables the ordinary rules of differentiation holcb

v

du

udv

Sec. 4}

Find the

_
total

Total Differential of a Function

differentials of the following functions:

_
1),
if

189

1841.

z- In tan i. x

1842. Find df(l, 1836. z

= si
1844.
1845.

K
1843 - "

tj)

~*'

1837.

2=yx?.

1838. z
1839.

= ln(x*+y*). = lnl+i. /*,

= arc tan
-2-+

= u = u=

1840. 2

1846. w

arctan^.
(3, 4, 5)
if

+ arctan-*.
1848.

1847. Find d/

How

side of a rectangle is a 10 cm, the other & 24cm. a diagonal / of the rectangle change if the side a is increased by 4 and b is shortened by 1
will

One

mm

mm?

the change and compare it with the exact value. A closed box with outer dimensions 1849. and 6 cm is made of 2-mm-thick plywood.

Approximate

of material used in making the box. 1850*. The central angle of a circular sector is 80; it is desired to reduce it by 1. By how much should the radius of the sector be increased so that the area will remain unchanged, if the original leng:h of the radius is 20 cm? 1851. Approximate:
2

volume

10 cm, 8 cm, Approximate the

a)
c)

(1.02)'-

(0.97)

b)

sin32-cos59
sin 60

calculating
last digit).

take

(when converting degrees into radius and three significant figures; round off the

that the relative error of a product is approximasum of the relative errors of the factors. 1853. Measurements of a triangle yielded the following data: side a=-100m2m. side fc angle

1852.

Show

tely equal to the

ABC

601.

= 200m3m,
is

To what

degree

of

accuracy can

we compute the
computed

side c? 1854. The oscillation from the formula

period

of

pendulum

190

where

_ _
Functions of Several Variables
/

[Ch. 6

is

the length of the

of gravity. Find the error, a result of small errors A/

1855.
is

= and Ag = (J in measuring / and and P (x, The distance between the points P (*
,

pendulum and g is the acceleration when determining T, obtained as a

equal to Q, while the angle formed by the vector P P the x-axis is a. By how much will the angle a change dx, y dy)? point P(P is fixed) moves to P l (x

g.

y)

with
if

the

Sec. 5. Differentiation of Composite Functions

1. The case of one independent variable* If z f(x, y) is a differentiate function of the arguments x and y, which in turn are differentiate functions of an independent variable /,

then the derivative of the composite function z puted from the formula
dz
dt

= /[<p(0i

^(01 ma X

be com-

____i
'"dxdt^dydt

'

In particular, if / coincides with one of the arguments, for instance then the "total" derivative of the function z with respect to x will be:

x,

dzdy

Example

1.

Find

~,

if

y,

where * = cos/, y

t*.

Solution.

From formula
* 8X+

(1)

we have:

e'*+

^3(-sinO +
2.

^-2^

Example

Find the partial derivative

z

and the

total derivative

if

= e*y

where y

Solution.

jZ^syety.
(2)

From formula

we obtain

of several independent variables. If z is a composite function of variables, for instance, z where *=q> (u v) f(x,y), y=ty(u t v) (u and v are independent variables), then the partial derivatives z with respect to u and v are expressed as

2. The case

several

independent

dz dy ~

Sec. 5]

and

_
3.

Differentiation of Composite Functions

dz__dzdx

~~-~
.

_
the

191

dzdy

In all the cases considered the following formula holds:

dz
-j-

dz

dx

dx

+ dy dy 5- y

dz

(the invariance property of a total differential).

Example p

Find ^- and ^du dv

z=:f(x,
y),

if

where

x=uv, y=
(4),

Solution. Applying formulas (3) and

we

get:

and

Example

4.

Show

that the

function

<p

(x*

+y

2 )

satisfies

equation

=
dy
argu-

dx
Solution.

The function
therefore,

cp

ment

x*

+ y*=t,

depends on x and y via the intermediate

dz__dzdt___

and
\z

dzdt

rt

Substituting the partial derivatives into the left-hand side of

tion,

the

equa-

we

get
t/

i)2

*~^
where x = e t
y = \nt.

that

is,

the function z satisfies the given equation.

1856. Find

~
2

if

=
y
if

1857. Find

= lnsin-=,
f

where x = 3t\ y = yt'+l.

1858. Find
j

if

= xyz,

where

^=/ +l, y=ln^,

I

192

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch.

1859. Find

if

r,

where x =

I860. Find
z

if

= uv

where u =

sin x, v

= cos #,

1861. Find

and
2

if

= arc
~
if

tan

and

*/

= #*.

1862. Find

and

= xy
1863. Find

where y =

<f>(x).

~ and j z = f(u, v),

~
ow

if

where a = A:
if

1
t/

1
,

v^e

1864. Find
2

and

~
oy
,

= arc tan
~
and
z

where x = usmv,
if

//

=a

1865. Find

= /(u),
if
-

where

= x^/ + ^.
R
cos

1866.

Show

that

3*),

where x =
ip,

cos

cp

sin

=R

9 cos \|>>

sin 9,

then

=
1867. Find
if

and

*_a.
y=

= /(*.
1868.

y> *).
if

where

Show

that

where

/ is a differentiable function,

then

dz

dz

Sec. 6]

1869.

_
Show

Derivative in a Given Direction

that the function

_
point are

19S

w = f(u,
where u = x + at, v

v),

= y + bt
dw

satisfy the equation

dT= a
1870.

dw
dt

,
,

dw

Show

that the function

satisfies the

equation

=J

1871.

Show

that the function

satisfies the

equation x-^ + y -^ = j 1872. Show that the function

satisfies the

equation

(A-

^-

+ xy-^ =

of 5 m/sec,
is

increases at the rate of a rectangle x -^20 the other side f/ 30 decreases at 4 m/sec. What the rate of change of the perimeter and the area of the rect-

1873.

The side

angle?
1874.

The equations

of

motion

of a material

What

is

the rate of recession of this point from the

coordinate

Two boats start out from A at one time; one moves northwards, the other in a northeasterly direction. Their velocities are respectively 20 km/hr and 40 km/hr. At what rate does the distance between them increase?
Sec. 6.

origin? 1875.

Derivative in a

Given

Direction

and

the Gradient

of

a Function
of a

1. The derivative of a function

function z

in a given direction.

The derivative

= /(#,

y) in a given direction /

= PP,

is

7- 1900

194

Functions of Several Variables

/ (P,)
is

(Ch. 6

where f(P) and

If

the function z

are values of the function at the points P and differentiate, then the following formula holds:

where a

is

the angle formed by the vector

with the x-axis (Fig. 67).

Y
e^

P(*,y)

Fig. 67

In similar fashion we define the derivative in a given function of three arguments u f(x, y z). In this case

direction

/ for a

du
dl

= du cos a + du cos p + du cos v, 53dz dx dy

, ,

'

(2)

where a, P, Y are ^ ne angles between the direction / and the corresponding coordinate axes. The directional derivative characterises the rate of change of the function in the given direction. 2 2 at the point 3</ Example 1. Find the derivative of the function z 2x in a direction that makes a 120 angle with the x-axis. P(l, 0) Solution. Find the partial derivatives of the given function and their values at the point P:

dz -.

dx
dz

= 4*;
.

(dz\ =4; A 3\dxjp

Here,

sina

= sin

120

Applying formula

(1),

we

get

The minus

sign indicates that the function diminishes at the given point and in the given direction. 2. The gradient of a function. The gradient of a function z f(x, ij) is 3 vector whose projections on the coordinate axes are the corresponding par-

Sec. 6]

Derivative in a Given Direction

195

tial

derivatives of the given function:

dz

dz
(3)

The derivative

of the given function in the direction / the gradient of the function by the following formula:

is

connected

with

~
That is, the derivative in a given direction is equal to the projection of the gradient of the function on the direction of differentiation. The gradient of a function at each point is directed along the normal to the corresponding level line of the function. The direction of the gradient of the function at a given point is the direction of the maximum rate of increase
of the function at this point, thlft
is,

when /=grad

z the derivative

-^

takes

on

its

greatest value, equal to

In similar fashion u -=/(*, y, z):

we

define the gradient

of

function
.

of

three

variables,

du

.
,

du

.
,

du

The gradient of a function of three variables at each point is directed along the normal to the level surface passing through this point. Example 2. Find and construct the gradient of the function z~x*y at the point P(I, 1).

X2

J
Fig. 68

Solution.

Compute

the partial derivatives and their values at the point P.

dxjpdz
^T"

9. 2-

y'* \s .

Hence, grad
7*

= 2t+J

(Fig. 68).

196

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

1876. Find

the

at the point P(l, 2) in of 60 with the x-axis.

x* derivative of the function z xy2y* the direction that produces an angle

1877. Find the derivative of the function z at the point Af(l, 2) in the direction from

= x*
this

1 xy* 2x*y point to the

point

tf (4,

6).

1878. Find the derivative of the function z lnYx* y* the point P(l, 1) in the direction of the bisector of the

_
+
+

at
first

1879. Find the derivative of the function u = x* 3yz + 5 at in the direction that forms identical the point Af(l, 2, 1) angles with all the coordinate axes. 1880. Find the derivative of the function u = xy + yz -)- zx at

quadrantal angle.

the point M(2, 1, 3) in the direction from this point to the point N(S, 5, 15). eP + e*) \n (e* 1881. Find the derivative of the function u at the origin in the direction which forms with the coordinate axes x, y, z the angles a, p, y, respectively. 1882. The point at which the derivative of a function in any direction is zero is called the stationary point of this function. Find the stationary points of the following functions:

a)

z-=x*

b) z c)

= x* + y*= 2y*-{ z*xyyz u

Show
that the derivative of the function z

1883.

taken
to the

any point of the ellipse 2x* y* C* along the ellipse is equal to zero. 1884. Find grad z at the point (2, 1) if
at

+ =

normal

1885. Find grad z at the point

(5,

3)

if

1886. Find grad u at the point 1887. Find the magnitude and

(1,

2,

3),

if

u=xyz.
of

direction

grad

at the

point

(2,

2,

1)

if

1888. Find the angle between the

gradients
1).

of

the

function

*=ln-j-

at the points

(1/2,

1/4)

and 5(1,

Sec. 7]

Higher-Order Derivatives and Differentials

1889. Find the steepest slope of the surface

197

x' z 4y* at the point (2, 1, 8). 1890. Construct a vector field of the gradient of the following functions:
a) z

= je-f y:

c) z

= x* + y

z
\

Sec. 7. Higher-Order Derivatives and Differentials

1. Higher-order partial derivatives. The second partial derivatives of a function z /(*, y) are the partial derivatives of its first partial derivatives. For second derivatives we use the notations

d (dz\

32z

Derivatives of order higher than second are similarly defined and denoted. If the partial derivatives to be evaluated are continuous, then the result of repeated differentiation is independent of the order in which the differentiation is performed. Example 1. Find the second partial derivatives of the function

z~ arc tan
y
Solution. First lind the dz
first

partial
m

derivatives:

==

_J_
1_
J
,

j__

dz^
dy~~

Now

differentiate a second time:

^L = d
.

\-

2 *y

dz z

dxdy

We

note that the soso-called

el way, namely:

"mixed" partial

derivative

may

be
2

found in a
y*

different

d /

dxdy~~dydx

dx(

198

2.
z

f(x

Higher-order differentials. The second differential of a of this y) is the differential of the differential (first-order)

_
"- *

Functions of Several Variables

_
d 2 y = Q, and

[Ch. 6

function function:

We

similarly define the differentials of a function z of order higher than

d*z

two, for instance:

and, generally,
If

= d(d*z)
l

dz = d(d n -

z).

= /(x,

differential of

y), where x and y are independent variables, then the second the function z is computed from the formula

(1)

Generally, the following symbolic formula holds true:

formally expanded by the binomial law. z f (x, (/), where the arguments x and y are functions of one or eral independent variables, then
it

is

If

sev-

+2
= 0,
formula
(2)

If

x and

i/

are independent variables, then d 2 jt

becomes identical with formula (!) Example 2. Find the total differentials
the function
z

of the first
2
.

and second orders

of

2;t

3xyy

Solution. First method.

We

have

*-<*-*
Therefore,

I*-*.
2

dz

=
fr

Further we have

~ ^-4
djc
2

'

J*!L-_ 3
djcd^""

^l
'

dy*

whence

it

follows that

Second method. Differentiating we find

x and

Differentiating again and remembering that dx and dy are not y, we get

dependent on
z
.

= (4dx

3dj/)

dx

(3d*

+ 2d(/) dy =4dx*6dx dy2dy

Sec. 7]

Higher-Order Derivatives and Differentials

199

if

1893

Find

if

1894. Find

if

= arc tan
A

xy

1895.

Find

if

1896. Find all second partial derivatives of the function

1897.

Find

dxdy dz

^~,
if

if

u
1898. Find

= sin (xy).
/^(O, 0)
if

1899. Find

f(0,

0),

f xt/ (Q, 0),

= (l
1900.

4
if

Show

that

= arc sin
1901.

Show

that

if

1902*.

Show

that for the function

200

[provided that f(0, 0)

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

= 0]

we have

r y(' 0)=-1, x
1903
-

/;,(0,

0)=+1.

Find

&$" =
z

f(u, v),

where u = x* + y*, v
1904. Find

= xy.
u

g
y).

if

= f(x,

y,

z),

where

y(x,

= f(u,

v),

where u

= <((x,

y),

1906.

Show

that the function

u
satisfies the

= arc tan

Laplace equation

1907.

Show

that the function

/

= lny

where

= Y(x
Show

a)*

+ (y

b)\

satisfies the

Laplace equation

1908.

that the function

u
satisfies the

(x,

t)

=A

sin (akt

+
'

cp)

sin

Kx

equation of oscillations of a string

dt*

d^u_ a 2 d^u ~~~ 2

dx

1909.

Show
u(x
'

that the function

i

(x-x
e

)*

+ (y-y n )*

y
z

>

>

'>-

(where * conduction
,

//

a are constants)

satisfies

the equation of heat

^a'/^-u^U*^

Sec. 7]

_
Show

Higher-Order Derivatives and Differentials

1910.

that the function

201

where
fies

are arbitrary twice differentiable functions, satiscp and \|) the equation of oscillations of a string

1911.

Show

that the function

satisfies

the equation

x
1912.

5-, dv 2

+ 2w dxdy + y J y
,
'

-7

r-

x-, dy*

=n 0.

Show

that the function

satisfies the

equation

d su

1913.
tion

Show

that the function z

dz

= f[x + y(y)]
'

satisfies the

equa-

d22

dzd 2z
2 dy dx

dx dx dy

1914.

Find u-^u(x, y)

if

dTSy^^
1915.

Determine
equation

the form of the function u

= u(x,

y),

which

satisfies the

1916. Find d*z

1917. Find d u
1918. Find d*z
2

if

if
11

if
- rn \l^

(f} \^/F
if

whpr^ vviitivx

/
t>

-r

j\r

y2

-1- /y* .
|

1919.

Find dz and d*z

z

=u

where u

=~

= xy.

202

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[C/i.

1920. Find d'z

if

z~f(u,
1921. Find d*z
z
if

v),

where u

= ax,
,

= by^

= f(u,
if

v),

where u = xey

= ye*.

1922. Find d*z

= e x cos y.

1923. Find the third differential of the function

z

= * cos y + y sin x.
2

Determine all third partial derivatives. 1924. Find df(l 2) and d*f(l, 2) if
9

f(x, y)
2

= x + xy + y*
if
z

4\nx

\Q\ny.

1925. Find d /(0, 0,0)

f(x

y,

=x z)

Sec. 8.

Integration of Total Differentials

t. The condition for a total differential. For an expression P (x, y)dx-}~ Q(* y)dy> where the functions P (x, y) and Q (x, y) are continuous in a

simply connected region

(in D) the total ficient that

differential ol

together with their first partial derivatives, to be some function u (x, y), it is necessary and suf-

aq^ap ~~
dx

'

dy

Example
a total

t.

Make

sure that the expression

is

differential of

some function, and

t

find that function.

Solution. In the given case,

P = 2x + y Q

x+2y.

Therefore,

,5 = --

1,

and, hence,

where u
It
is

is

the desired function.

that

given

-=

2jt

+ #;

therefore,

But on the other hand and

Finally

= x + y' (y) = x + 2y, whence

q>' (y)

= 2y,

(p(f/)

we have

Sec.

ti\

2. The

_
P(x,
(x, y, z),

Integration of Total Differentials

case of three variables. Similarly, the expression

y,

_
z)dz,
V.

203

z)dx
y, z),

+ Q(x,

y,

z)dy

+ R(x

y,

where P

R(x, y, z) are, together with their first partial functions of the variables x, y and 2, is the total differential of some function u (x y, z) if and only if the following conditions

Q(x,

derivatives,

continuous

are fulfilled:

dQ^W dR^dQ dP^dR

dx
'
'

dy

dy

dz

dz

dx

Example

2.

Be sure

that the expression

the total differential of some function, and find that function. f 2 3jc Solution. Here, p 1, 3x, R 2yz+\. We establish 30 the fact thai
is

Q=z +

dQ
dx
and, hence,

= dP = O
dy

dR = dQ -r
dy
dz

dP
c.
rr

= OR =
r

dz

dx

~
where u
is

We

the sought-for function.

have

hence,

u=
On
the other hand,

(3x

+ 3y

\)dx

= x* + 3xy

+ <p(y,

z).

du dz
3

~ = dtp
dz

whence
of

y^

=z

and ~P

= 2f/z+l.
whose
is

The problem reduces

partial derivatives are

to finding the function

two variables q>(#, 2) tion for total differential find q>:

known and

the condi-

fulfilled.

We

that

is,

y(y,

e)

= ^2 + 2 + C,
2

And

finally,

204

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[C/i.

Having convinced
total

are

differentials

yourself that the expressions given below of certain functions, find these functions.
1

1926.
1927.
1928-

ydx + xdy.
(cosx+3x*y)dx + (x'y
)

1930.
1931.

-dx^dy. y x dx +
*

dy.

1932. Determine the constants a and 6 in such a the expression 2 z 2 (ax + 2xy + y ) dx-(x + 2xy + by*) dy

manner

that

should

be

total

differential of

some function

z,

and

find

that
total

function.
differentials of

Convince yourself that the expressions given below are some functions and find these functions.
1933.

1934. (3x 2y* 1935. (2xyz3y*z

+ 3z)dx+(4xy + 2y + 8xy* + 2) dx +

z)dy
l)dy

+ (3x
2

2)dz.

(x

xdx + ydy + zdz

1938*. Given the projections of a force on the coordinate axes

v _.

v_

to

where A, is a constant. What must the coefficient K be for the force to have a potential? 1939. What condition must the function f(x, y) satisfy for the
expression
f(x,
to be a total differential?

y)(dx

+ dy)

1940. Find the function u

if

du = f(xy) (ydx + xdy).

Sec. 9]

_
is

Differentiation of Implicit Functions

Sec. 9. Differentiation of Implicit Functions

_
of
f (x, y),

205

If the equation f(x, y) 0, where differentiate function of the variables x and y, defines y as a function of x, then the derivative of this implicitly defined function, provided

1. The case of one independent variable.

y)
a

(*

that

f' (x, y

y) ?= 0,

may

be found from the formula

dy dx
Higher-order
derivatives
are

f' x

(**y)

f'y(x,y)'

found

by successive differentiation

formula

a)
Example
1.

Find

dx

and

-~
dx 2

if

Solution. Denoting the

the partial derivatives

left-hand

side

of this

equation by

we

find

f' u

(x

y)-=3(x

+y

z 2
)

(
.

2y

Whence, applying formula

(1),

we

get

find the second derivative, differentiate with respect to x the first derivative \vhich we have found, taking into consideration the fact that y is a functiun of x'

To

y J

x -~ dx
y
2

y J

~
y
2

y J
'

dx

dx\

y J

if
if

F
x,

(x,

2. The case of several independent variables. Similarly, 0, where F (x, y, z) is a differentiate function y, z)
z,
t

of

the equation the variables

defines z as a function of the independent variables x and y and then the partial derivatives of this implicitly represented 0, function can, generally speaking, be found from the formulas

y and
(x
y,

Fz

z)

'

dK

F' z

(x,

y, z)

dl J

F' g

(x, y,

z)
z:

another way of finding the derivatives of the function ating the equation F (x, y, z)=0, we find

Here

is

different^

dF

_,

dF

dF

rt

Whence

it

is

possible to determine dz, and, therefore, dz

TT.

dx

and 3dy

dz

206

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

Example

2.

Find

-T-

and

if

j-

we

Solution. First method. Denoting the left side of this equation find the partial derivatives

by

(x,

//,

z),

F' x

(x, y,

z)

= 2x,
(2),

F'

y (x, y, z)

40-z+l, F z

(x,

y,

2)

= 6z-0.
z
/

Applying formulas
dz

we

get

d*~

F'x(x>
F' (x z
t

y. *)

_
~~

2x
'

y,

z)

6*

dz^ dy~

Jy(*.

!/,

2)
z)

^ ~"

4//

(x>

62

Second method. Differentiating the given equation, we obtain

2x dx
4f/

dy

+ 6zdz
is,
\

y dz

zdy + dy = 0.

Whence we determine dz
tion:

that

the total differential of the implicit func4//

z}dy

~ dy we Comparing with the formula dz = -Q- dx -\,

see that

dz

2x
'

dz

\4yz
y
62

dx

6z

dy

3. A system

of implicit functions. If a
f

system of two equations

\
defines u

F(x, G(x,

y,

i>)

y, u,

o)

= 0, =
x and y and the Jacobian

and v as functions

of the variables
dF_ dF_

D(F, G) D(u, v)'

dudv

dGdG
du dv

then the differentials of these functions (and hence their partial derivatives as well) may be found from the following set of equations

'dF

. dF dF dF ^- dx + -z- dy + -^~ du + ^- dv =0, ^ ^ dv y dx

,,
.
. .
t

dy
dy

3dx

-r~
l

^du dG -^--- dv 3y du
*
'

/Q

Example

3.

The equations

define u and v as functions of x and ^ find w;

-,,-dx and dy dx dy

rr?

Sec. 9]

Differentiation of Implicit Functions

First

207

Solution.

method. Differentiating both equations with respect to #

we obtain
du
.

dv

whence
?ff

__

dx~~
Similarly

u ~^~y x y
v

'

dv __ u-\-x dx~~ x y

'

we

find

du

+y
'

dv

_
y
find

dy~~

dy~~~ x

Second method. By differentiation differentials of all four variables:

we

two equations that connect the

x du

du 4- dv = dx + dy, + u dx + y dv + v dy =4).

Solving this system for the differentials du and dv,

we obtain

xy
Whence

_
dx
x

'

t)f/

x
v -}-x
'

(}y__-f-x

dv
'

dx~~xy
4. Parametric
bles x and y
is

dy~~x

y
z

representation of a function. If a function represented parametrically by the equations

z

of the

varia-

= z(u,

v)

and

of

then the differential equations

of this function

may
,
,

be found from the following system

dx

dx

du

5~du-\--5- dv,

dx dv

dz

dz

xdu

dv

dv.

Knowing
dx
dz ^~=p and 3r

the differential

dz^p

d*

+ qdy,

we

find the partial derivatives

dz

dy

~^. ^

208

_ _
Functions of Several Variables
z

[Ch. 6

Example

4.

The function

of the

arguments x and y

is

defined by the

equations

Find ^- and 3ox

_.

dz

dz

dy

Solution. First method. By differentiation connect the differentials of all five variables:

we

find three equations that

dx

= du + dv

From

the

first

two equations we determine du and dv:

"^

20 dx

dy
'

dy

2u dx
'

2(v

u)

2(u

w)
rfy

Substituting into the third equation the values of du and have: d dy

just found,

we

= 6wu (u
'

Whence
3^jc

3au,

3dt/

=TT 2

(w-fy). v ;

Second method. From the third given equation we can find

*=3Jf + 3^; dx ^ dx
Differentiate the respect to y:
first

f dy

= 3'Jf + 3t,'f!.
l

dy

dy

^ (5) '

two equations

first

with respect to x and then with

dx

dy

dy

From

the

first

system we

find
du___

dv
a'

__

u
v

dx~~ v

dx~ u

From

the second system

we

find

da

= _l__
v)'

dv_

dy~~2(u
Substituting the expressions

dy~~2(vu)'
into formula (5),

and

we obtain

Sec. 9]

1941. Let y be a [unction of x defined by the equation

y*

_
and ana
is

Differentiation of Implicit Functions

209

Find * ma

dy dhj di' d?

dx"'

1942. y

a function defined

by the equation

Show

that

^=
% ^

and explain the

if

result obtained.

1943. Find 1944. Find 1945. Find

y=\+y x

and

if

=
z

A;

(g) K~\ and (g) \ax J \ax jx=i

if

Taking advantage of the results obtained, show approximately the portions of the given curve in the neighbourhood of the point

*=1.
1946.

The function y
In

is
2

defined by the equation

arc tan

|?T7 =
dx z
if

dx

and

dx*

1947.

Find

dx

and

1948. The the equation

function z of the

variables x and y
2r/

is

defined by

x
c,. j Flnd

-1-

2//

3;q/z

+ 3 = 0.

^2

5i

and

^2

%-

1949. Find

~
dx

and
A:

^ dy
z

if

cosy

-|-

y cos 2

+zcosx= 1.

1950.

The function

is

defined by the equation

2

x*

+y

xy

= 0.
1,
//

Find

and
-j-

for the

system

of

values *==

= 0,

= l.

210

__
dz 1QR1 1951. KinA

Functions of Several Variables

__

[Ch. 6

Fmd,

dz
,

&*
l>

d* 2
,

d*Z
,

if if

1952. /(*, y,z)

1953.
2

= 0.

Show
is

equation
1954.

= (p(x, y), = 0. ty(x,

f/)

where y Find ~.
if

function of x

defined by the

2 Find dz and d z,

1955. 2

is

a function of the variables x and # defined

by the

equation
2x*
2

+ 2y*

-4-

z*

8xz

+8-

Find dz and d z for the values x = 2, f/^=0, 2^=1. 2 1. What are the 1956. Find dz and d 2, if In z=jc + i/ 4-2 first- and second-order derivatives of the function 2? 1957. Let the function 2 be defined by the equation

where

<p

is

an arbitrary differentiate
that

function

and

a,

&, c are

constants.

Show

1958.

Show

that the function 2 defined by the equation

F(x
where F
is

02,

bz)

Q,

satisfies the

an arbitrary differentiate function of two arguments, equation

a-+b - =
1959.
1960.

f(y y)
,

= 0.

Show

that

xf +y~ = z. x
2

y=

Show

that

the

function

defined

by

the

equation

xq> (z)

o|>

(2)

satisfies the

equation

d*zf(

1961. The functions y and 2 of the independent variable x are 2 2 2 2 2 2 defined by a system of equations * 2 ^0, x 32 4. 2#

+#

Sec. 10]

1962. The functions y and z of the independent variable x are defined by the following system of equations:

_ _
Change
of Variables

2H

Find dy,

dz, d*y, d*z. 1963. The functions u and v of the independent variables x and y are defined implicitly by the system of equations

Calculate
du
du
d*u

d2u

dzu
2
'

~dy

dv dv dx' d~y

62 v
'

d*v

dz v
j

~d\*'

dxdy

dy*

for x=--Q,

1.

1964. The functions u and v of the independent variables and y are defined implicitly by the system of equations

Find du, dv, d*u,

1965.

d*v.

v of the variables x and defined implicitly by the system of equations

.v

The functions u and

y are

= (p(w,

v),

//=-i|)(w, v).

(b du du du 51' cty' d~x> fy'

^ and g? x = M cos u, y w sin u, 2 = x = u + v, y = u and ~ v,z = uv. b) Find = c) Find dz, where r and are functions of the variables 1967. e = F(r,
1966. a)

Find

if

\l

if

jc

cp)

<p

x and y defined by the system of equations

Find

ax

and
dy

1968. Regarding z as a function of x

and

y, find

and ~,

if

x = a cos

q)

cos

i|),

y = b sincpcosij), z

Sec.

10. Change of Variables

When

changing

variables in differential
in

expressions,

the derivatives in
differ-

them should be expressed

terms of other derivatives by the rules of

entiation of a composite function.

212

Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6
derivatives.

\. Change of variables in expressions containing ordinary Example 1. Transform the equation

dx
putting

x2 y

y-

Solution. Express the derivatives of y with respect to x in terms of the derivatives of y with respect to /. We have

dy
dt

dy
dt

dx

dx
dt

_
t*

dt

'

dt

Substituting

the

expressions

of
-r,

the

derivatives
get

just

found

into

the given

equation and replacing x by

we

or

dt*

ruij -"'

Example

2.

Transform the equation

x

g + ^y_g =0

taking y for the argument and x for the function. Solution. Express the derivatives of y with respect to x in derivatives of x with respect to y.

terms of the

dx^Jx''
dy

'

"~

dx*

dx{ dx \

dyl dx \dx~~ \ dy J

fdx\ (Ty)

dx

'

dy

fdx\* (dy)

Substituting these expressions of the derivatives into the given equation,

will

we

have

d*x
dj
1
'

dx

L=o

'

dy

\dy

dy

Sec.

10]

or,

finally,

_ _
Change
of Variables
3.

213

Example

Transform the equation

dx

~xy'
f/

by passing to the polar coordinates

,v=rcoscp,
Solution. Considering
r

= rsinq>.
cp,

(1)
(1)

as a function of
r sin cp dcp,

from formula
cp

we have

dx = cos

cp

dr

d// = sin

dr

+ r cos
r

cp

dcp,

whence
dr
. .

d//_sm cp dr -f cos cp dr 3J T

cos

sin cp r
dcp

cos (p Y

cp

dcp __ ~~

r sin cp d(p T r

cos

dr cp

--

r sin q)

Putting into the given equation the expressions for

sin
cp

x,

//,

and

-^

we

will

have

3- -f
d<P

r cos cp ^

_rcos

cpH-

rsm

cp

dr
coscp
-

-- r sin

rcoscp
cp

rsincp*

or,

after simplifications,

Change of variables in expressions containing Example 4. Take the equation of oscillations of

partial derivatives. a string

and change

it

to the

new independent

variables a and p, where

a = .v

at,

in

Solution. Let us express the partial derivatives of u with respect to x and t terms of the partial derivatives of u with respect to a and p. Applying the formulas for differentiating a composite function

du___du

da,

du dp
9

du__du da

du dp
1

di^dadT^d^dT
we get
du
d/

^dadx^dfidi
Q

^T-=^( da

du

a)

+
,

du
-35"

a (du is

du\
3~
I

dp

\dp

day

du__du

^'^

du

_^_,^f

^'

214

Differentiate again using the

dt 2 ~~dt

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[C/i.

..

same formulas:

dt~~dadt
d2u

d 2 u\,

2 (d u

d*u

dz u

dx*~dx\dx)

da\dx

_d

u
'

d*u
rtn
/)ft
'

d'u
'

/)ft 8

/}R2

Substituting into the ^iven equation,

2

we
2

will

have
d2 u d*u\

/d a

d u

d u\

Jd u
r

d2 u

= 0.
=z
-g2
,

Example
-=
for

5.

2 Transform the equation x 2 ^- + y

taking
for
z

,v,

the

new independent *

variables,

and

the

new

function.

and Solution. Let us express the partial derivatives ypartial

~ in

terms of the

derivatives

^~

and

To do

this,

differentiate the given relation-

ships between the old and new variables:

dx
t

dy

-^^,
dw
:;

oy_

dx

dz
^
2
.

On

the other hand,

dw =
Therefore,

du
,

du

dw
~\

dv

dv
dz
z
= 2

dw
-3-

du

du

+ -5- dv = x dv
,

dw

dx
2

or

dw
Whence

i^ w _f^x m dy\^,^x __
.

&*_

dw
and, consequently,

dw\

dw

dz^_ dx~~

dw ~~ 1 dw \ J z x*dv J ~~du \x

Sec.

10]

Change

of Variables

215

and
dz __ z^

dw
'

2 dy~~y dv

Substituting these expressions into the given equation,

we

get

or

1969.

Transform the equation

x j-2

putting x=--e*.
1970. Transform the equation

putting

A:

cos/.

rm
1971

69

Transform the following equations, taking y as the ar-

gument:

1972.

MT
is

The tangent of the angle [A formed by the tangent line and the radius vector OM of the point of tangency (Fig. 69)

expressed as follows:
tan u=^

216

Transform

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[C/i.

this

expression

by

passing

to

polar

coordinates:

1973. Express, in the polar coordinates x the formula of the curvature of the curve

= r cos

q>,

y=

r sin

cp,

1974.

Transform the following equation to new independent

dz

variables u and v:
dz

if

u = x

v =x +y
2

*-*3&
2
.

=n

'

1975. Transform variables u and v:

the

following
dz
.

equation
~

to

new independent

dz

if

11

= x, 0=-p
<Fu
,

1976. Transform the Laplace equation

dM_ n ~-"
z

dx*~*'dy
to the polar coordinates
A:

= rcoscp,
X
2
2

= rsm<p.
2

1977. Transform the equation

^2_ y ^__ U> ~ dx*

ar/

putting

u=*xy and

1978. Transform the equation

dz dz

yTx- K jy=(y-^ z
by introducing new independent variables

>

and the new function w=\nz (x + y). 1979. Transform the equation
dx*

taking u

= x + y,

=^

for

the

new independent

variables

and

>=

for the

new

function.

Sec. 11]

The Tangent Plane and the Normal

to

a Surface

_
v).

217

1980. Transform the equation

putting u
Sec.

= x+y,

=x

y,

w = xyz,

where

w=w(u,

11. The Tangent Plane and the Normal to a Surface

1. The equations of a tangent plane and a normal for the case of explicrepresentation of a surface. The tangent plane to a surface at a point to (point of tangency) is a plane in which lie all the tangents at the point various curves drawn on the surface through this point. The normal to the surface is the perpendicular to the tangent plane at the point of tangency If the equation of a surface, in a rectangular coordinate system, is given in explicit form, z function, then f (x, y), where f (x, y) is a differentiate z ) of the surface is the equation of the tangent plane at the point (x f/
it

z-*o=/i(*
z
,

0o)(X-*o)

+ /i(*o,

)0

-0o).
of

(i)

Here, t/ ) f (x the tangent plane. The equations of the normal are of the form

and X, K, Z are the current coordinates

the point of

where

.Y,

F,

Z
1.

Example
the surface z

are the current coordinates of the point of the normal. Write the equations of the tangent plane and the normal
2

to

at the point

M (2,

1,1).

Solution. Let us lind the partial derivatives their values at the point

of

the

given

function and

<k

=v
'

(fo\
'

dx

=2

\dxjM

*~
Whence, applying formulas
or 2x-|-2f/
z
(1)
is

and

(2),

we

will

have

=2(*

2)

+2

(r/-|- 1)

10

which
is

the equation

of the

tangent plane and

==

= ^-i- =
it

-, which

the equation of the normal.

2. Equations
representation implicitly,

of the tangent plane and the normal for the case of implicof a surface. When the equation of a surface is represented

and F

(X Q

t/

= 0,

the corresponding equations will have the form

218

which

_ _
Functions of Several Variables
is

[Ch. 6

the equation of the tangent plane, and

XXQ
F' X
(**,

_
*
)

Yy

ZZQ
Z 0) F'z (*0. J/0.

Fy

(*0> 00. *0)

the tangent plane and the normal to a. z a at a point for which x the surface 3;q/z 0, z/ Solution. Find the z-coordinate of the point of tangency, putting x 0, a 8 whence z a. Thus, the z* a into the equation of the surface: .j/

which are the equations of the normal. Example 2. Write the equations of s 8

=
,

point of tangency

is

M (0,

a,

a).

Denoting by

(x, y, z)

partial derivatives

and

the left-hand side of the their values at the point Af:

equation,

we

find

the

Applying formulas

(3)

and

(4),

we

get

or ^-(-z

+ a=:0,

which

is

the equation of the tangent plane,

Qj/
^ ne

or

~r~

=
i

'

wn

cn are

e q ua ^ions of

the normal.

1981. Write the equation of the tangent plane tions of the normal to the following surfaces at
points: a) to

and
the
at

the equaindicated

0-

~2 5
'

the
)
;

paraboloid

of

revolution

= x*+y
point
at

the

point

b) to the
c) to

cone

^ + -^

the
/?).

sphere

= at the x*+y* + z = 2Rz

y2

(4, 3, 4);

the

point

(ffcosa,

/?sina,

1982. At

what point

of the ellipsoid
y2 _4. f_4.- __ ^ ^ ""
f.2

~2

c2

does the normal to it form equal angles with the coordinate axes? 1983. Planes perpendicular to the A:- and #-axes are drawn z* 169. through the point (3, 4, 12) of the sphere x* y* Write the equation of the plane passing through the tangents to the obtained sections at their common point M. 1984. Show that the equation of the tangent plane to the central surface (of order two)

+ =

ax

+ by

-\-cz

=k

Sec. 11]

The Tangent Plane and the Normal

to

a Surface

at the point

M (x
to

219

has the form

surface x to the plane x 4</4 6z parallel

1985.

Draw

the

= 0.

+ 2tf + 3z = 21
2

tangent tangent

planes

1986.

Draw
off

to the ellipsoid

^a+fi + 'T^l

plane

which cuts

z* 1987. On the surface je 2*^=0 find points at which the tangent planes are parallel to the coordinate planes. s 1988. Prove that the tangent planes to the surface jq/z a tetrahedron of constant volume with the planes of the form coordinates. r f 1989. Show that the tangent planes to the surface }/ x-\-\/ y

on the coordinate axes. equal segments 2 2

+y

=m

-\

\/

z^Ya

cut

off,

on the coordinate axes, segments whose sum

^-i-f!

is

constant.
1990.

Show

that the cone

= -^

and the sphere

are tangent at the points (0, b,c). 1991. The angle between the tangent planes drawn to given surfaces at a point under consideration is called the angle between two surfaces at the point of their intersection. At what angle does the cylinder x*-\-y* R* and the sphere

(x-R)

!-</'+z

-#

intersect at the point

Affy,

^-^,

OJ?

1992. Surfaces are called orthogonal if they intersect at right angles at each point of the line of their intersection. Show that the surfaces x*+y* z* r t (sphere), y xiany 2 (** (plane), and z y*)ian*-ty (cone), which are the coordinate surfaces of the spherical coordinates r, cp, tj?, are mutually ortho-

+ =

gonal. 1993.

Show
/
)

that all the planes tangent lo the conical surface

z^xf(~ *
\

at the point

(,v

//

),

where x

+ 0,

pass through

the coordinate origin. 1994*. Find the projections of the ellipsoid

/'

+z

xy

1=0
any point
of

on the coordinate planes. 1995. Prove that the normal

revolution z

at

the
of

surface of
rotation.

= /(/^ +
2

a
f/

(/'

+ 0)

intersect the axis

220

_
Let a function
to the

Functions of Several Variables

Sec. 12. Taylor's Formula for a Function of Several Variables

[C/i.

of all orders f (x, y) have continuous partial derivatives (rc+l)th inclusive in the neighbourhood of a point (a, b). Then Taylor's formula will hold in the neighbourhood under consideration:

up

-a) + f'y (a, b)(y-b)]

where

In other notation,
)

+ -Jy

[/tfX

if

...+[^^
or

-j

df

(x, y)

2
rf

/ (x, y)

The particular case of formula (1), when a b Q, is called Maclaunn's formula. Similar formulas hold for functions of three and a larger number of variables. A3 Example.' Find the increment obtained by the function f (x, y) when passing from the values 1 to the values *,-- -{-//, 1, y

=
1

*=

First

Solution. The desired increment may be found by applying formula calculate the successive partial derivatives and their values at
(1, 2):

(2).

the

given point

= 3- 1+3.2=9, = /;il,2)=-6.4 + 3.1 -21 f (\, 2) = 6-l=6 xx

/;

(1,2)

^(1,2)= -12.2= -24,

Sec. 12]

Taylor's Formula for a Function of Several Variables

are

_
12)]

221

All subsequent derivatives into formula (2), we obtain:

identically

zero.

Putting

these

results

[/i

-64-2/z k- 3-f

2
fc

24))

+ ^y

[/i

+ 3/z

fc.

3/ife

-0-f *'(

1996.

Expand
h and

f (x i
fe

ft,

+ k)

in a series

of

positive

integral

powers

of

if

* 1997. Expand the function f (x, y) 6x 2xy 3y* 4 by Taylor's formula in the neighbourhood of the point 2/y

(-2,

1).

1998. Find the increment received by the function ^-x*y when passing from the values x=l, {/=! to

f(x,y)~

1999.

Expand the function

3#
(1, 1, 1).

f(x, y, z)

= Jc'-fy + 2* +2xy
1

yz
of

4*

z-l-4 by Taylor's formula in

f (x
/?,
t

the

neighbourhood
of

the point 2000.

tegral

Expand
of

ft,

//-J
/,

fr,

z-|

/)

in a series

positive in-

powers

k,
=--=

and
x
2
*

if
2

/ (x, y, z)

// 4 z
-

2jr//

2A:e

2yz.

2001.

Expand the following function

/(.Y,
//)

in

Maclaurin's series

up to terms of the third order inclusive:

= ?* sin//.
in a

2002.

Expand the following function

of order four inclusive:
/ (x, //)

Maclaurin's series

up to terms

= cos x cos y.

2003. Expand the following function in a Taylor's series in the neighbourhood of the point (1, 1) up to terms of order two
inclusive:
/(*.
{/)

= {/*

2004. Expand the following function in a Taylor's series in the neighbourhood of the point (1, 1) up to terms of order three inclusive:

222

2005. Derive approximate formulas (accurate to second -order terms in a and P) for the expressions

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

if

|a|

and |p| are small compared with unity. 2006*. Using Taylor's formulas up to second-order
a)

terms,

approximate

1/T03;
is

^O98;
2xz

b) (0.95)

2 01
-

an implicit function of x and y defined by the + y = 0, which takes on the value z= 1 for x= 1 equation and y=l. Write several terms of the expansion of the function z in increasing powers of the differences and y 1.
2007. z
z
9

x\

Sec.

13. The

Extremum

of

a Function

of Several

Variables

1. Definition of an extremum of a function. We say that a function f(x,y) has a maximum (minimum) f (a, b) at the point P (a, b), if for all points P' (x, y) different from P in a sufficiently small neighbourhood of P the inequality /(a, b) > f(x, y) [or, accordingly, /(a, b) < f (x y)] is fulfilled. The generic term for maximum and minimum of a function is extremum. In similar fashion we define the extremum of a function of three or more
t

variables.

2. Necessary conditions for an extremum. The points at which a differentiate function f (x, y) may attain an extremum (so-called stationary points) are found by solving the following system of equations:
t' (x. x

0)-0,

f' t/

(x

y)-Q

(1)

extremum). System (I) is equivalent to a single 0. In the general case, at the point of the extremum equation, df(x, #) P (a, b), the function f (x, y), or df (a, ft) = 0, or df (a, b) does not exist. 3. Sufficient conditions for an extremum. Let P (a, b) be a stationary point of the function f(x, y), that is, df (a, &)- 0. Then: a) if d*f (a b) < for dx z dy*>Q then /(a, b) is the maximum of the function f(x, //); b) if d z f(a, ft)>0 for d* 2 -}- di/ 2 then /(a, b) is the minimum of the function 0, 2 /(* 0); c ) if d /(a, ft) changes sign, then f (a, b) is not an extremum of /(v, //).
t

(necessary conditions for an

>

The foregoing conditions are equivalent

to the

following: let
ft).

= f'y (a,

f[ (a,

b)----

ft)

-0

and

A=f xx

(a,

ft),

B~f xy

(a,

ft),

C = /^(ci,

We

form

the

Then: I) if P(a, ft), namely

(or

A
a

>

0,

then

the
if

function
(or
is

has

an

maximum,

C>0);

2)

if

<

A<

<

0),

and

extremum at a minimum,
at

the point
if

0,

then

there

no extremum

>

(a

ft);

then the question (which is to say,

of the function at P (a, ft) requires further investigation). 4. The case of a function of many variables. For a function of three or more variables, the necessary conditions for the existence of an extremum
of
it

an extremum

A==0. remains open

3)
if

Sec.

13]

The Extremum of a Function

of Several Variables

223

are similar to conditions (1), while the sufficient conditions are analogous to the conditions a), b), and c) 3. Example 1. Test the following function for an extremum:

Solution. Find the partial derivatives and form a system of equations

(1):

or
r

**

\ xy

+ *_5-0, 2 = 0.
(

Solving the system

we

get four stationary points:

(2,
1);

P,(l,2);
Let us find
tiie

Pt
d2 z adx 2

P,(-l,-2);
d2z 3 Td*z T-2 2

P 4 (_2,-1).
c = 6x

second derivatives

=c

6.v,

dxdy

= ry
for

6r/,

dy

and form the discriminant A=^/4C

1)

B2
l

each stationary point.

For the pomt

2

A = (g} 2
144

= 6, A^=4C

= 36
:

<

\dx Jp
0.

=6. B =

(fL\ =12, C=(g) p, = \dy J \dxdyjp,

2

Thus, there

is

no extremum at the point P,.

2) For the point P 2 4 --12, B^6, C-12; the function has a minimum. This minimum function for A -2, y~\'
)

= 144

36
to

> 0,

/I

>

0.

At P 2
of

is

equal

the value

the

3) For the point P 9 no extremum. 4) For the point P 4

:

3012^28. 6; A = 36 ^-6, 12, C^ ^- 12, B = 6, C= 12; A = 144

fi---

144

< 0.
0,

There

36

>
^

< 0.

At the point
4- 12 ---28
5*.

P4

the function has a

maximum
or

equal to

2 ma x

6-f-30-{-

Conditional extremum. In the simplest case, the conditional extremum

//)

of

a function /(A,

is

maximum
that
its

attained
<|)(jr,

on
//),

the

condition

arguments

w)

tion /(A-,

(coupling equation). To find given the relationship q> (A-,

F(A-,

this function which is related by the equation the conditional extremum of a funcwe form the so-called Lagra<ige i/)
of

minimum

are

function

y)-=f(
multiplier, and

where X

is

an undetermined

we seek

the ordinary

extremum

of this auxiliary function. The necessary conditions for the to a system of three equations:

extremum reduce

with three unknowns

to

x,

t/,

X,

from which

it

is,

generally

speaking,

possible

determine these unknowns.

224

The question of the existence and character of a conditional extremum is solved on the basis of a study of the sign of the second differential of the
Lagrange function:
yi
for the given
-

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

dx 2

dxdy

dy

system

of values of x, y,

h obtained from

(2)

or the condition

that dx and dy are related by the equation

Q, and a Namely, the function / (x y) has a conditional maximum, if d*F conditional minimum, if d 2 F 0. As a particular case, if the discriminant A of the function F (x, y) at a stationary point is positive, then at this point there is a conditional maximum of the function / (x, y), if A (or C 0), and a conditional minimum, if A 0) (or C In similar fashion we find the conditional extremum of a function of three or more variables provided there is one or several coupling equations (the number of which, however, must be less than the number of the variables) Here, we have to introduce into the Lagrange function as many undetermined multipliers factors as there are coupling equations. Example 2. Find the extremum of the function
t
:

<

>

>

>

<

<

z=:6

4*

3y

provided the variables x and y satisfy the equation

x*-\-y*=\
Solution. Geometrically, the problem reduces to finding the greatest and 6 4.v plane z 3y for points of its intersection with the cylinder ji 2 -f// 2 =l We form the Lagrange function
least values of the e-coordinate of the

F(x, y)--=6

4x-3f/-l-M*
3

-|-{/

1).

We

have

T=~

+ 2>jr,

= ***-

+ 2X#.

The

necessary conditions yield the

following system

of equations:

:
i

Solving this system

we

find
i

^-"2"'
and
2

'-~5~'

____^_ ~"
2

^~""5"
=0,

___

Since

dx 2
it

-*"'

dxdy

follows that

Sec.

13]

~__
2

54
x

The Extremutn
3 = --, o

of a

Function of Several Variables

225

-=-

and

thend 2 /7 >0,
If

and,

consequently,
5

has a conditional

then d

F <Q, maximum.
Thus,

-- and f/ -=O D and, consequently, the function at this point has a conditional

minimum

at this point.

K-

-^ Z

4^3
=

the function

z max

= 6 + i5 + -=ll,

6. Greatest and smallest values of a function. rentiable in a limited closed region attains its greatest (smallest) value either at a stationary point or at a point of the boundary of the region.

function

that

is

diffe-

Example

3.

Determine the greatest and

function

smallest values of the

in the region

A'<0, [/<0, x + y^z

3
tri-

Solution. The indicated region is a angle (Fig. 70). 1) Let us find the stationary points:
I

z' K

7
{J

~ 2xy 1=0, ^ 2y x -}-1^0;

\-

70

whence x-= 1, //-= At A1 the value

to test for
2)

1;

of

and we get the point 1 the function ZM

M
It

1,

1)

is

an cxtrcmum

not absolutely necessary

Let us investigate the function on the boundaries of the region. we have 2 [/ 2 -f-f/, and the problem reduces to seeking the When A greatest and smallest values of this function of one argument on the interval

3^//^0.
(2 sm ) v _

Investigating,

we

find
l

that

(2g r ) x=0

=6

at

the

point

(0,

3);

at the point (0,

l^)

When //~0 we
point

get

x z -\-x. Similarly,

we
'

find
)

that

(2g r ) v=0

=6

at

the

(3,0);

(Zsm) y =*

T" at thc
3 3
A-

P oint

(~ V 2
/

When
we
find

x-[-y
(z &m ) x

3 or //-=

we

will

have
3
(

= 3A
,

-f-9A'-j-6.

Similarly

that

,,^^^~r

at the point
^

3 ~\
J

-^

(2 gr )

3 metres coincides with (z gr ) x =o anc (^r).jf=o- ^ n * ne straight line jc ^ we could test the Function for a conditional extremum without reducing to a function of one argument. 3) Correlating all the values obtained of the function z, we conclude at the stationary 1 that z gr 6 at the points (0, 3) and (3, 0); z sm

+ =

point

M.

8-1900

226

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

Test for
2008. z

maximum and minimum

the following

functions of

two variables:
2009. z 2010. 2011.
2012. 2013.

= (x \)*+2y*. = (x I) 2y*. 2x y. z = x* + xy + tf = *y (6 xy)(x>0 z 2 = x +y 2x*+4xy 2y z =x

2
9

z
.

2014.

z=l

2015. z
20,6.

= 2 =

Find the extrema 2 2017. a = x

2018.

of the
2

following

functions
2z.

of

three variables:

+ +z
f/

xy

+x

^++

-(^>0, y>0, z>0).

Find the extrema

tions:

of the following implicitly represented func-

2019*. x*
2020. x
9

+ y* + z* 2x+4y 62 11=0. y*3x + 4y + z* + z 8 = 0.

of the following functions:

Determine the conditional extrema

2021. z

= xy

for
for for
a
f/

2022. z^=x

2023.

+ 2y z = x* + if
2

+
A:
2

-=

2024. z
2025.

2026.
2027.

= cos + cos W= 2y + 2z ^=^ + +2 u = xtfz*

A:
A:

for//
for
A:

= ~-.
-

+
-

f/

for

for .v-f-y

+ z=

12(jc>0,

2028.

u^xyz

provided x-(~j/+e=5,

xy+yz+zx=8.

2029. Prove the inequality

if

x^zQ
Hint: Seek the

maximum

of the

function u

= xyz

provided

Sec. 14]

Finding the Greatest and Smallest Values of Functions

227

in

2030. Determine the greatest value of the function the regions: a) x>0, y^*0, x y^l\ b)

z=l+x + 2y

2031. Determine the greatest and smallest values of the func2 2 #* tions a) z y in the region x?+y *^l. x*y and b) z 2032. Determine the greatest and smallest values of the func-

tion

= sinx-h sin y-f- sin (x + y)

in

the

region

O^jt^-2.-

2033. Determine the greatest and smallest values of the func1 x' tion z 3xy in the region y*

0^x^2,

Sec.

14. Finding the Greatest and Smallest Values of Functions

Example t. It is required to break up a positive number a into three nonnegative numbers so that their product should be the greatest possible. Solution. Let the desired numbers be x, y, a x We seek the maxi//.
the function / (x, y) xy(a to the problem, the closed triangle x^O, y^zQ, x
of

mum

According

x y). function

+ y^a

/ (x,

y)

is

considered inside a

(Fig. 71).

Fig. 71

Solving the system of equations

f'(x,

we

will

have the unique stationary point

(-TTI

T
We

or

* ne

of

the

triangle. Let us test the sufficiency conditions.

have
f" (x, yy'

>

(/)

20,

f (x, y)=a2x2y, IXIf

/)

228

Consequently,

_ _
Functions of Several Variables
so
at f-g-,

[Ch. 6

And

~)

the function reaches a

maximum.

Since f(x, */)=0 on

the contour of the triangle, this

is

maximum

will be the greatest value,

if

which
the

to say that the product will be greatest, a3 greatest value is equal to

.

=y=a =

//

= --, and

-^=-

Note
that x

The ploblem can

also be solved
of the

extremum, by seeking the maximum

+ y + z = a.

by the methods of a conditional function u xyz on the condition

2034.

From among

all

rectangular

parallelepipeds

with

given volume V, find the one whose total surface is the least. 2035. For what dimensions does an open rectangular bathtub
of a

given capacity V have the smallest surface? 2036. Of all triangles of a given perimeter 2p, find the one that has the greatest area. 2037. Find a rectangular parallelepiped of a given surface S

with greatest volume. 2038. Represent a positive number a in the form of a product of four positive factors which have the least possible sum. on an x^- plane, the sum of 2039. Find a point (x, y), the squares of the distances of which from three straight lines = Q, f/ = 0, x y+l=0) is the least possible. (x 2040. Find a triangle of a given perimeter 2p, which, upon being revolved about one of its sides, generates a solid of greatest volume. 2041. Given in a plane are three material points P, (x lf # ), P*( x z' #2)* ^i(*> #3) w ith masses m lf m 2 m 3 For what position of the point P(x, y) will the quadratic moment (the moment of inertia) of the given system of points relative to the point P 2 P2 P2 P 3 P 2 ) be the least? (i.e., the sum m.P.P 2 3 2042. Draw a plane through the point c) to form (a, b a tetrahedron of least volume with the planes of the coordinates. 2043. Inscribe in an ellipsoid a rectangular parallelepiped of greatest volume. 2044. Determine the outer dimensions of an open box with a given wall thickness 8 and capacity (internal) V so that the smallest quantity of material is used to make it.

+m

+m

Sec.

14]

Finding the Greatest and Smallest Values

of

Functions

229

2045. At what point of the ellipse

r2

-Ta2

+ TT-1 b
'

w2
z

does the tangent line to angle of smallest area? 2046*. Find the axes

it

form with the coordinate axes a

the ellipse

tri-

of
2

5x
2047.
Inscribe in surface.
a

-f-

8xy + 5tf

= 9.
a

given

sphere

cylinder

having

the

greatest total

2048. The beds of two rivers (in a certain region) approxi2 = 0. y mately represent a parabola y = x* and a straight line x It is required to connect these rivers by a straight canal of least
length. Through what points will it pass? 2049. Find the shortest distance from to the straight line
x __ ~~
1

the

point

M(l,

2,

3)

y
3

~~

2
'

2050*. The points A and B are situated in different optical media separated by a straight line (Fig. 72). The velocity of

*1

Fii<.

72

Fig. 73

light in the first medium is v l9 in the second, v 2 Applying the Fermat principle, according to which a light ray is propagated along a line AMD which requires the least time to cover, derive the law of refraction of light rays. 2051. Using the Fermat principle, derive the law of reflection of a light ray from a plane in a homogeneous medium (Fig. 73). 2052*. If a current / Hows in an electric circuit containing a
.

resistance

/?,

proportional

to /

then the quantity of 2

/?.

heat

Determine how to divide the current

released in unit time is / into

230

currents / t

_ _
Functions of Several Variables
of three wires,
,

[Ch. 6

72 ,

/,

by means
the

whose resistances are

least

#i

R*> possible?

#a

so

that

generation of

heat would be the

Sec. 15. Singular Points of Plane Curves

1. Definition of a singular point.

f(x, #) at once:

A
its

is

called a singular point

if

point Af (x c y Q ) of a plane curve coordinates satisfy three equations

,

2. Basic

types of singular points.

At

a singular point

M (*

),

let

the

second derivatives

be not
then:
a)

all

equal to zero and

A = /1C-B 2

if
if

a node (double point) (Fig. 75); is either a cusp of the first kind (Fig. 76) or of c) if second kind (Fig. 77), or an isolated point, or a tacnode (Fig. 78). b)

A = 0,

A>0, A<0,

then then then

M M M

is
is

an isolated point (Fig.

74);

the

Fig. 74

Fig. 75

When solving the problems of this section it is always necessary to draw the curves. z x* has a node if a ax* 0; an Example 1. Show that the curve y isolated point if a 0. 0; a cusp of the first kind if a 2 z Solution. Here, f (x, y)z=zax Let us find the partial derivatives and equate them to zero:

=
.

<

>

+ x'y
=

f x

(x,

t/)

Sec. 15]

Singular Points of Plane Curves

231

This

system has two solutions:

0(0, 0) and
the
(0,

--~a

Oj,'btit

the

coordinates of the point

do not

satisfy

equation
0).

of the given curve.

Hence, there

is

unique singular point

Fig. 76

Fig. 77

Fig. 78

Let us find the second derivatives and their values at the point 0:
,

4=20, 0=0,

a =0 fa>0

Pig.

79

Fig. 80

Fig. 81

Hence,
if if if

a>0,
a
8

< 0,

a--^0, or

then then then

A<0
A

>

2
{/

=x

#=

Y^\

about the x-axis, first kind (Fig. 81).

Aj^O. y which

is a node (Fig. 79); and the point is an isolated point (Fig. 80); and The equation of the curve in this case

will

be

exists only is a tangent.

when Jc^O;

the curve

is

Hence, the point

symmetric

is

a cusp of the

232

Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

Determine the character

of

the

singular points of the follo-

wing curves:
2053. y* 2054. (y 2055.
2056.

=
x
8

x* -\-x\
2
5

=* ay=aV-x'.
)
.

jtyjt

2057. x*

2058. y*(a x) 2 2059. (x* y*) 2060. (a x)y*

2061.

= (cissoid). = a*(x y (lemniscate). + = (a x)x (strophoid). + = ftV (a>0, 6>0) (x* + y*)(x a)*
3
jc

+y

3axy = Q (folium
2
z

f/^O.

of Descartes).

(conchoid).

Consider three cases:

1)

a>6,

2)

= 6,

3)

a<6.

of the
a,
6,

2062. Determine the change in character of the singular point 2 curve y (x b) (x a)(x c) depending on the values of

c(a<ft<c

are real).

Sec. 16. Envelope

The envelope of a family of plane curves curve (or a set of several curves) which is tangent to all lines of the given family, and at each point is tangent to some line of the given family. 2. Equations of an envelope. If a family of curves
is

t. Definition of an envelope.

f(x

y,

a)=0
a has an envelope, then the parafrom the system of equations

dependent on

metric equations

a single variable parameter of the latter are found

t

f(x. y, a)

&(*.

y.

= 0, a) = o.
(1),

(1)

Eliminating the parameter a from the system

the form

we

get an equation of
(2)

D(x,

0)

= 0.

It should be pointed out that the formally obtained curve (2) (the *>ocalled "discriminant curve") may contain, in addition to an envelope (if there is one), a locus of singular points of the given f amily, which locus ts not part of the envelope of this family. When solving the problems of this section it is advisable to make

drawings.

Example. Find the envelope

of

the family of curves

*cosa+f/sina

= 0(p = const,

p>0).

Sec. 16]

Envelope

233

Solution. The given family of curves depends on the parameter a. the system of equations (1):

Form

J
\

*cosa + y sin a
x
sin

p = 0,

a+y
t

cos

= 0.
of the

Solving the envelope

system

for

x and y

we obtain parametric equations

r/

= pcosa,

=
a:

Squaring both equations and adding, we eliminate the parameter

frig.

82

Thus, the envelope of this family of straight lines is a circle of radius p with centre at the origin. This particular family of straight lines is a family of tangent lines to this circle (Fig. 82).

2063. Find the envelope of the family of circles

2064. Find the envelope of the family of straight lines

(k is a variable parameter).

2065. Find the envelope of a family of circles of the same radius R whose centres lie on the jc-axis. 2066. Find a curve which forms an envelope of a section of length / when its end-points slide along the coordinate axes. 2067. Find the envelope of a family of straight lines that form with the coordinate axes a triangle of constant area S. 2068. Find the envelope of ellipses of constant area S whose axes of symmetry coincide.

234

Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

2069. Investigate the character

of

of families of the following lines (C

is

the "discriminant curves" a constant parameter):

cubic parabolas y (x C) 2 b) semicubical parabolas t/ (x 2 C) (x c) Neile parabolas y*

a)

C)*;
2

d) strophoids (a

+ x) (y

C)

=*

(a

x).

Fig. 83

2070.

The equation

of the

with initial velocity point resistance disregarded) is (air

trajectory of a shell fired from a v at an angle a to the horizon

Taking the angle a as the parameter, find the envelope of all trajectories bf the shell located in one and the same vertical plane ("safety parabola' ) (Fig. 83).
1

Sec.

17. Arc Length of a Space Curve

The
dinates

is

differential of equal to

an arc

of a

space curve in rectangular Cartesian coor-

where
If

x, y,

z are the

current coordinates of a point of the curve.

are parametric equations of the space curve, then the arc length of a section
of
it

from

to

t2

is

/a

f j

1/7 <M + (dy\* + ( dz y (-dr

2
,

(-df)

Sec. 18]

The Vector Function

of a Scalar

Argument

235

In Problems 2071-2076 find the arc length of the curve:

2071. x

t,

y=/
/,

2
,

2-~-'
t,

from
1

to

= 2.
it.

2072. x
2073.
2074.
2075. 2076.

= 2 cos y = 2 sin z = -|- from == to = = *' cos y = e* sin z = e from = to arbitrary t from JC==0 to x==6 y = 4~' 2 = 4~ * = 3(/, 2jcy = 92 from the point (0, 0, 0) to M (3, 3, 2). = aarcsin~, z = -|-ln ^j from the point 0(0,0,0)
/ t
t A:

/,

/,

f/

to the point

M(*

j/

). f

2077. The position of a point for any time by the equations

(f>0)

is

defined

Find the mean velocity

Sec.

of

motion between times

and ^=10.

18. The Vector Function of a Scalar Argument

1. The derivative of the vector function of a scalar argument. The vector a (0 may be defined by specifying three scalar functions ax (t) a (t) and a z (t) which are its projections on the coordinate axes:
function a
9

The derivative of the vector function a-=a(t) with respect to the scalar argument t is a new vector function defined by the equality

da
The modulus

a(t

+ M)-a(t)_da x (t)

day (0

da f

(t)

of the derivative of the vector function is

da
dt

The end-point
the curve

of the variable of the radius vector

r=r(/) describes

in

space

r=x(t)l+y(t)J+*(t)*.
which
is

called the hodograph of the vector r.

The derivative

-~

is

a vector, tangent to the

hodograph at the corre-

sponding point; here,

dr
[ \

[_
\

ds

dt

dt

'

where

s is

the arc length of the hodograph reckoned from

some

initial point.

For example,

Up

236

__
If

Functions of Several Variables

the

parameter

is

the time, then -jT

_
/;
is

[Ch. 6

tf

is

the velocity vector of the

extremity

is * ne acceleration vector of the and JTS "^T of the vector r. extremity 2. Basic rules for differentiating the vector function of a scalar argument.

of the vector r,

=w

2)

-77-

(ma)

= m-~-,

where

is

a constant scalar;

3)

-77-

(cpa)==-~-a

+ (p-^-

where q>(0

is

a scalar function of

4,

<*,_..+..:

7)

a-~=0,

if
|

|-= const.
of

Example 1. The radius vector time defined by the equation

moving point

at

any instant

of

r=i
Determine the trajectory
Solution.
of

4t*j+3t*k.

(1)

motion, the velocity and acceleration.

From

(1)

we have:

Eliminating the
line:

time

t,

we

find that the trajectory of

motion

is

a straight

~~

z
'

4"" 3

From equation

(1),

differentiating,

we

find the velocity

and the acceleration

The magnitude

of the velocity

is

We

note that the acceleration

is

constant and
2 2

is

\dt*

\*L

= ]/(_ 8) +6

=iO.

Sec.

18]

_
l

The Vector Function

of

a Scalar Argument

2078.

Show

that

the

vector

where r

and r 2 are radius vectors

of

= (/* 2 equation two given points,

rr,

_
is
/,

237

r,)

/,

the

equation

of a straight line. 2079. Determine which lines are hodographs of the following vector functions:
a)

b)

= at -f c\ = a/ + r
r
2

c)

ft/;

d)

= a cos -f b sin r = a cosh -f 6 sinh

t

t\

a, ft, and c are constant vectors; the vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other. 2080. Find the derivative vector-function of the function a(t)a (/), where a(t) is a scalar function, while a(/) a(t) is a unit vector, for cases when the vector a(t) varies: 1) in length only, 2) in direction only, 3) in length and in direction (general case). Interpret geometrically the results obtained. 2081. Using the rules of differentiating a vector functisn with respect to a scalar argument, derive a formula for differentiating a mixed product of three vector functions a, 6, and c. 2082. Find the derivative, with respect to the parameter t, of the volume of a parallelepiped constructed on three vectors:

where

a = i + tj+t z k,

2083.

The equation
r

of

motion

is

= 3/cos/~j-4/sinf,

is the time. Determine the trajectory of motion, the and the acceleration. Construct the trajectory of motion velocity and the vectors of velocity and acceleration for times, / = 0,

where

2084. The equation of motion

is

eration.

Determine the trajectory of motion, the velocity and the accelWhat are the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration and / = and what directions have they for time = -y? 2085. The equation of motion is

r= i cos a cos at -\-jsmacostot + k sincof,

where a and o are constants and / is the time. Determine the trajectory of motion and the magnitudes and directions o! the velocity and the acceleration.

238

sistance)

where V Q {V OX v oy v oz } is the initial velocity. Find the velocity and the acceleration at any instant of time. 2087. Prove that if a point is in motion along the parabola
,
,

Functions of Several Variables

2086. The equation of motion

is

of

shell

_
(neglecting
of
r(t)
it

\Ch. 6

air re-

z/=

in such a

manner

that

the

projection

velocity

on the x-axis remains constant

tion remains constant as well.

[-= const],
of

then the accelerascrew being screwed

2088. A point lying on the thread into a beam describes the spiral

where 9 is the turning angle of the screw, a is the radius of the screw, and h is the height of rise in a rotation of one radian. Determine the velocity of the point. 2089. Find the velocity of a point on the circumference of a wheel of radius a rotating with constant angular velocity co so that its centre moves in a straight line with constant velocity V Q
.

Sec. 19. The Natural Trihedron of a Space Curve

At any nonsingular point

dicular planes (Fig. 84):
1)

M
2
,

(;c,

//,

z) of a

space curve r
of

is

pos-

sible to construct a natural trihedron

consisting

three

mutually perpenand

osculating plane

M A4jA4
S,

containing the vectors

is

TT

-r-^

2)
3)

normal plane

MM*M

which

perpendicular to
is

the vector

~
at

and

rectifying plane MMjAIj, which

perpendicular to the first

;

two planes.

all

At the intersection we obtain three straight lines; 1) the tangent 2) the principal normal MAf 2 of which are defined by the appropriate vectors:

MM^

3)

the binomial

MM

9t

1)

T=-rr

(the vector of the tangent l'me)\

(

2)
3)

NBXT (the

^-gfx^p

the vect

f tne

binormal);

vector of the principal normal)]

The corresponding unit vectors

JV

Sec.

19]

The Natural Trihedron

of

a Space Curve

239

may

be computed from the formulas

t= dF
f

dr

ds

dt
ds

If X K, Z are the current coordinates of the point of the tangent, then the equations of the tangent have the form

X-x = Y
'
3C
*

y==
if

Z
'2

(I)

Normal
Rectifying

plane

plane

Osculating plane

Fig. 84

where
of

Tx

--

Tv=

T 2 = -~

from the condition

of the

of

perpendicularity

the line and the plane

we

get an equation

normal plane:

Z
If

2)

= 0.
,

(2)

Wy,

(1) and (2), we replace get the equations of the binomial and the principal normal and, respectively, the osculating plane and the rectifying plane. Example t. Find the basic unit vectors T, v and p of the curve

in

equations

T x Ty 7\ by B x
,

Bv

B z and A^.

^V^,

we

at the point

= 1.
of

Write the equations

mal
at this point.

the tangent, the principal normal and the binor-

Solution.

We

have

and

240

Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

Whence, when

1,

we

get
dt

dt

2 3 ^= 026
1

dt
i

662
1

>'

Consequently,
T

= <+2/+3A

P=

3/-ay+*
it

'

-1U-8/+9*

Since for

?=1 we have *=1, y=l, 2=1,

""
1

follows that

"~

are the equations of the tangent,

x\_y ~~
3
are the equations of the binomial and

l_z ~~
3
1

*-l
11

y-1
8

z-1
9

are the equations of the principal normal. If a space curve is represented as an intersection of
F(JC, y, z)

two surfaces

= 0,
and

G(x,
TTZ

y, 2)

= 0,
the vectors dr{dx, dy, dz}

then in place

of

the vectors

-^-

we can take

and d 2 r {d*x, d*y, d z z}; and one of the variables x, y, z may be considered independent and we can put its second differential equal to zero. Example 2. Write the equation of the osculating plane of the circle
*2
at its point

+ + z = 6,
2
2
J/

+ y + z^Q

(3)

M(l,

1,

2).

variable,

Solution. Differentiating the system (3) and considering x an independent we will have

x dx

+ y dy + z dz
2

--=

0,

and
dx*

+ dy + y d*y + dz + z d*z .= 0,
1

d 2 (/
Putting

x=l, y=\>

z~2,

we

get

Sec. 19]

The Natural Trihedron of a Space Curve

is

241

Hence, the osculating plane

{dx,

defined by the vectors

dx

0}

and
|o,

{0,

yd*
1,

jdx*\

or
{1,
1,

0}

and

1}.
is

Whence the normal vector of the osculating plane

B=
and, therefore,
its

J
1

=
1

-1
equation
is

lj

-l(x-l
that
is,

as

it

should be, since our curve

is

located in this plane.

T, v,

2090. Find the basic unit vectors

p of the curve
z

x^l
at the point
f

cosf,

y=sin/,

= -g-

normal

2091. Find the unit vectors of the tangent and the of the conic spiral

principal

at an arbitrary point. Determine the angles that these lines with the z-axis. 2092. Find the basic unit vectors r, v, p of the curve
2. at the point x 2093. For the screw line

make

x*,

= 2x
z

= asmt,

= bt

write the equations of the straight lines that form a natural trihedron at an arbitrary point of the line. Determine the direction cosines of the tangent line and the principal normal. 2094. Write the equations of the planes that form the natural trihedron of the curve
x*
2

-1- 1/

+ * = 6,
2

if

-1-

-4

at

points M(l, 1, 2). the equations ot the tangent line, the normal z t* and the osculating plane of the curve * /, y t*, plane at the point (2, 4, 8).
of
its

one

2095.

Form

242

_ _
Functions of Several Variables

[Ch. 6

2096.

Form

and binormal

at

the equations of the tangent, principal normal, an arbitrary point of the curve

Find the points at which the tangent to to the plane x 10 = 0. 3y-\- 2z

this curve is parallel

2097. Form equations of the tangent, the osculating the principal normal and the binormal of the curve

plane,

at the point / at this point.

= 2.

Compute the

direction cosines of the binormal

2098. Write the equations of the tangent and plane to the following curves:
a)

the

normal

x = R cos 2
*
2 2

/,

y = R sin /cos/,

= Rsmt

for

?-;

b)
C)

z=x*+y*, x = y

+ y + z = 25,
2

x+z=5

at the point (1,1, 2); at the point (2,

2/3,

3).

2099

z=x
*

normal Find the equation y = x at the coordinate origin. 2100. Find the equation of the osculating plane
of

the

plane to the curve

to the

if,

curve

*,

(/

= <>-',
2

2101. Find
a)

0. at the point / the equations of the osculating plane to the curves:

= ty2

* 2 b) * 2
JC

c)

+y + 2 = 9, x y = 3 at the point (2, 1, 2); = 4y, x' = 24z at the point (6, 9, 9); + z = a y fz = 6 at any point of the curve (x
2 2
2

QJ

y ot z

).

the equations of the osculating plane, the principal normal and the binormal to the curve

2102.

Form

y
2103.

= x,

=z

at the point (1,

1,

1).

normal and the binormal to the conical screw-line A; = /COS/, j/=/sin/, z~bt at the origin. Find the unit vectors of the tangent, the principal normal, and the binormal at the origin.
pal
Sec. 20. Curvature and Torsion of a Space Curve

Form

the equations of the osculating plane, the princi-

1. Curvature.

By

the curvature of a curve at a point

*

we mean the

number
/(

lim AS-+O

JL, As

Sec. 20]

Curvature and Torsion

is

of

a Space Curve

243

where

the angle of turn of the tangent line (angle of continence) on a curve MN, As is the arc length of this segment of the curve. segment R is called the radius of curvature. If a curve is defined by the equation r=r(s), where s is the arc length, then
(p

of the

For the case

of a general

parametric representation of the curve

we have

(1)

2. Torsion. By mean the number

torsion (second curvature) of a curve

at

point

we

r-l-ihn -1 As-*o As
Q
the angle of turn of the binormal (angle of contingence of the where second kind) on the segment of the curve MN. The quantity Q is called the radius of torsion or the radius of second curvature. If r=r(s), then
is

drd 2 rd sr
dp_

ds ds 2 ds 3

ds

where the minus sign

is

taken when the vectors

sign,
is

and v have

the

same

direction, and the plus If /=/(/), where t

when

not the same.

an arbitrary parameter, then

dr d 2r dV d/d?" d7
-

Q
dt

(2)

~d,

Example

1.

Find the curvature and the torsion of the screw-line

r

= i a cos

-\-j

a sin

+ k bt

(a

> 0).
t

Solution.

We

have

~= _/ a

sin

+ja cos t + kb
/

_
2

d r

==

a cos

/a

sin

/,

= _/ a sin/
Whence
J
a sin a cos
t

Ja
k
=

cos/.

a cost b
-a sin
/

ab sin

jab cos

+ a*k

Hence, on the basis

of

formulas
1

(1)

and

(2),

we
a

get

JDL
fl

R ~(
and
1

VaT+b*^
i

+ 6i)
a*b

/.

"fl'

+a
2

a 2 (a 2

+ b*)~~ a + b
2

b
'

Thus, for a screw-line, the curvature and torsion are constants. 3 Frenet formulas:

dr

v
'

^v
5s

___ ~~

iP
'

^P_

7s~"~R

~~~~R~T~~Q

ds~~~~o"'

zero, then the line

the curvature at all points of a line is a straight line. 2105. Prove that if the torsion at all points of a curve is zero, then the curve is a plane curve. 2106. Prove that the curve
that
if

2104. Prove

is

x=\+3t + 2t
is

2
,

= 22t + 5t\ z=lt* =

2107.
a)

plane curve; find the plane in which it lies. Compute the curvature of the following curves:

b) x*

x = cost, y = s'mt, 2 2 2 z = l, y -| //

-2x + z = Q

= cosh

at the point / 0; at the point (1, 1,

1).

2108. curves:
a)
je

Compute the curvature and

i

torsion at any point of the

b)

y = e sint, z x^acosht, y asiuht.

= e'cos/,

e*\

= at

(hyperbolic screw-line).

2109. Find the radii of curvature and torsion at an arbitrary point (x, y, z) of the curves:
a)

x 9 b) x

= =

2110. Prove that the tangential and normal are expressed by the formulas acceleration v2 dv VOif T <MJ V V,

components

of

WT-^T,

Wv-

where v is the velocity, R is the radius of curvature of the T and v are unit vectors of the tangent and principal trajectory, to the curve. normal

Sec. 20]

_
A

Curvature and Torsion of a Space Curve

is
t

2111.

point
sin

in

la cost

+ja

+ btk
of

uniform motion along a screw-line r =* with velocity v. Compute its accelera-

24S

tion w. 2112.

The equation

motion

is

Determine,

at

times
2)

trajectory and acceleration.

the

and /=!: 1) the curvature of the tangential and normal components of the

Chapter VII

MULTIPLE AND LINE INTEGRALS

Sec. 1. The Double Integral

in

Rectangular Coordinates

1. Direct computation of double integrals. The double integral of a continuous function f (x, y) over a bounded closed region S is the limit of the corresponding two-dimensional integral sum

f (x,

y)dx dy =

lim max A*i max Ar// c

(1)

where A*
values of

&y k = yk+l yk and the sum is extended over those xg, and k for which the points (*/, y k ) belong to S. 2. Setting up the limits of integration in a double integral. We distinguish two basic types of region of integration.
-

= Xf +l

x,

x
Fig. 85

o
Fig. 86

1)

The region

of integration

(Fig. 85)

is

bounded on the

left

and

right

while the vaFig. 85). In the region S, the variable x varies from x l to x riable y (for x constant) varies from 9, (x) to j/ 2 q> 2 (x). The integral (1) ma>

^=

Sec. 1]

The Double Integral

in Rectangular Coordinates

247

be computed by reducing to an iterated integral by the formula

*a
<Pa (X)

J
(S)

f(x, y)dy,

<PaU>

where x

is

held constant

when

calculating

/(x, y) dy.

2) The region of integration S is bounded from below and from above by the straight lines y y and y yt(y z >yi), and from the left and the (y)], right by the continuous curves x = ^> (y) (AB) and x = 2 (y) (CD) [t|? 2 (y) each of which intersects the parallel y = Y (y* Y y t) at only one point
l

^ <

i|?

^^

(Fig. 86). As before,

we have
Vl

$2

(U)

JJ/(*.
(S)

y)dxdy=\dy
j/i
i|?,

J
((/)

f (x.

y)dx

here, in the integral

f(x, y) dx

we

consider y constant.

If the region of integration does not belong to any of the above-discussed types, then an attempt is made to break it up into parts, each of which does belong to one of these two types. Example 1. Evaluate the integral

Solution.

Example

2.

Determine the limits

of integration of the integral

(x,
(S)

y)dxdy

248
if

* 1 the region of integration 5 (Fig. 87) is bounded by the hyperbola y 2 and x 2 (we have in view the region constraight lines * taining the coordinate origin). Solution. The region of integration ABCD (Fig. 87) is bounded by the 2 and x 2 and by two branches of the hyperbola straight lines

and by two

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals
2

[Ch. 7
2

x-

y=yT+*
that
is,
it

and

(/--1
have:

belongs to the

first

type.

We

=
J

dx
J

f(x, y)dy.

Evaluate the following iterated integrals:

21

35
J
dcp
rrfr.

2113.

\dy\(jf + 2y)dx.

2117.

Jdy

2114

^pTv?31
X 2dU
'

2118.
o

j
a
sin
<p

Jt_

COS

(p

2115

00
Write the equations of curves bounding regions over which the following dduble integrals are extended, and draw these regions:
2

2-t/

2X

2121.

Jrf/

f(x, y)dx.

2124.

JdxJ/(*. y)dy.
3

X+9

K25-JC-

2122.

JdxJ IX
4

f(x, y)dy.

2125.

10-y

00
^dx
2

f(x, y)dy.

X+2

2123.
o

dy
y

f(x, ^)dx.

2126.

d*

-ix*

f(x, y)dy.

Set up the limits of integration in one order and then in the other in the double integral

JJ/(*. y)dxdy
(S)

for the indicated regions S.

Sec.

1]

The Double Integral

in Rectangular Coordinates

249*

2127.

S
S S

is

a rectangle

with vertices 0(0,

0),

4(2,0), 5(2,

1),

C(0,

1).

2128. 2129.

is
is

a triangle
a

with vertices 0(0,

0),
0),

4(1,

0),

trapezoid with vertices 0(0,

(2, 0),

5(1, 5(1,

1).

1),

C(0,

1).

2130.

is

a
5).

parallelogram with

vertices

4(1,

2),

5(2,

4),

C(2,
(0,

7),

D(l,

2131.
0),

is

whose

circular sector arc end-points are

045
A

(1, 1)

with centre at the point and 5 f - 1, 1) (Fig. 88).

Fig

89

right parabolic segment 405 bounded by the and a segment of the straight line 54 connecting parabola the points 5(~-l, 2) and 4(1, 2) (Fig. 89). 2133. S is a circular ring bounded by circles with radii r=l and /?-=2 and with common centre 0(0, 0). 2134. S is bounded by the hyperbola if x? \ and the circle

2132.

is

504

2
|

(the region containing the origin is meant). 2135. Set up the limits of integration in the double
//

^9

integral

(x,
(S)

y)dxdy

if

the region S
2

is

defined by the inequalities

b) *
c)

h//
|-

<a

2
;

e)

//<x<y4
0<*/
=

2a;

//*

*;

:a.

Change the order

\2X

of integration in the following

double integrals:
y)dy.

2136.

f(x, y)dy.

2137.

JdJ/(x.

250

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

2138.

\dx
a

f(x, y)dy.
-

2141.
\

dy

f(x

y)dx.

VTZx^tf

V*-*

2139.

$
2

d*

f(x, y)dy.

2142.

\dy

$/(*,
yi
~2

20

2140.

Jdx

f(x

y)dy.

RVT
A
-V

2143.

J
o

d*J/(x,
o
sin

t/)dy+

f(x. y)dy.

2144.

\dx

J/(jc,

/)d/.

2145.

Evaluate the following double integrals: ( where S is a triangle with vertices 0(0, [ xdxdy
t

0),

(S)

A(\,

1),

and B(0,

1).

A(2,0)X
Fig. 90
Fig. 91

2146.

^xdxdy,
(S)

where the region

of integration

Sis bounded

and by the arc

radius
1

by the straight line passing through the points A (2, 0), fi(0, 2) of a circle with centre at the point C(0, 1), and
(Fig. 90).

Sec. 1]

The Double Integral

*

in Rectangular Coordinates

251

2147.

JJ
(S)

r Va
,

===, where S x*y*

0)

is

a part of a circle of radius r

first

a with centre at 0(0,

2148.
$ $
(S)

lying in the
t

quadrant.
triangle with
vertices

V**

y dx dy

where S
1).

is

0(0,0),
2149.

(I,

-1), and

fl(l,

\j !/"*#
(S)

y*dxdy, where S

is

triangle with vertices

0(0,

0),

4(10,
rr
ey
J J (S)

1),

and

fl(l,

1).

2150.

dxdy, where S
y*

is

a curvilinear triangle

OAB

bound-

ed

by the
2151.

parabola

=x
is

and

the straight lines

x = Q, (/=!
bounded by

(Fig. 91).

ff^Ti,
-

where S

a parabolic segment

the parabola
2152. extend:
at

y=7f and

the straight line y

= x.

Compute the
i-f-cosjc

integrals

and draw the regions over which they

_rt

a)

\dx
2
1

[ j

tfsmxdy;
c)

$ <ty
/

$ /

x* sin'

"

b)
COS*

When solving Problems 2153 to 2157 the drawings first. 2153. Evaluate the double integral
(5)

it

is

abvisable to

make

if

is

line

x = p.

a region

bounded by the parabola

y*

= 2px and

the straight

2154*. Evaluate the double integral

^xydxdy,
extended over the region S, which 2 2 and an upper semicircle (x 2) #
is

+ =

bounded
1.

by

the #-axis

252

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals

(Ch. 7

2155. Evaluate the double integral

dxdy

/25=5
(S)

where S

the area of a circle of radius a, to the coordinate axes and lies in the gent 2156*. Evaluate the double integral
is

which
first

circle

is

tan-

quadrant.

^ydxdy,
(S)

where the region S

of the cycloid

is

bounded by the axis

x

of abscissas

and an

= R(t y = R(\

sin/),

cos/).

2157. Evaluate the double integral

(S)

in which the region of integration nate axes and an arc of the astroid

is

bounded by the coordi-

2158. Find the

mean value

of the function f(x, y)=--xy

in

in the

region

SJO^Jt^l, 0<y<l}.
The mean value
of a function

Hint.

f(x, y)

the region

is

the

number

2159. Find the mean value of the square of the distance of 2 2 from the coordia point (x, y) of the circle (x nate origin.

af+y

^R

Sec.

2.

Change

of

Variables in a Double Integral

1. Double integral in polar coordinates. In a double integral, when passing from rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, cp), which are connected with rectangular coordinates by the relations
#

= /'Cos(p,
(r

r sin

ip,

we have

the formula
f (*>

^{
(S)

y)dxdy=((
(S)

cos

q>,

r sin

cp)

r dr

e/cp,

(1)

Sec. 2]

r=^p(a<P)

a integration (S) is bounded by the half-lines r the curves r and r r 2 ((p), where r l (q>) r,(cp) r z f<P) [ r i ( fP)^ r 2( (P)l are single-valued functions on the interval then the double integral may be evaluated by the formula
If

_
region
of

Change

of Variables in a Double Integral

the

_
r 2 (cp)
\ 'i (<p)

253

and

and and

a^rp^p,

/-J

<<p)

C f
(S)

(q),

r) r

dr

dcp

\ dcp

f
r, (cp)

(cp,

r) r rfr,

where F

(cp,

r)~/(rcos(p,

r sin (p).

In evaluating the

integral

((p,

r)rrfr

we hold
If

the quantity (p constant. the region of integration does not belong to one of the kinds that has been examined, it is broken up into parts, each of which is a region of a

given type.

2. Double
if

integral in curvilinear coordinates.

In

the more general case,

in the

double integral
(x,

y)dxdy

from the variables x, y to the variables u, v, which it is required to pass are connected with x, y by the continuous and differentiate relationships
A-^cp(w, i),
I/

t|?(K,

v)

that establish a one-to-one (and, in

both directions, continuous) correspondence

between the points

region

of

the

of

the

UV- plane, and

region S of the .v//-plane if the Jacobian

and the points

of

some

*^

V'

y)

dx dy du da dx dy dv dv

D(u
retains a constant

sign in the region 5, then the formula

f
(6)

(^

y) dx

dy

I [cp (u,

v),

(w,

v)

du du

holds true

The limits of the new integral are determined from general rules on the basis of the type of region S' Example 1. In passing to polar coordinates, evaluate

where the region 5

is

a circle of

radius
//

/?

with centre
obtain:
2

at

the coordinate

origin (Fig 92). Solution. Putting x

J/'l

rcoscp,

rsincp,
cos
2

we

if^

Y"\

(r

cp)

(r sin cp)

= ^1

r8

254

Multiple and Line Integrals

(Ch. 7
to
for

Since the coordinate r in the region to 2jt, it follows that varies from

S
2Jt

varies
1

from

any

q>,

and

q>

ff

y\x*
coordinates r and cp and set up the limits of to the new variables in the following

Pass to
integration
integrals:

polar

with

respect

2160.

K,

y)dy.

2161.

Jd*$/(]/J

2162.

JJ/(x, y)dxdy,
\-'/

where S
</=!.

is

a triangle

bounded by the straight

lines

(/

= #, y~

x,

2163.
-i

*
is

2164.

^f(x, y)dxdy, where S

(S)

bounded by the lemniscate

Fig. 92

2165. Passing to polar coordinates,

gral
(S)

calculate the double inte

where S

is

a semicircle

of

diameter a with centre at the poin

C(f,0)

(Fig. 93).

Sec. 2]

_
=

Change of Variables in a Double Integral

2166. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate the double integral

255

(S)

extended over a region bounded by the circle jc* y* = 2ax. 2167. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate the double

in-

tegral

(S)

integration S is a semicircle of radius a with centre at the coordinate origin and lying above the #-axis. r 2168. Evaluate the double integral of a function f(r, <p) over a region bounded by the cardioid r a(\ +coscp) and the a. (This is a region that does not contain a pole.) circle r 2169. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate

where the region

of

V a*-x*
J

Jdx

Vx' +

tfdy.

2170. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate

(S)

where the region S

is

loop of the lemniscate

2171*. Evaluate the double integral

ll
(S)

T/^R;
x x*
-j

extended over the region S bounded by the ellipse

passing to generalized polar coordinates:
X

+ ^^
u

^wo

2172**. Transform
c

p*
t

\dx\f (x y)dy
o

ax

(0<a<p

and c:>0) by introducing new variables u

256

_
2173*.
is

Multiple and Line Integrals

Change the variables u

i

= x + y,

= xy

__

[Ch. 7

in the integral

\dx\f (x,y)dy.
2174**. Evaluate the double integral

(S)

where S

a region

bounded by the curve

b2

~~fi 2

-_ k

'

Hint.

Make

the substitution
>,

br sin

cp.

Sec. 3. Computing Areas

1. Area

in rectangular coordinates.

The area

of

a plane region S

is

(S)
If

the region

is

defined

by the

inequalities
b
op
(

a^x^b,

q>

(x)

^y ^

\|)

(x)

then
X)
dy.

\dx
a
cp

J
(x)

is

2. Area in polar coordinates. If a region S in polar coordinates r and defined by the inequalities a^cp^p, / (cp)^/' (q>), then

<F

q>

F
6/9

P)

= ffrdcpdr=
(S)

/-dr.

/(q

2175. Construct regions whose areas are expressed by the integrals

2

x+2

_
J
ji

a) )

dx
J
j

d; dy;

b)

dy

d*.

Evaluate these areas and change the order of integration. 2176. Construct regions whose areas are expressed dy the
tegrals
arc tan
2
*

in-

sec

<p

a(i+coscp)

a)

d(f

J
o

rdr\

b)

^9

T
Compute

n_

\
a

"T"
these areas.

Sec

3]

2177.

_ _
Computing Areas

257

Compute

the area bounded by the straight lines

y,

2178. Compute the area lying above the x-axis and bounded 3a. 4ax, and the straight line x-[-y by this axis, the parabola y*

2179*.

Compute

the area bounded by the ellipse

2180. Find the area

bounded by the parabolas

f z y =10x4- 25 and y

6x +

9.

2181. Passing to polar coordinates, find the area bounded by the lines 2 2 z Q. x x -[-y* 4x, 2x, x, y y

-y =

and the

2182. Find the area bounded by the straight line r cosq)=l circle r~2. (The area is not to contain a pole.) 2183. Find the area bounded by the curves
r

= a(14coscp)
*

and

acosq>(a>Q).
line

2184. Find the area

(

bounded by the
,

V 4

~*~

(/!V__ **_//? "~

"9 J
4"

'

2185*. Find the area bounded by the ellipse

(x2y

!-3)

4 (3* -\-4y-

1)

100.

<a<b, 0<a<p).
Hint. Introduce the

2186. Find the area of a curvilinear quadrangle bounded by 2 z the arcs of the parabolas x --=ay x* a,x, y by y* $x(Q<.
y

new variables u and

x2

u,

and put

= uy,

if

vx.

2187. Find the area of a curvilinear quadrangle bounded by the arcs of the curves if=ax, if a, xy bx, xy $(Q<.a<.b,

0<a<p).
Hint. Introduce the

new variables u and

u,

v,

and put

y*~vx.

-1900

258

Multiple and Line Integrals

(Ch. 7

Sec. 4. Ccmputing Volumes

a cyltndroid bounded above by a continuous surface of low by the ph-ne 2 0, and on the sides by a right cylindrical surface, which cuts out of the ju/-plane a region S (Fig. 94), is equal to
*

= /(*,

The volume V
y),

be

mid wiih

2188. Use a double integral to express the volume of a pyravertices 0(0, 0)", A(\, 0, 0), fl(l, 1,0) and C(0, 0, 1) 95). Set up the limits ol integration. (Fig.

C(0,0,1)

Fig. 94

Fig. 95

In Problems 2189 to 2192 sketch the solid expressed by the given double integral:
2189.
f J

whose volume

is

dx

f (1 J

y)dy.

2191.

x)dy.

Z-X

2190.

2193. Sketch the solid

a

V a*

- x*

tegral

dx

YC?

_
+

2192.
is

whose volume

expressed by the in-

tfy* dy\

reason geometrically to find the

of this integral. 2184. Find the volume of a solid bounded by the elliptical 2 x + y=\, and the coordi2x* -f f/ 1, the plane paraboloid z nate planes. 215. A solid is bounded by a hyperbolic paraboloid z x* tf and the planes (/ 0, e 0, x=l. Compute its volume.

value

Sec. 5]

2196.

_
*/

Computing

th

Area* of Surfaces

planes

= 0,

solid
2

= 0,

is

2 bounded by the cylinder x

y = x.

_
2

259

+-z

=a

and the

Compute

its

volume.

Find the volumes bounded by the following surfaces:

2197. az
2198.

2199.

2200.
2201.

2202.

= y\ x* -\-y* --='*, 2 = 0. = y"x, = 2J/T, * + 2 = 6, 2 = 0. y z = x* +y\ y = x //=!, 2 = 0. x -}-*H-2 = a, 3*4-*/ = a, ~x4-tj=^a, + -1, y = *' = 0, 2 = 0. = 2ax, 2 = a*, 2 = p* (a > p). x if
f/

*/

= 0,

= 0.

-h

In Problems 2203 to 2211 use polar and generalized polar coordinates. 2203. Find the entire volume enclosed between the cylinder 2 2 2 2 a x 2 -\-y a and the hyperboloid x -f- if 2* 2204. Find the entire volume contained between the cone 2 2 2 z* = a 2 and the hyperboloid x 2 -f- if 2(* +if) 2 x + /* f 2205. Find the volume bounded by the surfaces 2a2

=
2
,

**

4-//

=a

= 0.

2206. Determine the

volume

of the ellipsoid

202

2207. Find the volume of a solid bounded by the paraboloid 2 2 2 -= x 2 H- // 2 and the 3a -f- 2 (The volume lying sphere * 4inside the paraboloid is meant.) 2208. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the jq/-plane t 2 2 2 2 the cyl inder x -*- y 2a^, and the cone x -f if = 2 2209. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the jq/-plane, 2 2 2 the surface 2 =-ae~ <*'J4 " >, and the cylinder x + y = /? 2210. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the *f/-plane,

the paraboloid

=^+

= and the cylinder ^-h| 2

2

2~.
2

2211. In what ratio does the hyperboloid 2 2 2 divide the volume of the sphere x 4- t^ 2212*. Find the volume of a solid bounded
4-

jc
2

-h//

= a*

^3a

by the surfaces

Sec. 5. Computing the Areas of Surfaces

The area o of a smooth single-valued surface z on the jci/-plane is the region S, is equal to

= f(x

y),

whose projection

-JJ

260

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

2213. Find the area of that part of the plane

%+j+=
=

which

lies between the coordinate planes. 2214. Find the area of that part of the surface of the cylin2 2 der x 4 y R 2 (z^O) which lies between the planes z mxand

= = nx(m>n>Q).
2215*.
2

cone x

which is situated y bounded by the plane y -\-z-a.

2216.

Compute 2 2

=z

the

area of that

part

of the
first

in the

surface of the octant and is

Compute 2 2
x

the area

of that
is

part

of
of

the
it

y cylinder 2 2 2 2 x y +z =-a 2217. Compute

+
2

=ax
2

which

cut

out
part

surface of the by the sphere

surface
..2

the area

of that

of the
y2

of

the

sphere x

2
-\-

=a

cut out by the surface -^

+ ^=1.
=

2218. Compute the area of that part of the surface of the 2 2 ax paraboloid y + z = 2ax which lies between the cylinder tf and the plane x= a. 2219. Compute the area of that part of the surface of the 2 2 2ax which lies between the xy-plane and the cylinder x + y

cone x

-\-y

=z

2
.

2220*. Compute the area of that part of the surface ol the 2 2 = 2ax. cone x 2 y 2 which lies inside the cylinder x 2 z f/ 2221*. Prove that the areas of the parts of the surfaces of the 2 2 z 2 2az arid x 2az cut out by the cylinparaboloids x + y y 2 2 der x -\-tf are of equivalent size. R 2222*. A sphere of radius a is cut by two circular cylinders whose base diameters are equal to the radius of the sphere and which are tangent to each other along one of the diameters of the sphere. Find the volume and the area of the surface of the remaining part of the sphere. 2223* An opening with square base whose side is equal to a is cut out of a sphere of radius a. The axis of the opening coincides with the diameter of the sphere. Find the area of the surface of the sphere cut out by the opening. of 2224*. Compute the area that part of the helicoid

= carctan
x
2 2

which
2

lies

in

the

first

octant

between the cylin-

ders

-i-y

=a

and

Sec. 6. Applications of the Double

Integral

in

Mechanics

1. The mass and static moments ot a lamina. If S is a region in an jq/-plane occupied by a lamina, and Q (x, y) is the surface density of the lamina at the point (x, y), then the mass of the lamina and its static

Sec. 6]

_
M
M
is

Applications of the Double Integral in Mechanics

moments x and double integrals

A4

MY
--=

_
C
(x, y)
is

261

relative to the

x-

and t/-axes are

yQ
(x, y)

expressed

by the

Q
jj

(x, y)

dx

dy,

Mx= J

dx dy,

(S)

(S)

M Y =^
If

J*e(x,

y)dxdy.
const.
If

(1)

(5)

the lamina

is

homogeneous, then Q

(x, y)

2. The coordinates

of the centre of gravity of a lamina.

the

centre of gravity of a lamina, then

My _i_

'

-M ~_
J
//
.

x d
'

where

the mass of the lamina and

M x My
,

are
is

its

static

moments

rela-

tive to the

formulas

(1)

3. The moments
lamina relative

coordinate axes (see 1). we can put Q=l.

of
inertia
of
to the x-

If

the

lamina

homogeneous, then in
of inertia 01 a

a lamina.

The
*2 Q

moments
*x dy.

and

t/-axes are,

respectively, equal to
J J
(S)
is

/X=
The moment
of

S S
(S)

y'Q (x, y) dx dy,

/r=

(*. y)

(2)

inertia of a lamina relative to the origin

(3)

Putting Q(X, //)-=! in formulas inertia of a plane iigure.

(2)

and

(3),

we

get the geometric

moments

of

2225. Find the

is

mass

of a circular

lamina

of radius

if

the

proportional to the distance of a point density and is equal to 6 at the edge of the lamina.

from the centre

with
legs

OB = a

2226.

density at any point is equal to the distance of the point from the leg 0/4. Find the static moments of the lamina relative to the legs 0/4 and OB. 2227. Compute the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the sin* area OmAnO (Fig. 96), which is bounded by the curve // and the straight line OA that passes through the coordinate origin

and

A lamina has the OA = b, and its

shape of a right

triangle

and the vertex

(-^

Ij

of a sine curve.

of gravity of a circular sector of radius a with angle at the vertex 2a (Fig. 97). 2230. Compute the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an area bounded by the parabolas // 4.x f 4 and if 2x4-4. 2231. Compute the moment of inertia of a triangle bounded 2 relative to the #-axis. 2, y 2, # by the straight lines x y

bounded by the cardioid r = a(\ + cosij)). 2229. Find the coordinates of the centre

2228. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an area

262

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

2232. Find the

ters
its

moment
a)

d and

D(d<D):

of inertia of an annulus with diamerelative to its centre, and b) relative to

diameter. 2233. Compute the moment of inertia of a relative to the axis passing through its vertex the plane of the square. 2234*. C)mpute the moment of inertia of the parabola if = ax by the straight line x
straight line
//

square with side a perpendicularly to

a

=a

segment cut
relative
to

oil

the

a.

Fig. 96

2235*. Compute the moment of inertia of an area bounded by 4 and the straight line x-\-y the hyperbola xy 5 relative to the straight line x y. 2236*. In a square lamina with side a, the density is proportional to the distance from one of its vertices. C:>mpute the moment of inertia of the lamina relative to the side that passes through this vertex. 2237. Find the moment of in?rtia of the cardioid r a(l cos<p) relative to the pole. 2238. Compute the moment of inertia of the area of the lem2 2 niscate r ^-2a cos2cp relative to the axis perpendicular to its in the pole. plane 2239*. Compute the moment of inertia of a homogeneous lamina bounded by one arc of the cycloid x^a(t sin/), y a(\ cos/) and the x-axis, relative to the x-axis.

= =

Sec. 7. Triple Integrals

1. Triple integrals in rectangular coordinates. The triple integral of the /(*, y, <) extended over the region V is the limit of the corresponding threefold iterated sum:
function
62

= lim
\x\
A'/j

max max max

- o ~> o

2 2 2^
f
i fa

(*t> &/>

'

Az/c -> o

Sec. 7]

Triple Integrals

2o3
of the

Evaluation of a triple integral reduces to th? successive computation ordinary (onefold iterated) integrals or to the computation double and one single integral.
three

of

one

Example

1.

Compute
/=.$

JJ*y Z d*d/dz, V

where the region V

is

defined by the inequalities

Solution.

We

have
1

X
2
'</

7T

dy

Example

2.

Evaluate

2
AT

2
// --

Z
-j-

extended over the volume of the ellipsoid

Solution.
a

-|-

^
(V)

x2

dxdy

dz

x2

dA-

J J
(5^.)

dydz=
j^2

x*S
^

yz

dx

-a
M^

-a
JC

\\here

S yz

is

the area of the ellipse

^ + -^^1 -^^

= cons ^

an(^

S v z -=Jib I/ vz
V

l-~-c
a-

V \-- =*n r a
2

We

therefore finally get

(V)

-a
If

2. Change

of variables in a triple integral. 0.

in tha triple integral

2)dxdydz

from the variables AT, //, z to the variables it is required to pass u, ay, which are connected with *, //, z bv the relations x ^(u v, w), y = ty(u,v,w), z = X(". u ^)i where the functions cp, i|), x are: 1) continuous together with their paitial first derivatives;
,
t

2)

in one-to-one (ind,

in

tween the points

some region

of the region of integration

both directions, continuju?) correspondence beV oi xf/z-space and the points of

of l/l/l^-space;

264
3) the functional

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

determinant (Jacobian)

of these functions

dx dx
dii

dx

~dv

dw

D (u,

v,

w)

dy dy dy da dv dw
dz
dz

dz

da dv
retains a constant sign in the

dw
use
of

region V, then

we can make

the for-

mula

=
$ J
(V)
\ \

\f(x,y,2)dxdydz
\ f

IT ( w

L?

>

w )>

ty( u

>

w )<

du dv dw.

Fig. 98

Fig. 99

In particular, 1) for cylindrical coordinates

r,

cp,
//

h (Fig. 98), where

rcosrp,
cp,

rsinrp,
r (<p
is

z^-//,

we
r

get

r\

2) for

spherical coordinates

ap,

the

longitude,

\\>

the

latitude,

the radius vector) (Fig. 99),

where
f/

= r cos
i[).

i|)

cos 9,

= /-cosi|3 sin

q),

sin

v|\

we have

cos

Example

3.

Passing to spherical coordinates, compute

JSJ
(V)

where V

is a sphere of radius R. Solution. For a sphere, the ranges of the spherical tude), \|) (latitude), and r (radius vector) will be

coordinates

fp

(longi-

Sec

7\

Triple Integrals

265

We

therefore have

f f f

Vx

-\-y

-\-z*dxdydz=\

dcp

dty f r A'COS \|?dr

= Ji# 4

3. Applications
sional A'//z-space
is

of

triple integrals.

The volume

of a region of

three-dimen-

<n

The mass

of a solid

occupying the region V

is

-----

C f f
(V)

z)

where \(x,y,z) is the density of the body at the point (*,//,*). The slal/c moments of the body relative to the coordinate planes are

M yy =
"(V)'

Myz =

(*

(*

I '

)}
0')"
\

MZX
The coordinates

~-

(A

'

f/

2)

f/

dx dy dz.

(V)

of the centre of

gravity are
f

_ J ~~

_
'

'

Al
I

then we can put Y (*, y> z) = If the solid is homogeneous, mulas for the coordinates of the centre of gravity. The moments of inertia relative to the coordinate axes are

in

the

for-

T-

J J $
(V)

(y*

+ **) Y (*,

U, 2)

dx dy

dz;

(V)
l

=J
Putting
of inertia
of

J J
(V)

(*

Y(*0

^i^21

in

* nese

formulas,

we

get the

geometric

moments

the body.

A. Evaluating triple integrals

Set up the limits of integration in the triple integral
J J
(V)

^f(x,y,

z)dxdydz

for

the indicated regions V.

266

Multifile

and Lire Integrals

[Ch. 7

2240.

is

a tetrahedron

bounded by the planes

X

X
2241.

Jr

yJrZ =\,

= 0,
2

J/

= 0,
2

= 0.

is

a cylinder
JC'

bounded by the surfaces

1
,

+ ^fl

= 0,

= /f.

2242*.

is

cone bounded by the surfaces

2243.

is

volume bounded by the surfaces

Compute the following

2244.

integrals:

000
2
2

+ +-2+1

2245.
a

djt

dy

2246

.)

00
1

fd*

rfy
1-JC-t/

('

.1

1-X
J
o

2247.

]
p

dx

dy

J
o

xyzdz.

2248. Evaluate

d* dy dz
'

1)3

where V is the region ol integration planes and the plane x-\~y-[z\. 2249. Evaluate
r r r
(V}

bounded

by the coordinate

where V (the region 2

paiaboloid

of
2

2cu^x

-\-y

integration) is the and the sphere X?

common
2

part
2
.

of the

+ y* + 2 ^3a

2250. Evaluate

(V)

where
spheres

V (region
x
2

of

integration)

is

the
2

+ y*

\-z*

^R'

and

+ \f + z

^ 2Rz

common

part

of

the

gee.

7]

2251. Evaluate

__
Triple Integrals

267

^zdxdydz,
(V)

where V

is

half of the ellipsoid

volume bounded by the plane j. +

and the upper

-+

-J.==l.

2252. Evaluate

(V)

where

Xz
is

the interior of the ellipsoid ~^r

+ "^r

IJ

2253. Evaluate

where
2
2

V
2

(the
2

region
)

of

integration)
z

is

bounded

by

the

cone.

(jc

hi/

and the plane

= h.

2254. Passing to cylindrical coordinates, evaluate

where V
2
2

jc

the surfaces x* is a region bounded by a -=z and containing the point (0,0, R). -| // 2255. Evaluate
2
J

+y*

-\-

z*

= 2Rz

21

jc

first

225(5.

transforming it to cylindrical coordinates. Evaluate

di/

dz,

first

transforming it to cylindrical coordinates. 2257. Evaluate

R
VR*-X*
\
Vfla-jir*-0a
J

\dx
-/?
first

dy

J
o

(A:

-/f^TJa
it

transforming

to spherical coordinates.

268

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

2258. Passing to spherical

coordinates,

evaluate the integral

(V)

where V
B.

is

the interior of the sphere x -\-y

+z

Computing volumes by means

to

of

triple integrals
of a solid

2259. Use a triple integral bounded by the surfaces

compute the volume

2260**. Compute the volume of that part of the cylinder 2 2 x 2 -f tf = 2ax which is contained between the paraboloid* + y = 2az and the xy-plane. 2261*. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the sphere 2 2 2 2 2 2 x +y +z =a and the cone z ---x + /y" (external to the cone). 2262*. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the sphere 2 2 z x 2 +y +z = 4 and the paraboloid x +if=-3z (internal to the
paraboloid). 2263. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the xy-plane, z 2 2 2 z 2 a (internal ax and the sphere x the cylinder x -f- z to the cylinder). 2264. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the paraboloid

+y =

+y

+ -~ = 2 -i
to

and the plane

x--=a.

C. Applications

of

triple integrals

mechanics and physics

2265. Find the mass

M
if

of a rec-

tangular parallelepiped

Q^x^a,
the deny,
z)

<*/<??,
sity
(l(x,

0<z<c,

at
y,

the
z)

= x-\-y-\-z.

point

(x,

is

Fig.

100

2266. Out of an octant of the 2 2 2 2 c z x .> 0, x y sphere cut a solid OABC */^0, bounded by the coordinate planes

+ + z^O
(Fig.

<

and the plane

-+- =

(a

c,

&<c)

100).

Find the mass

of this body if the density at each point (x, y, z) is equal to the 0-coordinate of the point. 2267*. In a solid which has the shape of a hemisphere 22*0, the density varies in proportion to the

Sec. 8]

Improper Integrals Dependent on a Parameter

260

distance of the point from the centre. Find the centre of gravity of the solid. 2268. Find the centre of gravity of a solid bounded by the 2 2 4x and the plane x=2. paraboloid // +2z 2269*. Find the moment of inertia of a circular cylinder, whose altitude is h and the radius of the base is a, relative to the axis which serves as the diameter of the base of the cylinder. 2270*. Find the moment of inertia of a circular con^ base, a, and (altitude, /i, radius of density Q) relative to the diameter of the base. 2271**. Find the force of attraction exerted by a homogeneous cone of altitude h and vertex angle a (in axial cross-section) on a material point containing unit mas^ and located at its vertex. 2272**. Show that the force of attraction exerted by a homogeneous sphere on an external material point does not change if the entire mass of the sphere is concentrated at its centre.

Sec. 8. Improper Integrals Dependent

on a Parameter.

Improper Multiple Integrals

1. Differentiation with respect to a parameter. In the case of certain imposed on the functions / (.v, a), f' (x, a) and on the corresponda ing improper integrals \vc have the Leibniz rule
a) dx

restrictions

(.v,

fa

(A-,

a) dx.

'i

Example

1.

By

differentiating with respect to a parameter, evaluate

>

~~

dx

(a

> 0,

> 0).

Solution. Let

Then

~
da
1

2a
find

"2a*
in the latter

Whence F
equation.

(a,

p)

Ina + C(p). To

C(p), we put a =

We

have

0=

In P

+ C(P).

Whence C(p)

= -^-lnp.

Hence,

270

Multiple and Line Integrals

triple integrals. a function f (x, y) is continuous in

[Ch. 7

2. Improper double and a) An infinite region. If region 5, then we put

\{f(x, U

an unbounded

y)

dx dy

lim

"S\

( f (x, y)

dx dy,

(1)

where a is a finite region lying entirely within S, where a -+ S signifies that we expand the region o by an arbitrary law so that any point of 5 should enter it and remain in it. If there is a limit on the right and if it does not depend on the choice of the region o then the corresponding improper inte,

gral

is

called convergent

If the inU'grand / (,v, vergence of an inirioper integral

otherwise it is divergent. is nonnegative [f (x, //)

it

y)^Q], then

for

the con-

is

necej-sary

on

the right of (1) lo exist at least for the region 5. b) A discontinuous function. If a function / (x, y) uous in a bounded closed region S, except the point
(*,

and sufficient for the limit one system of regions o that exhaust
is

everywhere contin(a,
b),

then we put
(2)

y)dxdy=\\m

f(x,y)dxdy.

where S 6 is a region obtained from S by eliminating a small region of dia meter e that contains the roint P. If (2) has a limit that does not depend on the tyre of small regions eliminated from 5, the improper integral under
consideration
If
is called convergent, otherwise it is divergent. /(A, //)^>0, then the limit on the ripht of (2) is not dependent on the type of regions eliminated from S; for instance, such regions may be circles

of radius

with centre at P.
of

The concept
of

improper double integrals

is

readily extended to the case

triple integrals.

Example

2.

Test for convergence

dxdy
is}

3)

where S

is the entire j/-plane. Solution. Let a be a circle of radius origin. Passing to polar coordinates for

Q
1,

with

centre

at

the

coordinate

p^

we have

If

p<
o

1,

then

lim 7 (a) O -* S
r

= lim
Q

/(a)
the

=00 and
integral

the integral diverges. But

if

p>

1,

~f QC

then

lim
-

7(o)=
P

and

converges.

For

p=l

we

have

Sec. 8]

_
2JT

Improper Integrals Dependent on a Parameter

Q
2

_
the

271

(a)= Cdcpf -f^l-==jiln(l+Q r *

J
J
~r
o
o

);

lim/(a)
Q -*
oo

= oo,

that

is,

integral

diverges.

Thus, 'the integral

(3)

converges
if

for

p>

1.

2273. Find

/' (*),

2274. Prove that the function

+
00

r
2 \ J ^
QC
,

*f '

w
,2

dz

(l/

2)

satisfies

the Laplace equation

*u
dx*

+ d *-Q ^ ~U
~c)y*

'

is

2275. The Laplace transformation defined by the formula

(p)

for the

function /(/)

Find
d)

= cos p/. /(/)

F(p),

if:

a)

/(O-l;

b)

/(/)=e;

c)

/(/)

= sinp/;

2276. Taking advantage of the (ormula

compute the

integral
\

xn

\nxdx.

2277*. Using the formula

evaluate the integral

272

_
GO

Multiple and Line Integrals

__

\Ch. 7

Applying differentiation with respect

"

to a parameter,

evaluate

the following integrals:

2278.

"-""*

f
00

dx

(a

>

0,

>

0).

2279

e
.

~**~ e ~'X

smrnxdx (a>0, p>0).

.

rno^ 228

arc tan
-

ax

dx

2282.

e-<"d*

(o^O).

Evaluate the following improper integrals:

GO
QC

2283.
x_

2284.

\dy\ev
y
c) c/

dx.

2285.
ties

\\
(5)

^ 4 ~r

*,

2
/

where S

is

a region defined

by the inequali-

#^5

1,

2287.

The

Euler-Poisson

integral

defined

by
00

the

formula
Eval-

may

also be written in the

form

I=\c-^dy.

uate / by multiplying coordinates. 2288. Evaluate

CO

these formulas and then passing to polar

00

GO

dz

See. 9]

Line Integrals

273

Test for convergence the improper double integrals:

2289**.
2290.

55 \nVx*-\-y dxdy,
(S)

where S
is

is

circle

2
f/

<K

U
(6')

TTiriva

where S

region

defined by

the ine-

quality x

2
-|

tf^\
I

("exterior" of the circle).

.

2291 *.

$,

J_

where S
*

is

a square

A;
|

<

\y\^l.
by
the

2292.

CCr JJJ
(V)
2

d xd
t

(x T~

^\
\

,
)

where V

is

region

defined

inequality x

-\-

if

-\-

("exterior" of a sphere).

Sec. 9. Line Integrals

1. Line integrals of the (Irst type. Let / (x, y) be a continuous function = (p (A-) [a<: \ <;&] be the equation of some smooth curve C. */ Let us construct a system of points M, (A-,-, //,) (/~0, 1, 2, .... n) that break up the curve C into elementary arcs Al _,M = As and let us form the
and
-

integral

sum S n
is

2^

AV

#/)

^ s r ^ ne

'

im it of this sum,

when n

-* oo

and

max

As/ -^ 0,

called a line integral of the first type

n

lim

"->>ac
(cfs

2 =
i

/(xf,

r/,-)

As/=

/ (x,

i/)

ds

c
is

is

the arc differential) and

b
\

evaluated from the formula

f (A

'

!/) rfs

C
In
the

J a

f(x

cp (,v))

y~\

+ (q>'
of

(A-))

c/.vr.

case
'

of
rt

"

parametric

representation

the

curve

C:

.Y

],

we have

= q>(/),

Also considered are line integrals of the first type of functions of three variables f (x, y, z) taken along a space curve. These integrals are evaluated in like fashion A line integral of the lirsl type does not depend on the direction of the path of integration; if the integrand / is interpreted as a linear density of Hie curve of integration C, then this integral represents the mass of the curve C.

274

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

Example

1.

Evaluate the

line integral

where C is the contour of the triangle ABO with vertices A (1, and 0(0, 0) (Fig 101). Solution. Here, the equation AB is (/=l x, the equation and the equation OA is */ = 0. We therefore have

0),

B
is

(0,

1),

OB

= 0,

AB

BO

OA

2. Line
uous

functions

integrals of the second type. If P (x, y) and Q (x, y) are continand f/ <p(A) is a smooth curve C that runs from a to b as

A
Fig.
101

x varies, then the corresponding

as follows:

line integral

of the

second type

is

expressed

P
C

(x,

y)dx + Q

(x,

y)dy =
a

[P

(x,

cp

(*))

<p'

(x)

(x, q> (x))\ dx.

= <P(0,

In the more general case when the curve C is represented parametrically: y ty(t), where / vanes from a to 0, we have

y)

dy

+
a

'

[P

(<p

(0,

(9(0,

(OJ

Similar formulas hold space curve.

for

Une

integral of

the

second

type

taken

over a

A line integral of the second type changes sign when the direction of the path of integration is reversed. This integral may he interpreted mechanically P (x, y), Q(x, y) } along the as the work of an appropriate variable force { curve of integration C Example 2. Evaluate the line integral
Cyi

Sec. 9]

____
of

Line Inlegtah
the
ellipse

____
y

275

where

C is the upper half clockwise. Solution. We have

2 y dx

*--=a cost,

=b

sin*

traversed

+ x* dy =
n

[b

sin

t-(a sin

/)

+a

cos 2

=
3. The case
of

ab* f sin 8
jt

oo
/

-b cos /] dt

dt

+ a*b

C cos 8

dt

= -t a&.

?t

of a total differential.

If

the

integrand

of

line integral

second type is a total differential of some single-valued function U^--U(x, */), that is, P (x, y)dx-\-Q(x, y)dy-=dU(x, y], then this line integral is not dependent on the path of integration and we have the Newton-Leibniz formula (x 2 yj
the
,

P(x, y)dx

+ Q(x,
,

y)dy = U(x 2

yJ

(x l9

</,),

(1)

where

(x lt

is
if

In particular,

the initial and (* 2 #,) is the the contour of integration C

terminal
is

closed,

point then

of

the

path

(2)

simnlv-connectH

of integration C is contained entirely within some S and 2) the functions P(r, (/) and Q (x, y) together with tlvir partial dcnviitives of the first order are continuous in 5, then a is the necessary and sufficient coiditioi foi th? existence of the function identical" fulJilment (in S) of the equality
If

1)

the

contour

reaio.i

2_^
dX

~dy

(3) (d)

If conditions one and two are not ful(see integration of total differentials) does not guarantee the existence of a jillcd, the presence of condition (3)

single-valued lunction U, and formulas (1) and (2) may prove wrong (see Problem 23:2) We give a method of finding a function U (x, u) from its total diflerential based on the use of line integrals (which is yet another method of integrating a total differential). For the contour of integration C let us take a broken line P P (Fig 102), where P (.v y ) is a fixed [oint and 0, y and dy (x, y) is a variable point. Then along P P, we have y We get: we have dx and along P t

II

(J

(x

y)-U

(x

)=

(x,

y)

dx

+ Q (x,

y)

dy =
y
(x.

y)dy.

Similarly, integrating with respect to

u

P C P 2 M, we have
x
,

U(x.

y)-U(*v

*/

)-$Q(* y)dy+^P(x,
Vo

y)dx.

x*

276

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

Example 3. (4x Solution. Let A-O

U(x,
or
y)

+ 2y) dx+ (2x 6y) dy = dU. = O, y = Q. Then

Find U.

+ 2y) dx + C=
where C

3//

-i-c,

(0,

0)

is

an arbitrary constant.

Uo

--4/I

XQ
Fig.

X
102

4. Green's formula for a plane. If C is the boundary of a region S and the functions P (x, y) and Q (x, y) are continuous together with their firstorder partial derivatives in the closed region S-j-C, then Green's formula holds:

(S)

here

t'^e

circulation about the contour

of line integrals.
1

is

chosen so that the region S should

remain

to the left.
)

5. Applications

An
y

area

bounded by the closed contour C

is

(p

dx=

(p

xdy

(the direction of circulation of the contour is chosen counterclockwise). The fo lowing formula for area is more convenient for application:

2)

The work
(x,

z) (or,

X(x, y, of a force, having projections accordingly, the work of a force field),

X=

2),

Y=Y

(x, y,

along a path

z), is

Sec. 9]

expressed by the integral

_
c

Line Integrals

__
U=U
L
,

277

A= ^Xdx + Ydy + Zdz.

(x, y, z)

(a

If the force has a potential, i.e., if there exists a function potential function or a force function) such that

dV dx

=A

dU
,

dU
j
,

TT

-7

dy

dz
is

then the work, irrespective of the shape of the path C,

(*.
//2,

equal to
z 2 )-t/ (x lt y,

*j)

(*J,

'/J.

Z.)

=
J
(*|. {/,,

Xdx + Ydy + Zdz^

Zi)
(*i,

dU
J
l/ lt

= U(x
tli2

2t

y tt

z } ),

2-J

where

(v l5

f/ 1?

Zj) is

the initial and (x 2

</,,

z2)

is

terminal point of the path.

A. Line Integrals of the First

Type

Evaluate the following

2293.
J

line integrals:

xyds, where

is

the contour of the square

x\

y\

=a

(fl>0).
s

2294.

,. 2
A:
|-

--^=
if
\-

where
0)
is

is

a segment of the straight line

(I,
2).

connecting the points 0(0,

2295.

and A

^xyds, where
c

a quarter

of the

ellipse ^i

=
fi>

lying

in

the
c

first

quadrant.
is

2296.
a
(1

ifds,

where C

the

first

arc of the cycloid x

=a

(t

sin /)>

cos

/).
2

2297.
circle

}x
c
2

+y
/
2

ds,

where

is

an arc

of the involute of

the

----

a (cos
^ (x
-\-

(-/sin/), y
2 )

= a(smt
is

tcost) I0^/=^2ji].
of the logarithmic spi-

2298.
ral

d$,

where C

an arc
(0, a)

r^ae m v(m>Q)
2299.
2 2

from the point

to the point

0(

oo, 0).

niscate r

JU + y) c = a cos2<p.
rfs

where C

is

the right-hand loop of the lem-

2300.
q/2

(A:

\-y)ds,
>

where

is

an

arc

of

the

curve

JK

=^

278

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

2301.

\
(*

%2

~T~

*2

where
z

is

the

first

turn of the screw-line

# = acos/ y = as\nt,
f

= bt.
where

2302.

J t/"2#

-I-

z ds y

is

the

circle

+ y +z = a
2
2

2
,

x=y.
2303*. Find the area of the
lateral

surface
z

of

cylinder y

the parabolic
//

bounded by the planes

l

= 0, x~0, 2 = x, = 6.
1

y = ae*
2
2-

ae cos?, 2304. Find the arc length of the conic screw-line C x sin /, z ae from the point 0(0, 0, 0) to the point A (a, 0, a). 2305. Determine the mass of the contour of the ellipse

yi
-T2-

= l,

if

the linear density ot

it

at each

point

M (x,

y) is

equal to \y\. 2306. Find the mass of the first turn of the screw-line A; = a cos/, y = asmt, zbt, if the density at each point is equal to the radius vector of this point. 2307. Determine the coordinates of the centre of gravity of a half-arc of the cycloid

x = a(t
first

sin

/),

y = a(\

cost)

[0</<ji].

2308. Find the moment of inertia, about the z-axis, of the turn of the screw-line x = a cos/, !/ bt. asin/, z 2309. With what force will a mass distributed with uni2 2 form density over the circle x -f y 2 a z 0, act on a mass m located at the point A (0, 0, &)?

=
,

B. Line Integrals of the Second

Type

Evaluate the following line integrals:

2310.
2

AB 2 parabola y = x from the point

2311.
^

J (x

2xy)dx-\- (2xy+tf)dy, where

^4(1,
1)
is

AB
the

is

an arc

of the
4).
first

to

point
of

B(2,
the

(2a

y)dx

-xdy,

where C

an

arc

arch of the cycloid x a(t a(l sin/), # cos/) which arc runs in the direction of increasing parameter

/.

taken along different paths emanating J 2xydxx dy OA from the coordinate origin 0(0, 0) and terminating at the point
2312.

(2,
ia)

1)

(Fig. .103):

the straight line

Om A\

Sec. 9]

Lim
parabola OnA,

Integrals

279
of

b) the
(/-axis;

the axis oi

symmetry symmetry

which which

is

the
the

c)

the parabola

OpA,

the axis of

of

is

x-axis;
d) the
e)

broken line

the broken line

2

OBA\ OCA.
as in
i/)dy

2313.

OA

2xydx ^x dy
(x+u)dx
x*
(x

Problem 2312.

+ y*

counterclockwise.

Fig.

103

2315.

^tfdx + x*dy, where C

c

is

the upper half of the ellipse

x^acost, y =
2316.
\

bs\r\t traced clockwise.

cosydxsmxdy

taken along the segment

angle,
if

AB

of the

bisector of the second quadrantal point A is 2 and the ordinate of

the

abscissa oi the

B
is

is

2.

2317.

x!f(l'

d
a

dll}

(f
r*

^*

where C

the right-hand

loop

ol

the

lemmscate co$2(p traced counterclockwise. 2318. Evaluate the line integrals with respect to expressionswhich are total differentials:
rt

(2.

8)

(a. 4)

(i.

i)

a)
(

^
1

xdy -\-ydx,
2)
1)

b)

J
(O r
1)

xdx + ydy,

c)

$
(0, 0)

(2,

ydx
d)
(1.

xdy
,

f
2)

(along a path

that

does

not

intersect the

280

_
(x, y)

Multiple and Line Integrals

___
not
of the

[C/t.

e)

f J

dx + dy x ~ry

(a i

ong a

p a th

^at

(joes

intersect

the

straight line A;-f-y

(* 2
,

= 0),

J/ 2 )

f)

J
(*;, </0

q>

2319. Find the antiderivative functions evaluate the integrals:

(3,

integrands and

0)

a)
(i,

(x<

+ 4xy') dx 4
x
y)

(6x

5#

4
)

dy

(-2, -1)
o)

* J ~~~ y
b)
(0,

! x

(the integration path does not intersect the

-1)
1)

straight line y
(,

= x),
(the integration
x),

C)

(x+Wx + ydy =
!

j
a.
i)

path does not intersect

the straight line y

A\
,
I

(0,

0)

\V

X x*

+ y*

yA J

fix

y
z

fat

\}^xZ + y

2320.

Compute
/=.
f

xdx + yfy
X*

taken clockwise along the quarter of the

the first quadrant. 2321. Show that if f(u) is a continuous closed piecewise-smooth contour, then
lies in

ellipse -5

+ ^=!
C

that

function and

is

2322. Find the antiderivative function

a)

if:

b)
c)

du = (2x du = (3* 2 du =

+ 3y)dx + (3x4y)dy\
2xy + y
2
)

dx

(x

2xy

+ 3y*) dy\

d) dtt '

Sec

9]

Line Integrals

281

Evaluate the
curves: 2323.
^ (y

line

integrals

taken along the following space

tj)dz,

z)dx+(zx)dy + (x
i

where

is

turn

c
of the screw- line
/

= asin/,
of

corresponding to the variation

2324.
(p

the parameter

from

to

ydx + zdy + xdz, where

I
;t

is

the circle

/y

= /?cosacos/, = /?cosa sin = ^sina (a = const),

/,

traced in the direction of increasing parameter.

2325.
circle

xydx + yzdy

+ zxdz,

where

OA

is

an

arc

of

the

OA

situated on the side of the A'Z-plane where //>0. 2326. Evaluate the line integrals of the total
(,
4.

differentials:

8)

a)
(1,

]
0,

xdx-\-ydy
-3)
z

zdz,

b)
(i.
(3,
x

//
i. 4.

dx f 2 x dy
-

\-

xy dz

i) 5)

xd\

\-\idij-\-zdz

J
(0, 0, 0)

rA'.|.y"

+2

'

-M ^v
d)
(i.

yte + mv + 'y**
xyz

f J
,

(the

integration

path

is

situated

D
C. Green's

in the first octant).

Formula

2327. Using Green's formula, transform the line integral

/

=
c

\f*

-\

if

dx + y [xy +

In

(jc

K?T?)]

dy,

where the contour

C bounds

the region S.

282

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals

[C/t.

2328. Applying Green's formula, evaluate

/

2 (x?

-t-

if)

dx +

(x

+ y)

dy,

where C

is the contour of a triangle (traced in the positive direcwith verlices at the points A (I, 1), fl(2, 2) and C(l, 3). tion) Verify the result obiained by computing the integral directly. 2329. Applying Green's formula, evaluate the integral

x*y dx
c

+ xif dy,
traced counterclockwise.

where C
2330.

is

the circle x*

+ if = R*

chord

is

A parabola AmB, whose axis is the #-axis and whose AnB, is drawn through the points A (1,0) and 8(2,3).
(x

Find

AmBnA
formula.
2331. Find
lie

+ y)dx(x
$

y)dy directly and by applying Green's

e* y [y*

dx

\-

(1 -f xtj)dy\,

if

the points

A and B

AmB
on the #-axis, while the area, bounded by the integration path AmB and the segment AB, is equal to S. 2332*. Evaluate Consider two cases:

^ifc^f.

a)

the origin is outside the contour C, the contour encircles the origin n times. b) 2333**. Show that if C is a closed curve, then

when when

where

s is the arc length and n is the outer normal. 2334. Applying Green's formula, find the value of the integral

= (j)[xcos(X, n)+ysm(X,
c

n)]ds,

where ds

is the differential of the arc the contour C. 2335*. Evaluate the integral

and n

is

the outer normal to

taken along the contour of a

A
is

(1,

0).

fl(0

1),

C(-l,

0)

and>(0,

square with vertices at the points 1), provided the contour

traced counterclockwise.

Sec. 9]

Line Integrals

2S&

D. Applications of the Line Integral

Evaluate the areas of figures bounded by the following curves: a cos/, y bs\nt. 2336. The ellipse x acos 3 /, #-=asin 8 /. 2337. The astroid jt x a (2 cos/ cos 2/), 2338. The cardioid y a (2 sin/

= =

sin 20-

2339*.

loop

of

the

folium

of

Descartes x*

+if

3zxy

=Q

(a>0).

2340. The curve (x + y)* 2341*. A circle of radius

fixed circle of radius

= axy.
r is

rolling without
it.

R and

outside

sliding along a n is an Assuming that

integer, find the area by some point of the

bounded by the curve (epicycloid) described moving circle. Analyze the particular case
radius
r
is

of r

2342*.

(cardioid). A circle of

rolling
it.

without sliding along

D

a fixed circle of radius

R and

inside

Assuming that

is

an

integer, find the area bounded by the curve (hypocycloid) described by some point of the moving circle. Analyze the particular

case

when

=j

r>

(astroid).

2343. A field is generated by a force of constant magnitude F Find the work that the field does in the positive jt-direelion when a material point traces clockwise a quarter of the circle 2 2 x -^-y ^=R lying in the first quadrant. 2344. Find the work done by the force of gravity when a material point of mass m is moved ironi position A (JC P // l? zjz 2 ) (the z-axis is directed vertically upto position B (x 2 // 2
,
,

wards). 2345. Find the work done by an elastic force directed towards the coordinate origin if the magnitude of the force is proportional to the distance of the point fiom the origin and if the point of application of the force traces counterclockwise a quarter of the ellipse
2346.

^s4-^i=l
Find
the

lying in the
potential

first

quadrant.

function

and determine the work done by the = 0, K:=0. Z-=rng (force a) X

rial

of a force R {X, Y, Z\ force over a given path if: of gravity) and the mate-

point

is
*i)'-

moved
?,

from

position

A
f

(x lt

y l9

zj
jx

to

position

B(*
b)
r

Uv

x=
-\-

K=-^. Z=-*

where

= const

and

Yx* 4 if f (Newton attractive force) and the material point moves from position A (a, b, c) to infinity;

284

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals
c)

[Ch. 7

X=

force),

x* 4-

+ z = /?
2

and

k*x, Y k*y, Z the initial point of the

2
,

k*z,

where k

= const

(elastic

path is located on the sphere while the terminal point is located on the sphere

Sec.

10. Surface Integrals

f (x,
//,

1. Surface integral of the first type. Let function and z=-cp(*, y) a smooth surface S.

2)

be a continuous

The

surface integral of the first type

is

the limit of the integral

sum

'(x,
.3

//,

z)dS=
n

lim
-> 00

fas

is the area of the /th element of the surface S, the point (*/, y lt belongs to this element, and the maximum diameter of elements of partition tends to zero. The value of this integral is not dependent on the choice of side of the surface S over which the integration is performed. If a projection a of the surface S on the jo/-plane is single-valued, that to the z-axis intersects the surface S at only is, every straight line parallel one point, then the appropriate surface integral of the first type may be calculated from the formula

where AS/
z/)

(*' y)

dx

dl J-

(a)
1.

Example

Compute

the surface integral

where S

is

the surf ace of the cube

0<Jt<l,

<//<!,
upper edge
of

Let us compute the sum of the surface integrals over the the cube (z=l) and over the lower edge of the cube (z 0):

00

00
integral
is

00
obviously
three

The desired surface

times

greater

and

equal to

If P P(x, //, z), Q Q (*, y, z), continuous functions and S + is a side of the smooth surface S characterized by the direction of the normal n {cos a, cos p, cos Y}. t'hen ihe corresponding surface integral of the second type is expressed as follows:

R = R(x,

2. Surface

integral of the second type.

y, z) are

P dy dz + Q

dz

dx+ R

dx

dy=

f f

(P cos a

-f

cos p

+ R cos Y) dS.

Sec. 10]

Surface Integrals

285

When we pass to the other side, S~, of the surface, this integral reverses sign. then the direcIf the surface 5 is represented implicitly, F (x, y, z) 0, tion cosines of the normal of this surface are determined from the formulas

1 OF Q COSa==-pr^-, COSB ^ D dx

dF
,

-FT^ D dy

COS V T

OF
,

-rr- -T

dz

where

and the choice

with the side

of sign before the radical of the surface S.

should

be

brought into agreement

P (.v, //, z), Q Q (x, //, z), If the functions P continuously differentiable and C is a closed contour bounding a two-sided surface S, we then have the Stokes' formula

R = R(x,
(j)

3.

Stokes'

formula.

y, z) are

= rr\fdR dQ\ 3-- 5- 1 dz

JJ l\dy
5
\ \

c s

+ -3 ^\dt

Id?

dR\ Tdx

fi cos a
l

^ +
,

fdQ
\dx
3-2-

dP\
T1

dy J

cos v y
|

dS,

where cos a, cos p, cosy are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface S, and the direction of the normal is defined so that on the side of the normal the contour S is traced counterclockwise (in a rigiit-handed coordinate
system).

Evaluate the following surface integrals of the

2347.
2348.
8

first
2

type:
2

$$ (*
6

4
2

tf)dS, where S

is

the sphere x +//

is

-{-z

= a*.
of

5$
s.

Vx

-\-tfdS

where 5

the

lateral

surface

the

cone

+ g_?6 i= =0 [O^z^bl
integrals
of

Evaluate the following surface

2349.
\ \

the second type:

is

yz dydz -\-xzdz dx-\- xydxdy, where 5

the

external
A:

side of the surface of a tetrahedron

=Q

= 0, x+y + z = a.

bounded by the planes

0,

2350.

Nzdxdy, where S

is

the external side of the ellipsoid

2351.
o

x dydz-\-y*dzdx + z*dxdy,

where S
2

is

the
2

external

O^y^l,

a (z side of the surface of the hemisphere +// 2352. Find the mass ot the surface of the cube Os^z 1, if the surface density at the point Is equal to xyz.

+? =

^0).
y, z)

<

O^x^l,

M (x,

286

2 2 homogeneous parabolic envelope az^je + #

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals

[C/i.

2353. Determine the coordinates of the centre of gravity of a

(0<z<a).
of

2354.

Find

the

moment

of

inertia of a part

the lateral

x 2 -f y 2 [0 z about the z-axis. surface of the cone z ft] 2355. Applying Stokes* formula, transform the integrals:
2

=V
2

< <
2

a)

(x

- yz) dx + (y

zx)

dy +

(z

xy) dz\

c
b)
(j)

ydx-\-zdy + xdz.

Applying Stokes' formula, find the given integrals and verify the results by direct calculations:
2356.
c
(f (y

+ z)dx + (z + x)dy + (x + y)dz,

z)dx^(z
2

where

is

the circle

2357.

(y

x)dy +
2

(x

y)dz, where

is

the ellipse

JC

-|-//

=1,

X + 2=l.

2358. ()xdx
c
//

+ (x-{-y)dy + (x + y + z)dz, where C is the curve = acos/, z = a (sin + cos/) [0 </^2nj. 0sin/, 2359. $ y dx-{ z dy + x dz, where ABC A is the contour of ABCA
/
2
z

/IflC with vertices

(a, 0, 0),
is

(0, a, 0),

C (0,

0, a).

2360. In what case

/

the line integral

= $ Pdx + Qdy + Rdz

c

over any closed contour

Sec.

equal to zero?

11. The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula

If

=Q

is

closed

thMr

(A% y, z), first partial

R=

smooth surface bounding the volume V, and P

/? (v,
(/,

(x, y, z),

are functions that are continuous together with derivatives in the closed region V then we have the Ostroe)
t

gradsky- Gauss formula

where crsa, cos p, surface S

cosy are the direction cosines

of the outer normal to the

Applying the Ostrogradsky-Gauss formula, transform the following surface integrals over the closed surfaces S bounding the

>ec.

11]

/olume V(t*osa, cosp,

lormal to the surface
2361. JJ
s

_
J J 6
J

The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula

cosy are direction cosines of the outer

S).

_
is
is

287

xydxdy+yzdydz -\-zxdzdx.
x 2 dy dz +
y* dz

2362. 2363.

dx

+z

d* dy.

Using the Ostrogradsky-Gauss formula, compute the following

surface integrals:

2o65.

x*dydz + y*dzdx + z*dxdy, where S

cube

the external

side of the surface of the

O^x^a, O^r/^n, O^z^a.

the external side

2366.
of a

pyramid bounded by the surfaces x + y-{-z

x*
^

\ \

xdydz + ydzdx + zdxdy, where 5

= a,
is

= Q,y = Q,
external

z=-0.
2367.

dydz-\-if dzdx
2
2

= z* dxdy,
2

where 5

the

side of the sphere x

//
2

2368

^(jc cosa-t y
o

~a cos p + 2
-|-z

2
.

cos

y)

d5,

where S

is

the exter-

nal total surface of the cone

2369. Prove that direction, then

if

is

closed

surface

and

is

any

fixed

where n

is the outer normal to the surface S. 2370. Prove that the volume of the solid surface S is equal to

V bounded by

the

=
-3

M
of

where cose, cosp, cosy are the direction cosines normal to the surface S.

the outer

288

Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

Sec. 12. Fundamentals of Field Theory

1. Scalar and vector

of the point

surfaces f
field.

(x,

= /(/>) = /(*, = C, where y, z)

fields.
t/,

C=

z),

defined by the scalar function is a point of space. The const, are called level surfaces of the scalar
scalar field
is

where

(x, y, z)

A vector field is defined by the vector function of the point a a(P)~ a(r), where P is a point of space and r=xi-\-yj+zk is the radius vector of the point P. In coordinate form, a a v j-\-a z k, where a x ~a x (x, y, z), ax i a and a z a z (x, //, z) are projections of the vector a on the y ay(x, y, z), coordinate axes. The vector lines (force lines, flow lines) of a vector field are found from the following system of differential equations

dx__dy _dz

~~~'
does
it

scalar or vector
if

field

that

stationary; ~

'ry; -

the time, depends on t t. Th Gradient. The vector

"

it

not depend on the time is called nonstationary.

is

called

where

V = ^3-+y^- + ^y

is

the

Hamiltonian operator

(del,

or

nabla),

is

called the gradient of the field U f (P) at the given point P (ci. Ch. VI, Sec. 6). The gradient is in the direction of the normal n to the level surface at the point P and in the direction of increasing function U, and has length equal
to

dn~~
If

\dx

the direction

is

given

by the unit vector

{cos a, cos p, cos Y},

-

then

=
(the derivative of the function 3. Divergence and rotation.

cos

a+

- cos p +
/).

cosy

in

the direction

The divergence

of a vector field

a (P)

~ a^i

\~

+ ay j+a z k

is

the scalar

diva-^ +

The rotation

(curl) of a vector field

+ ^^Va. a (P) = ax + ay j + az k
i

is

the

vector

da z

da y

4. Flux of a vector. The flux of a vector field a(P) in a direction defined by the unit vector of the normal
to the surface

is

the integral
\

through a surfaces ujcosa, cos p, COSY}

an dS =

an dS

\
\

(ax cos

a -|- a

cos p

+ az cos Y) dS.

If S is a closed surface bounding a volume V, and n is a unit vector of the outer normal to the surface S, then the Ostrogradsky -Gauss formula holds,

Sec. 12]

Fundamentals of Field Theory

form
is ff
(\ r\ r*

289

which

in vector

div

a dx dy

dz.

vector

5. Circulation of a vector, the work a along the curve C is defined by

f a

of a Held.

The

line

integral of the

the formula
a dy -f a z dz y

dr =

a s ds

a x dx

-f-

(0

C
the

If C is closed, then the line integral (1) is called the circulation of the vector field a around the contour C. If the closed curve C bounds a two-sided surfaces, then Stokes' formula holds, which in vector form has the form

and represents the work done by the field a along projection of the vector a on the tangent to C).

curve

(a s is

the

adr=

f f

/i

rotadS,

where n is the vector of the normal to the surface S; the direction of the vector should be chosen so that for an observer looking in the direction of n the circulation of the contour C should be counterclockwise in a right-handed
coordinate system.

6.
tial
if

Potential

and solenoidal

fields.

The

vector

iield

a(r)

is

called poten-

U,

where Uf(r) is a scalar function (the potential of the field). For the potentiality of a field a, given in a simply-connected domain, it be non rotational, that is, rota = 0. In it is necessary and sufficient that that case there exists a potential U defined by the equation

dU ~a x dx-}- a v dy -f- a 2 dz.

If

the potential

is a

single-valued function, then

a dr

(B)

U (A);

AB
in

particular, the circulation of the vector

is

equal to zero:

m adr=Q.

a = 0;

A
If

vector field a (r) is called solenoidal if at each point of the field div in this case the flux of the vector through any closed surface is zero. the field is at the same time potential and solenoidal, then div (grad U)=.Q

and the potential function

is

harmonic;

that

is,

it

satisfies the

Laplace

"Er++5-<>.
Laplacian operator

or

AU=0

'

where

A= *'=;+>+> isthe

2371. Determine the level surfaces of the scalar field

where

U = F(Q),
10-1900

\fx*+y*-\-z*.

What

will the level surfaces be of a field

where

290

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals

[Ch. 7

2372. Determine the level surfaces ot the scalar field

U = arc sin

2373. Show that straight lines parallel to a vector c are the vector lines of a vector field a(P) c where c is a constant vector. 2374. Find the vector lines of the field a CD*// 4 CDJC/, where CD is a constant. 2375. Derive the formulas:

a) b)
c) j\

are constants;
2

+ C K) = C gTad(UV) = Ugrad grad (t/ = 26/ grad

grad(C
l

i/

gradf/

+C

gradV, where C,

and

C2

d)
e)

V grad(/ U AfU\ =-* grad

(^ J

grad

<p ((/)

cp' (t7)

grad U.

2376. Find the magnitude and the direction of the gradient 3 x* z of the field U if 3xyz at the point A (2, 1, 1). Deterthe gradient of the field is perpendicular to mine at what points the z-axis and at what points it is equal to zero. 2377. Evaluate grad f/, if U is equal, respectively, to: a) r,

+ +

b)

r\

c)

d) /(r)(r

= /?+^qr?).

a constant vector.

2378. Find the gradient of the scalar field U cr, where c is What will the level surfaces be of this field, and what will their position be relative to the vector c?
2379. Find the derivative of the function

=
x

U = ^ + y + ~ala ^

given point P(x, y,

this point. 'In

z)

what case

in the direction of the radius vector r of will this derivative be equal to the
of

magnitude of the gradient? 2380. Find the derivative

the

function

U=

in the di-

rection of /{cosa, cosp, cosy}. In what case will this derivative be equal to zero? 2381. Derive the formulas:
a)

div^aj + C^^Cjdivaj + Cjjdivajj, where C and C

l

are

constants; b) div (i/c)

c)

= grad /, where c is div((/a) = grad U-a+ (/diva.

di

a constant vector;

2382. Evaluate

2383. Find div

for the

central

vector

field

where

a(P)

= /(r)~

Sec.

12]

Fundamentals of Field Theory

291

2384. Derive the formulas:

a) b)
c)

constants;

+ C a = C rota + C rota where C and rot(/c) = grad U-c, where c is a constant vector; rot (Ua) = grad U a + U rot a.
rot(C a l
1

2)

are

2385.

a
is

if

is,

Evaluate the divergence and the rotation of the vector respectively, equal to: a) r\ b) re and c) f(r)c, where c

a constant vector.

2386. Find the divergence and rotation of the field of linear velocities of the points of a solid rotating counterclockwise with constant angular velocity o> about the z-axis. 2387.' Evaluate the rotation of a field of linear velocities co r of the points of a body rotating with constant angular

velocity <o about some axis passing through the coordinate origin. 2388. Evaluate the divergence and rotation of the gradient of the scalar field U. 2389. Prove that div(rota) 0. 2390. Using the Ostrogradsky-Qauss theorem, prove that the flux of the vector a r through a closed surface bounding an arbitrary volume v is equal to three times the volume. 2391. Find the flux of the vector r through the total surface 2 of the cylinder # 2 </? 2 0<e<//. // 2392. Find the flux of the vector a x*i y*j+z*k through:

a) the lateral surface of the cone 0<e<//; b) the total surface of the cone. 2393*. Evaluate the divergence and the flux of an attractive

j<f^,

force
origin,

F=

of a

point of

mass w, located

at the coordinate

through an arbitrary closed surface surrounding this point. 2394. Evaluate the line integral of a vector r around one turn of the screw-line * = /?cos/; y = Rsmt\ z = lif from / =
/

2n. 2395. Using Stokes' theorem, evaluate the circulation of the vector a zk along the circumference x* + if x*tfi R 2 z=-0, 2 2 jt taking the hemisphere z J/"/? if for the surface. 2396. Show that if a force F is central, that is, it is directed

to

+j+

and depends only on the distance r from where f(r) is a single-valued continuous point: function, then the field is a potential field. Find the potential U
this

towards a fixed point

F = f(r)r,

of the field.

2397. Find the potential by a material point of mass

nates:

of a gravitational field generated located at the origin of coordi-

a=

~r. Show

that the potential

satisfies the

Laplace

equation
10*

292

_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals

(Ch. 7

and

2398. Find out whether the given vector field has a potential find if the potential exists:

U,

a)

b)
c)

a a a=

2399. Prove that the central space field

lenoidal only
is

= /(r)rwill

be so-

when

= ~, f(r)

where k

is

constant.

2400. Will the vector field a constant vector)?

a = r(cxr)

be solenoidal (where c

Chapter

VIII

SERIES

Sec.

1.

Number Series

1. Fundamental concepts. A number series

00

a,+a t +...+a +...=

tt

2a n-\
l

tt

(1)

is

called convergent

if

its

partial

sum

has a finite limit as n

of the series, while the

>

oo.

The quantity

S=

lim S n n -+ oo

is

then called the sum

number

is

called the remainder of the series.

If

the limit lim

n -*

Sn
QO

does not exist (or

is

infinite), the series is then called divergent. If a series converges, then lim a n Q (necessary condition for convergence).

n-*oo

The converse

not true. For convergence of the series (1) it is necessary and sufficient that such that for n any positive number e it be possible to choose an and for any positive p the following inequality is fulfilled:
is

for

>N

(Cauchifs test). The convergence or divergence

subtract a finite

of

series

is

not

violated

if

we add

or

number
test

of

its

terms.

2.
a)

Tests of convergence

and divergence
If

Comparison

I.

<a,,<6 n

of positive series. after a certain n n

and the

series

*!

+ *,+ ..

+*,!+. ..^

(2)

converges, then the series (1) also converges. If the series ( J) diverges, then (2) diverges as well. It is convenient, for purposes of comparing series, to take a geometric
progression:
00

2 aq n=o

n
(a

0),

294

Series

[Ch. 8

which converges

for

|^|<land

diverges for

\q\^\, and

the harmonic series

which

is

divergent series.
1.

Example

The

series

+
converges, since here

++
a

+
J_

"~n-2 n

2*'

while the geometric progression

1

n=i

whose ratio

is

<7

=
The

converges.

Example

2.

series
ln_2

ln_3

In

/i

diverges, since
of

its

general term

is

greater than

the

corresponding

term

the harmonic series (which diverges).

b)

Comparison
if

test

II.

If

there

exists a finite
series (1)

and
(2)

nonzero

limit

n (in

particular,

a n -^b n ), then the

series

lim ? y. b n
at

and

converge or diverge

the

same time. Example 3. The

diverges, since

1"

n J

whereas a series with general

term

diverges.

Example

4.

The

series

_J_
converges, since

_J

while a series with general

term

converges.

Sec. 1]

c)

a limit

__
Number
Series

295

D'Alembert's

test.

Let

an

>

(after

certain

n)

and

let

there be

lim
n
-> GO

-l =
an
1,
is

q.

Then the
it
is

series (1) converges

not

known whether
5.

if q the series

<

and

diverges

if

>

1.

If

<7

1,

then

convergent or not.

Example

Test the convergence of the series

1+1+1+ 2 2
'

22

Solution. Here,

and

lim

?-H =
2

Hence, the given series converges. d) Cauchy's test. Let of^^O (after a certain n) and
lim
n
-> OD

let

there

be a limif

n/~ =
n
if

Then

(1)

converges

if

q<\,

and diverges

q>\. When q=l

the question
is

of the convergence of the series

remains open. e) Cauchy's integral test. If a n f(n), where the function f (x) rnonotomcally decreasing and continuous for jc^a^l, the series

=
"

(1)

positive, and the

integral
00

/ (x)

dx

converge or diverge at the same time.

By means

of the integral test

it

may

be proved that the

Dirichlet series

converges
of

if

p>
6.

1,

and diverges
tested

series

may

be

by

The convergence of a large number if p<^\. comparing with the corresponding Dirichlet

series (3)

Example

Test the following series for convergence

-U--L + -L+
Solution.

--^"
1

*
1

r "'
i

We

have
~

__1_1

J^
4/i
2

'

296

comparison

Since the Dirichlet series converges for p 2, it follows that on the basis of test II we can say that the given series likewise converges. 3. Tests for convergence of alternating series. If a series

__
Series

[Ch. 8

l+.-.
composed
of the absolute

+ |fll+...,
terms of the series
(1),

(4)

values of the

then (1) also converges and is called absolutely convergent. verges and (4) diverges, then the series (1) is called conditionally (not absolutely) convergent. For investigating the absolute convergence of the series (1), we can make use [for the series (4)] of the familiar convergence tests of positive series. For instance, (1) converges absolutely if
lim

converges, But if (1) con-

<
0-n

or

lim
n
(1)

-> oo

/KI<
not

1.

In the general case, the divergence of

does

follow

from

the

diver-

gence of
(4)

(4).

But

if

lim
n
-

?2_J
I

>

or

GO

lim /\a n n -> oo K

\>

1,

then not only does

diverge but the series (1) does also. Leibniz test If for the alternating series

*!-*
the following
conditions
are

+*3- **+
fulfilled:
1)

(*^0)
bl

(5)
s

^ b ^b
2

^.

2)

lim
n
oc

bn

then

(5)

converges.

In this case, for the

remainder

of

the series

Rn

the evaluation

holds.

Example

7.

Test for convergence the series

Solution. Let us
this series:

form a series of

the

absolute

values

o!

the

terms of

Since
lim

.
The
series

lim
I

oo

the series converges absolutely.

Example

8.

converges, since the conditions of the Leibniz converges conditionally, since the series
14-*

test are fulfilled.

This series

4-

4-4

diverges (harmonic series).

Sec

/\

Note. For the convergence of an alternating series it is not sufficient that general term should tend to zero. The Leibniz test only states that an alternating series converges if the absolute value of its general term tends to zero monotonically. Thus, for example, the series
its

__
Number
Series

297

diverges despite the fact that its general term tends to zero (here, of course, the monotonic variation of the absolute value of the general term has been
violated). Indeed, here,

S 2k = S' + S" k k

where

and
limit

lim
k -

S k = cc(S k Sk
exists

is

a partial
is

sum

of the
is

harmonic

series),

whereas the

lim
fe

and

finite (S k

partial

sum

o f the convergent geo-

-*

metric progression), hence,

k

lim
-> 00

S 2fe =oo.

of

the other hand, the Leibniz test is not necessary for the convergence series: an alternating series may converge if the absolute value of its general term tends to zero in nonmonotonic fashion Thus, the series

On

an alternating

.22

~3 a

42

_
~~'""(2n
1)'

converges (and it converges absolutely), although the Leibniz test is not fulfilled: though the absolute value of the general term of the series tends to zero, it does not do so monotonically. 4. Series with complex terms A series with the general term c n a n

00 z

-]-ib n (i
00

1)

converges

if,

and only

if,

the

series

with

real

terms

n=i

an

and

2&,, conver g e
n
\

a*

the

same time;

in this case

n=i

SC

=S =
n

8
i

+'2Xn =
i

(6)

The series (6) definitely converges series

and

is

called absolutely convergent,

if

the

whose terms are the moduli 5. Operations on series.

a)

of the

terms of the series

multiplied

(6),

converges.

convergent series
if

may

be

termwise by
t

any

number

fc;

that

is,

a,

+a

+...+fl n + ...=S

then

298

__
Series
b)

_
.

[Ch.

By

the

sum

(difference) of
fli

two convergent

series
If

*!

+ flt+-..+fl n +...=5 + *,+ .. .+*+...=$,

b z)

(7)

(8)

we mean

a series
(a,

bl)

+ (a

+ (a n
and
(8)

bn )
is

+
t

=S,

S2

c)

The product

of

the series
cl

(7)

the series
(9)

where
If

cn

= a,bn + a A-I +

verges
d)

terms
verges

the series (7) and (8) converge absolutely, then the series (9) also conabsolutely and has a sum equal to S S 2 If a series converges absolutely, its sum remains unchanged when the of the series are rearranged. This property is absent if the series conconditionally.
{
.

+ c>+...+cn +... +0M = 2

*>

Write the simplest formula of the the indicated terms:

2401.
2402.

/ith

term

of the series

using

1+1+J + I+...

2404.

i+4 + j+^+...
4+*.+ ^+... f+{ + + +
. .

1+1+1+1+"1+1 + 4 + 4+.. + + + ~4
.

2405.

2403.

2406.

2407.

+...

2409.
2410.

H-

- 14 ~
1

-I-

1+
.

In Problems 2411-2415 it is required to write the first 4 or 5 terms of the series on the basis of the known general term a n

2411. a n

|q^.

2414. a n

=
=

2412.

t^.
flrt

2413

2415 a din*. \*

Test the following series for convergence by applying the comparison tests (or the necessary condition):

2416.

+1

+ ...+(

1)-'

...

Number

Series

299

2418.

+ +

0419

J___1_
.

4^ 4 4- 6 4^ ^

'

'

'

-I'

2i

4^

'

'

'

2421.

+
02

++
1/2-3
OJ

...

+
O"

+
... 4'

2422.

-= + -=-f -= + ^3-4
+ + y+...
i-

]fn

(n

+ \)

2423. 2

+=;-+..

-'

3 V'2

4 J/3

(n

1-1)

"

Using d'Alembert's
gence:
2427.

lest,

test

the

following
'

bones

for

conver-

-l=
2
1 !

+ 4 4-^- +...-'
1-5

2 "~'

98 -*'

''-} ^ 1-5-9
-

'
'

1-5- 9. ..(4/i-3)

Test for convergence, using Cauchy's test:

Test for convergence the positive series:

2431. 2432.

1+1 + 1+...+1+... 1 + 1 + 1+ ..+ _

1
.

((H

)2

+...

2433

r4+4T7 + 7no+
)

+(3n-2M3n+l
...

24.i+f -^+... +sSFI+

2435.
^TtjO
r/lo/
^
.'^
i

^ + 1- + ^+...+^+...
5
i

7
I

J_
i

_X.

__________
l

9 ^

j_

300

Series

[Ch.

2439.

-+ +
1+

+...

2440.
2441> 2442.

+...

++...

1++.+
1,
4

...
1.3.5.. .(2/1-1)
'

1-jT

-3,

1-3.5

4^M2~*"

""

4-8-12...4n

2445.
""
1000. 1002. 1004... (998 1-4-7. ..(3n-2)

+2n)

2.5-8...(6 n
!. 5.9...

-7)(6g-4)

"

(8_H)(8n -7)

2447

...

2449

I,

^--^ 1.3.5.7.9 '"" ....^

I

'- 4

1 '

4'9

1-4-9.

..

'

1-3-5-7- 9... (4n

""*
3)

2450.

arcsin.
sin.
i=J

2455.

!,

2451.

2456.

2452 152.

Ulnfl+l). ^
\

n J

2457.

,. ~

ri'lnn-ln In n

^-

00

2453.

yin^i.

2458.
/J=2

2454

E -'

2459

STTOTJ

Sec. 1]

Number

Series

2464.

cos-2-) ^

2469. Prove that the series

1)

converges for arbitrary q

if

and for </<!, if 2) diverges for arbitrary q, if Test for convergence the following alternating series. For convergent series, test for absolute and conditional convergence.
2470.

p>l, p<l,

and

for

?>1,

if

p=l; p=l.

l1

+ -....ui--f...
...

(_n-i

2471.
2472.

-- - + /2 K3

l_ + _... +
l_

..

2473.

+ 3_... + (^S +

2474

'

"

+
+

^- -. +(-!).

2475. 2476.

__
9

+ _. ..+(_!)
I

-- -- -- ---^--h...+
^ a

.^+...
n+\

2|^2

7=4

3^3

7=4

4^41
,

n {) (n

\)

947Q "'

l_k!-J-lL_
7

-i

7.9~t"7.9.11

"TV

ii-' U

1-4. 7... (3/1-2) 7.9-11. ..(2/1 5)'

302

Series

[Ch. 8

sin

na

2481.

(_l)"l^,

2482.
n^i

ly-'tan

Vn

gence does not

series

2483. Convince yourself that the d'Alembert test for converdecide the quesl ide question of the convergence of the

2a

>

where

test it is possible to establish that this series converges. 2484*. Convince yourself that the Leibniz test cannot be applied to the alternating series a) to d). Find out which of these series diverge, which converge conditionally and which con-

whereas by means of the Cauchy

verge absolutely:
a) '

_J

___
_1_

l
|

"

.j; r

+y
.

3F

+ 21
.

3?+

'

i_
3

*~

_
3
]

"L

32

h 5

__u
"

'

'

'

3*

^\ d)

_ _ T _l + T T + TT T +...
!
!

Test the following series with complex terms for convergence:

CO

2485.
00

^2+#.

2488.

V.
00

00

2486,

1=1

X" 7
3

(2 '

1)
''.

2489.
=i

Sec.

1]

__
Number
Series
-

303

r(2-Q + 1"
l

'

fa
2493. Between the curves
of their point of to the t/-axis at
{/

[n(3-20-3ij
to

=X -?

and

y=-^ and X

the right

of

intersection are constructed segments parallel an equal distance from each other. Will the sum the lengths of these segments be finite? 2494. Will the sum of the lengths of the segments mentioned

in

Problem 2493 be

finite if the

curve \)^-\ x

is

replaced

by the

curve y
2495.

=
X

?
00

Form

the

sum

of

the series

^-^ and
00

Does

this

sum converge? Form

anc*
the
difference
of

2496.

the

divergent

series

]T

and
rt

* es *

'*

for convergence.

2497.
QC

Does

the

series
00

formed

by

subtracting

the

series

TT

-f

sef i es

21
n
i

converge?

2498. Choose two series such that their

their difference diverges.

sum converges while

CC QC

2499.

Form

the product

of the

series

V ~nVn
.

and V.OTTM2
n

tt

Does

this product converge?

2500.

Form

the series
(l

+1 + 1+

..

+ J~-f( -

V.

Does

this series converge?

2501. Given the series

1+1 1+

...+

^+...

Estimate

the error committed when replacing the sum of this series with the sum of the first four terms, the sum of the first five terms. What can you say about the signs of these errors? 2502*. Estimate the error due to replacing the sum of the
series

y+
by the sum

2!

(2")

+ ~3\('2J + " + 5H2")

n terms.

+"

of its first

304

series

_ __
Series

[Ch. 8

2503. Estimate

the

error

due to replacing the sum

of

the

JL -L-L-L-l.

^2M3M

"+/i!^"'
the

4-

4-

by the

sum

of its first

n terms. In particular, estimate the accu-

racy of such an approximation for n=10. 2504**. Estimate the error due to replacing
series
1

sum

of the

+ 22 + 32+

+^i+

'

by the

racy of such
series
1

n terms. In particular, estimate the accuan approximation for n= 1,000. 2505**. Estimate the error due to replacing the sum of the
of its first

sum

+ 2(i)'43()V.
of
its
first

by the

sum

n terms.
00

Zl
n=i

_ I)""
-

does one have

to

to

take to compute decimals?

2507.

its

sum

to

two decimal

places?

three

How many

terms of
its

the series
(2/1

-MIS*

does one
to three?

have to take to compute

to four?

sum

to

two decimal places?

series

2508*. Find

the

sum

of

the

-L +

gL + jL

..

2509. Find the

sum

of the series

Sec. 2. Functional Series

1. Region of convergence. The

the functional series
/.<*)

set of values of the

argument x

for

which
(1)

+ /.(*)+.. .+M*)+...
The function
S(*)

converges

is

called the region of convergence of this series.

=
n

lim
-* QO

Sn

(x),

where S n
vergence,

(x)
is

fl

(x)

+f

called the

(x)+ ...+f n (x), and x belongs to sum of the series; R n (x) = S(x)S n

the
(x) is

region of conthe remainder

of the series.

Sec. 2]

In

convergence of a series holding x constant.

_ _
Functional Series
the

305

simplest

cases,

it

(1), to

is sufficient, when determining the region of apply to this series certain convergence tests,

Diverges

-3-101
Fit*.

,%f?

Diverges

104

Example

1.

Determine the region

of

convergence
t

of the series

x+\

" (x+\y ~ (X+\Y " ~ (*+iy TT" 2-2* "~T^r t""'~ n- 2" +
1 t

'

Solution. Denoting by u n the general term of the series,

we
'

will

have

lim

M -*|

\U n

*'* * lim I'+H Jx+l\ 2 n^*2 n + (n+\) |jc|

11
1

Using d'Alembert's
absolutely),
l,
if

test,

we can
that

assert that the series converges (and converges

is,
if

'<!
is,
if

3<x<l;
or

the

series diverges,
104).

if

that

oo<^<
1

1< x <
-t

oo

(Fig.

When x=l

we

get the

harmonic
the
series

series

+ TT+-Q-+.. o 2 T +..., o
series

which diverges, and when

(in

x=

we have
test)

+ -~
2,

which

accord

with the Leibniz

converges (conditionally). Thus, the scries converges when 2. Power series. For any power
c

3^*<1.
fl)'+
. .

+ c, (A-a) + c
R with

(*

+c n (x

B
fl)

(3)

(c n

and a are
|

real

gence)

a
|

<

numbers) there exists an interval (the interval of convercentre at the point x a, with in which the series (3)
\

a R the series diverges. In special cases, the converges absolutely; for \x and oo. At the end-points of radius of convergence R may also be equal to a the interval of convergence x R, the power series may either converge or diverge. The interval of convergence is ordinarily determined with the help of the d'Alembert or Cauchy tests, by applying them to a series, the terms of which are the absolute values of the terms of the given series (3). Applying to the series of absolute values

>

the convergence tests of d'Alembert and Cauchy, we get, respectively, for the radius of convergence of the power series (3), the formulas

=
lim
n rt*

and

# = Hm
-

'

"/|c,,|

too

However, one must be very careful in using them because the limits on the right frequently do not exist. For example, if an infinitude of coefficients cn

306

vanishes [as a particular instance, this occurs if the series contains terms with only even or only odd powers of (x a)], one cannot use these formulas. It is then advisable, when determining the interval of convergence, to apply the d'Alembert or Cauchy tests directly, as was done when we investigated the series (2), without resorting to general formulas for the radius of convergence.
If

__
Series
z

\Ch. 8

= x + ty

is

complex variable, then

for the

power
n
)

series
(4)

z-Zo)
(cn = a n + ib n

+...+C n (Z-Z Q +...

there exists a certain circle (circle of convergence) z z inside which the series converges z |>fl the series diverges. At points lying on the cirabsolutely; for Iz cumference of tne circle of convergence, the series (4) may both converge and diverge. It is customary to determine the circle of convergence by means of the d'Alembert or Cauchy tests applied to the scries
|z

-z

<R

Jt

-f/f/

with centre at the point

whose terms are absolute values of the terms of the given series. Thus, for example, by means of the d'Alembert test it is easy to see that the circle of
convergence of the series
""
""

1-2

2-2 2

3.2 s

~~"'~~

n .2*

~""'

is determined by the inequality |z-f 1 |<2 [it is sufficient to repeat the calculations carried out on page 305 which served to determine the interval of convergence of the series (2), only here x is replaced by z]. The centre of the circle of convergence lies at the point z 1, while the radius R of this circle (the radius of convergence) is equal to 2. 3. Uniform convergence. The functional series (1) converges uniformly on some interval if, no matter what e 0, it is possible to find an N such that does not depend on x and that when for all x of the given interval we have the inequality R n (x) where R n (x) is the remainder of the e,

>

<

n>N

given series. If \fn( x )\*f* c n

(rt=l,
the

2,

...)

when

a^x^b
(I)

and

the

number

series

n-\
absolutely and uniformly (Weierstrass' test). series (3) converges absolutely and uniformly on any interval lying within its interval of convergence. The power series (3) may be termwise differentiated and integrated within its interval of convergence (for fl| <RY, that is, if |x
[a,

cn

converges,

then

functional

series

converges

on the interval

The power

*-) +
2

+c n (xa)+
l
. .

=/(*),
(3),

(5)

then

for

any x of the interval of convergence of the series

we have
(6)

-a)+. ..+ncn (xa)*- +.

cQ

=f (x),

dx+

d (xa) dx+

c2

(xa) dx+

cn

(xa) n dx+...=

Sec. 2]

[the

number # also belongs to the interval of convergence of. the series (3)J. Here, the series (6) and (7) have the same interval of convergence as the
(3).

_
of
n1

Functional Series

_
n1

307

series

Find the region

2510.

convergence

of the series:

2511.

(-D-'.
+I
(

25.9.

2512.
M=
00
I

l)"

-jbn
Mx l^A-

252

n-i
3D

2-(jzrkv^
>
2/1-4^'*'
I

O(T

v~^ sin (9n

^'oMI^fl

O^vQI

1 *

n=i

ri

=o
nr

2514.

X
/l

2 sin

"

-J-

2522

25.5**.

X^i.
=

2523.

/I=l

V^
X

2516.

(-l)"

fI

*- nMn *.

2524*.

2517.

2-p-

2525.

Find the interval of convergence of the power series and test the convergence at the end-points of the interval of convergence:
2531.

2532.
30

2528.

X ^rr.
n-1

yin

2533.

2529.
n=i
'

2534.

2530.

-_^".

2535.

308
CO

Series

[Ch.
00

OCQA 25<JO.

V >, ^
CO

s ;-= \2rt-f-ly

V""

r* .

0**1 > 2551. ^CO

^-rr 4

+ 5)* n ~
7^ n

n=i

2n4

2537.
CO

2553.
n=i

(-!)

,n
2539.

^-'
2554.

V 2 "' X (3
t

2541.

a=i

^1

2556.

2542**.

2^
n=i

nl

xnl

2557.

21
/I

+l
(

l)"

>

(AT-2)"
/j"

2544*.

2V=1

2558.

2545.

2(-l)"" -^|r. n
2559*.

l(

n=o
X(A;
2)".

2549.

2 ^S^
V n"
(*

2562.

Y.
n=

(3ft

.^-. >" ! (n+l) 2"+

l

- 2)
1)"

2550.

3)".

2563.

Y(

Sec. 2]

Functional Series

309

Determine the circle

2564.

of

convergence:
2566.

Aarf

V W.
(1-M0 2 ".

^arf
00

n=o

n=i

V <=gC
fl.

2565.
2568.
(1

2567

'

'

+ 2i) + (1 + 20 (3 -h 20 2 +
+ (l+

2569.

+ r=-, + (l-lHI-20

+ (1-00-20. ..(l-/ii)
9*70 257
2571. Proceeding from the definition of uniform prove that the series
.

convergence,

..+*"+...

does not converge uniformly in the interval ( 1, 1), but converges uniformly on any subinterval within this interval.
Solution. Using the formula for the
get, for

sum

of a

geometric

progression,

we

|jc|<

1,

Within the interval ( 1, 1) let us take a submterval [ 1+ct, 1 a], where a is an arbitrarily small positive number. In this subinterval |jc|s^l a,
|1

xl^a

and, consequently,
I

*,.(*)

<

/I
(

_ at"*
;>

1
.

To prove the uniform convergence of the given series over the subintervai it is possible to choose a, 1 a], it must be shown that for any e > an N dependent only on e such that for any n > N we will have the ine-

[1+

quality

Rn

(x)

<e

for all
let

Taking any e>0,

x of the subinterval under consideration. (1 a)"* 1 w+l <ea, us require that e; whence (i a)
-

ea
f
1

<

(n+l)ln(l
ln(ea)_
In (1

a)<ln(ea), that
j

is,

+ >
1

[since ln(l

a)<0] and

ln

Thus>
is

puttin g

Ns=s

when
(-

n>N

a)
t

\R n (x)\

indeed

ln(l less than

\ a)
e

1,

we
all

are

convinced that

for

1+a, 1 aj and the uniform convergence of interval within the interval ( 1, 1) is thus proved. As for the entire interval ( 1, 1), it contains points that are arbitrarily
and since

x of the subinterval the given series on any sub-

close to Jt=i,

Hm R n (x) = \im
X-+1
X-+1

J/I+
.

-- =00,
X

no mattei

how

large n

is,

310

points x will be found for which R n (x) is greater than any arbitrarily large N we number Hence, it is impossible to choose an N such that for n e at all points of the interval ( would have the inequality R n (x) 1, 1), and this means that the convergence of the series in the interval ( 1, 1) is not uniform.
| \

_ __
Series

[C/i.

<

>

2572. Using the definition of uniform convergence, prove that: a) the series

converges uniformly in any

b) the series
x*

finite

interval;

converges

uniformly

throughout

the

interval

of

convergence

(-1.

i);

c) the series

1+F + F+- -+;?+...

converges uniformly positive number;
d) the series
2 4

in

the

interval

(1-1-8,

co)

where 8

is

any

(x

jc

+ (x*- *) +

6 (jc

8 jc ) -f-

+ (x "
2

x 2n+2 )

-h

1, converges not only within the interval ( 1), but at the extremities of this interval, however the convergence of the series in

(1,

1) is nonuniform. Prove the uniform convergence

00

of the functional series in the

indicated intervals:

2573

on the inlerval
on

I"

'

!]

2574.

2^ ~~2~
00
I

over *he en tire number scale.

2575.

)"~

T=

on the interval

[0,

1].

Applying

termwise
Y2
V3

differentiation
\n

and

integration,

find

the

sums

of the series:

2576. x

2577.

2578

+ ^ + ^+. ..+?-+... x x -*- + --...+(-l)'-*L + ., , + + +... + _ + ...

y
y v
y.3

y5

yLfl

Sec. 3]

2579.

__
Taylor's Series

311

*1

2580. 2581.

+ -' .- +(-!)"+2x + 3x* + ... 4

2

v8

r 2 "" 1

+---

l-3*

-[5x

...

2582. 1.242-3A;

3-4A: 4-

...+(/+

!)*""'

Find the sums of the 2583

-

+++ ++
/r

series:

2586.

^ + l+!+...+^L i+...

Sec. 3. Taylor's Series

1. Expanding a function in a power series. If a function f (x) can be of the point a, in a series of expanded, in some neighbourhood a, then this series (called Taylor's series) is of the form powers of A:

\xa\<R

(I)

When
holds

a
if

when

the Taylor scries is also called a Maclaurin's series. Equation (I) the remainder term (or simply remainder) of the

\xa\<R

Taylor series

as n

oo.

To evaluate
fin (x)

the remainder, one can

make

use of the formula

)l

=
find

f(n

l)
l

fl

<*-

fl

where

0<0<1
= =

(2)

(Lagrant*e's form).

Example
Solution.

1.

We

Expand

f
if

X ) =,
is

smh

x,

f" (x)

/'(0)=0, T(0)-l, /'"(0) = 0, ...; generally, / >(0) ")=-0 if n is odd. Whence, from (1), we have:
(II

even, and

(H)

the function f (x) cosh x in a series of powers of x. the derivatives of the given function f (x) cosh x, sinh x, ...; generally, f (n) (x) cosh x, f" (.v) cosh x, sinn A, if n is odd. Putting a 0, we get /(0) (A-) 1,

1,

if

is

even, and

(3)

To determine
d'Alembert

the

interval

of

test.

We
oo

convergence

of

the

series

(3)

we apply the

have

lini

n->

(2/1

312

Series

[Ch. 8
in

for any*. Hence, the series converges remainder term, in accord with formula

the

interval

QO<JC<OO. The

(2),

has the form:

R n (x)=

.cosh 9*,
sinh9*,
if

if

n
is

is

odd, and

R n (x)=
Since

n 1 A +

even.

>9>

it

follows that
~

=^e'*',
1
i

|sinh9*|
. 1

=
with the general term
the

X I"-*'** and therefore \R n (x)\^

I

e1

series

converges for d'Alembert's convergence,

any x
test);

(this is therefore,

made immediately evident with

in

^
\

Y\ n

the help of
for

accord
n+l

with

necessary

condition

lim

and consequently lim #(*) = ()

/2->00

for

any

x.

This signifies that the

sum

of the

series (3) for

any x

is

indeed equal to cosh*.

series.

2. Techniques employed for expanding in power Making use of the principal expansions
I.

= !++*!+.
y

..+fj+...

(_oo<*<oo),

II.

III.

IV.

and also the formula for the sum of a geometric progression, it is possible, in many cases, simply to obtain the expansion of a given function in a power series, without having to investigate the remainder term. It is sometimes
advisable to make use of termwise differentiation or integration when expanding a function in a series. When expanding rational functions in power series it is advisable to decompose these functions into partial fractions.
the boundaries of the interval of convergence (i.e., when 1 it converges absoas follows: for m 1 it and lutely on both boundaries; for diverges when for 1 it l; diverges on both bounconditionally converges when x
*)

On

and x=l) the expansion IV behaves

>

>

m^O

x=

m^

x--\

daries.

Sec. 3]

Taylor's Series
2.

313

Example

Expand

in

powers

of x *) the function

Solution. Decomposing the function

into

partial

fractions,

we

will have

Since

(4)

and
2

^^ ... _

V^
^
n =o

^^

\\ 1 j

n< n x. n l
fi

A>

(5)

it

follows that

we

finally get

(6)
/i

=o

n=Q
(4)

n v n-Q

The geometric progressions

and

and

(5)
(6)

converge,
holds

respectively,
for

when
i.e.,

|x|

<

|*|<y;

hence,

formula

|x|<-j

when

of

3. Taylor's series two variables /(x,

(a,

for a function of two variables. Expanding a function into a Taylor's series in the neighbourhood of a //)

point

b)

has the form

...

(7)

fc If a notation

= = 0,
is

the

Taylor

series

is

then called

Maclaunn's
y)

series.

Here the

as follows:
,

(X

x=a
!l=t>
~

d*f(x,y)
dx*
a)

+2

dy*

~W

and so

forth.

*)

Here and henceforward we mean "in positive integral powers".

314

Series

(Ch. 8

The expansion

(7)

occurs

if

the remainder term of the series

fe=l

as n

* oo.

The remainder term may be represented

n+i

in the

form

where

0<0<

1.

Expand the indicated functions in positive integral powers of *, find the intervals of convergence of the resulting series and investigate the behaviour of their remainders:
2587. a
x

(a>0).
.

9*a sin * -r--r Jooo. cin^r-i-M

Making use

2589. cos(* 2 2590. sin *.

,-,>*
1

+ a).

/^

of the principal expansions I-V and a geometric write the expansion, in powers of *, of the following progression, functions, and indicate the intervals of convergence of the scries:

2592.

7^rJT2
3

2598. cos
,.

*.

2593.

X2

*7 ~4X
x
.

5
.
.

2599. sin 3*

+ * cos 3*.

2594. xe~* 2595. e \

x

2600.
2601.
2602. In
1

2596. sinh*. 2597. cos2*.

*
.

,v

2603. In

(1

-f*
the

2*

).

Applying expand following functions in powers of *, and indicate the intervals in which these expansions
differentiation,

occur:

2604.

(l+*)ln(l+*).

2606. arc sin*.

2607. In (x V\ ). various techniques, expand the given functions in Applying powers of * and indicate the intervals in which these expansions occur:

2605. arc tan*

_
+*
*'

2608. sin *cos *.

2609. 2610.
2611.
(1

+O~

8
-

2613 2614

'

cosh8

Sec

3}
2

Taylor's Series

315

2615. ln(x

+ 3x + 2).
2618. J.
dx.

in/i_L.^/*v rMl + *)**

f'Jl
o

2616.

2619. 2617.
*

"-* z ^"

^L_
V
1

*4

Write the first three nonzero terms of the expansion of the following functions in powers of x: 2620. tan*. 2623. sec*. 2621. tanh*. 2624. In cos*. 2622. e^ x 2625. <?*sin*. 2626*. Show that for computing the length ot an ellipse it is possible to make use of the approximate formula
.

where
ellipse.

is

the

eccentricity

and 2a

is

the

major axis

of

the

2627.

tenary line J

heavy string hangs, under its own weight, in a caand H is the horizontal where a = // J = acosh
a
,

tension of the string, while q that for small *, to the order

string hangs in a

is

the weight of unit length. Show 4 of * it may be taken that the

,

parabola
the
s

y^a
3* +2.

V
-f

2
.

2628.

Expand

function
2

2*

5*

in

series

of

powers
powers

of *-| 4.

2629.
of

f(*)-5*
h

4*

Expand f(x+h)

in a series of
1.

2630. 2631. 2632.

Expand In*
Expand
Expand
Xz
X2
~Y~

in a series of

in a in a
j

powers of * series of powers of *

series of

1.

powers

of

*+l.
of

2633.

Expand

oX
4jc

in a series of
~\~ JL

powers

*-f4.
|-2.

2634.
2635.

Expand
Expand

e* in a

2636. Expand ]/* in

2637.

powers of x series of powers of * + 2. a series of powers of * 4.

7

in a series of

Expand cos*
2 Expand cos *

in a series of

powers
powers powers

of
of

*
*
j

^^.

2638.
2639*.

in a series of
in a series of

Expand In*

_^

of
T-J

316

Series

[Ch. 8

2640.
2641.

Expand
.

-*
the

in a series of

powers
error

of
if

What

is

magnitude

of

the

we put appro-

ximately

^2 + 1 + 1 + 1?
2642.
ber

To what degree of accuracy if we make use of the series

-

will

we

calculate the

num-

-* O

..,

by taking the sum

of

its

first

five

terms when

x=l?
by expand(see
of

2643*. Calculate the number

ing the function arc sin A: in a ple 2606). 2644. How many terms do

to three decimals

series of

powers

Exam-

we have

to take of the series

cosAr=l
in order to calculate cos 18

|j+...,

2645.

How many

to three decimal places? terms do we have to take of the series

+...,

to calculate sin 15 to four decimal places? 2646. How many terms of the series

have to be taken to
2647.

find the

number

to four

How many

decimal places?

terms of the series

In

do we have
cimals?

to take to calculate
__

In 2

to

two decimals? to 3 de-

2648. Calculate \/7 to two decimals by expanding the funcx in a series of powers of x. tion l/S 2649. Find out the origin of the approximate formula

\/ (f-{-x&a

+ ~-

(a>0), evaluate

it

by means

of

Y^3

putting

a = 5,

and estimate the_ error.

2650. Calculate J/I9 to three decimals.

Sec. 3]

Taylor's Series

317

2651. For what values of x does the approximate formula

2
,

JC

yield an error not exceeding 0.01? 0.001? 0.0001? 2652. For what values of x does the approximate formula
sin

X&X

yield an error that does not exceed 0.01? 0.001?

'/*
.

2653. Evaluate

y^-dx
1

to four decimals.

2654. Evaluate

^e~* dx
1

to four decimals.

2655. Evaluate

^
1

l/^ccosxdx to three decimals.

2656. Evaluate
J

2657. Evaluate
1/9

j^l+^'dx

dx to three decimals.

to four

decimals.

2658. Evaluate

^yxe*dx

to three decimals.

of

2659. Expand the function cos(x y) in a series of powers x and y, find the region of convergence of the resulting series and investigate the remainder. Wiite the expansions, in powers of x and y, of the following functions and indicate the regions of convergence of the series:
2660. sin x> sin y. 2 2661. sin(* +y*).

2663*.
,

\n(lxy+xy).
arctan
l

664 *

~*y

j/_

2662*.

\=*!!. \+xy
and
/(*,
k.

2665. f(x, y)

= ax*-\-2bxy + cy*. = x*
2y*

Expand f(x+h,y-\k)in poFind

the

wers of
2666. function

ft

y)

+ 3xy.

increment
f/

when passing from

the values

#=1,

=2

of

this

to the

values

*:=

4-

ft,

y=2 + k.
Expand Expand

2667. 2668.

2. the function e x+y in powers of x -2 and y the function sin(x+y) in powers of x and

318

in

Write the first three or four terms of a power-series expansion x and y of the functions: x 2669. e cosy.
2670.
1

__
Series

[C/i.

(H-*)

*'-

Sec. 4. Fourier Series

let

1. Dirichlet's theorem. conditions in an interval

1)
is

We
(a,

say that a function

b)
if,

f (x)

in this interval,

satisfies the the function

Dirich-

uniformly bounded;
a the

that
finite
first

is

\f(x)\^M when
of
[i.e.,

a
of

<x<

b,

where

is

constant;
2) of

has no more than

number
kind
the

points
at

all

them

are

of

each

the function
finite limit
3)

f (x)

has a finite limit on

left f (g

0)=

discontinuity and g discontinuity Urn f (I e) and a

~"

on the right /(-{-0)= lim /(

e ->o

+ e)

(e>0)J;

has no more than a finite number of points of strict extrenium. Dirichlet's theorem asserts that a function /(*), which in the interval of this interval at ji, Ji) satisfies the Dirichlet conditions at any point x ( which /(x) is continuous, may be expanded in a trigonometric Fourier series:

f(x)=?+ a, cos x + b

sin

+a

cos 2x-\-b 2 sin

2*+

+a n cos nx +

+ b n sinnx+...,
where the Fourier
ji

(1)

coefficients

a n and b n are calculated from the formulas

ji

=
JT

-n

\ J

f(x)cosnxdx(n = Q,

1,

2,

...);&=

f
JI

J
-jt

If x is a point' of discontinuity, belonging to the interval ( of a jt, n), function f (,v), then the sum of the Fourier series S (x) is equal to the arithmetical mean of the left and right limits of the function:

SM = ~
At the end-points
of the interval

n and X = K,

2. Incomplete Fourier
s=/(jc)], then in

series.

If

a function

/ (*)

is

even

[i.

e.,

/(-

x)

formula

(1)

6 rt

-0

(w

2,

...)

and
ji

r
/

/"=^

= 0,

1,2,

...).

Sec. 4]
a function

Fourier Series

319
then
an

If

/ (x)

is

odd

[i.e.,
IT

/(

x)

/ (*)],

=Q

t/i

= 0,

i,

2 ...)

and
bn

=~
JT

\ J

/ (x) sin

nx dx

(n

2,

. .

.).

function specified in an interval (0, n) may, at our discretion, be contior an odd function; hence, in the interval ( Jt, 0) either as an even it may be expanded in the interval (0, Ji) in an incomplete Fourier series of sines or of cosines of multiple arcs. 3. Fourier series of a period 21. If a function f (x) satisfies the Dirichlet the discontinuities conditions in some interval ( /, /) of length 2/, then at of the function belonging to this interval the following expansion holds:

nued

r,

/(*)

=a + y
,

ju
fli

cos
-J-

+ &! stay +a
,

juc

2nx
2

cos
j-

+ b sm+..,
.

2nx

nnx
where

nnx

-M
6n

flllX

f (x)

cos

-- dx
.

(/i

= 0,
/-v

1,

2,

...),
(2)

= -L
'

\f(x)sln^-dx(n=\,
-i

2,

x-l

At the points

of discontinuity of the function f (x) and at the end-points of the interval, the sum of the Fourier series is defined in a manner similar to that which we have in the expansion in the interval ( Jt, n). In the case of an expansion of the function / (x) in a Fourier series in

an arbitrary interval
formulas
(2)

(a,

a-f-2/) of

length

2/,

the

limits

of

integration

in

should be replaced respectively by a and a-|-2/

in the the points of discontinuity and at the end-points of the interval (x ic, X function itself and of the sum JT), construct the graph of the of the corresponding series [outside the interval ( JT, ji) as well]: Q x when ~~ n

Expand
(

the following
ji),

interval

ji,

functions in a Fourier determine the sum of the series

series

at

< ^

>

Consider the special case when

9fi79 2672.
r x

ct

=~

1,

=
the
1;
2

bx when
special cases: 0. d) a=l, 6

Consider
c)
fl

= 0,

a)

= b = l\

b)

1,

6=1;

2673. f(x) 2674. f(x) 2675. f(x)

2679.

=x = eax = slnax.
.

2676. / (x) 2677. f(x) 2678. f (x)

= cos ax. = smhax. = cosh ax.

in

Expand
(0,

the function f(x)

-jr-

a Fourier

series

in

the interval

2ji).

320

in the interval

_
2680.

Series

Expand

the function f(x)

n).

=~

__
g

(Ch. 8

in sines of

multiple arcs
to

(0,

Use the expansion obtained

sum

the

number

series:

Take the functions indicated below and expand them, in the interval (0, jt), into incomplete Fourier series: a) of sines of multiple arcs, b) of cosines of multiple arcs. Sketch graphs of the functions and graphs of the sums of the corresponding seiies in their domains of definition. x. Find the sum of the following series by means 2681. f(x)
of the

expansion obtained:

I+P+P+...
Find the sums of the following number series 2682. f(x) = x by means of the expansion obtained:
2
.

1)

+7)2+ 32+
.

2)

2^"

32

42

"!"

2683. f(x)
2684.

= eax

when
when
-^

/(*)=
x when
ji

0<;c^~
*
interval

x when

Expand the following sines of multiple arcs:

functions, in the

(0,

K),

in

when

0<#^^-,
n ~ < x < n.

2687. f(x)
2688.

(x =
x(n

when
x).

= sin-|. /(A;)
(0,
Ji),

Expand the following functions, in the interval sines of multiple arcs:

u when

in co-

Sec. 4\

__
= x sin x.
cos x

Fourier Series

_
,

321

2690.

when
2691. / (x)

when

< x^ ~
Y

cos x

when

2693. Using the expansions oi the functions x and x* in the in cosines of multiple arcs (see Problems 2681 and it) 2682), prove the equality
interval (0,

2694**. Prove that

?L
(

if

the function /(x)

,

is

even and we have

the
interval
arcs,

+
if

x}

f(~

x\

then

its

Fourier series in
in cosines of

Ji,

n) represents an expansion
the function f(x)
(

odd multiple

and
in

is
it

odd
is

arid

/fy-f *) =/
in

(y~*)
of

then

the interval

Ji,

Ji)

expanded

sines

odd mul-

tiple arcs.

Expand the following functions in cated intervals:

2695. 2696. 2697. 2698.
f(x)

Fourier series in the indi-

= \x\

!<*<!).
1).
Jt

f(x)=*2x
f(x)

= e* (/<*</).
(5<jc<15).

(0<JC<

f(jc)=10

Expand the following functions, in the indicated intervals, in incomplete Fourier series: a) in sines of multiple arcs, and b) in cosines of multiple arcs:
2699. /(*)=! * 2700. /(*) 2701.

(0<*<

1).

(Q<x<l).

2702.
2703.

/M-{ 2 _-; ^n
Expand the following function
in

cosines

of

multiple

T (3
, J

'

\
:

when -|<jr<2, 3_j^ when 2<jc<3.

1

11-1900

Chapter IX

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Sec. 1. Verifying Solutions. Forming Curves. Initial Conditions

Differential

Equations

of

Families of

1. Basic concepts. An equation

F(x, y,
y'

of the type
(n)
t/)

= 0,

(1)

y(x) is the sought-for function, is called a differential equation of order n. The function y y(x), which converts equation (1) into an identity, is called the solution of the equation, while the graph of this function is called an integral curve. If the solution is represented implicitly, O(A, f/)~0, then it is usually called an integral Example 1. Check that the function t/ sinjt is a solution of the equation

where y

Solution.

We

have:

and, consequently,
/"

+y
*/,

sin x -f sin x

^
=

0.

The integral

Cp

....

Cw

(2)

of the differential equation (1), which contains n independent arbitrary constants C t ..., C n and is equivalent (in the given region) to equation (1), is called the general integral of this equation (in the respective region). By assigning definite values to the constants C,, ..., C n in (2), we get particular
,

integrals.

Conversely,
eters Cj

if we have a family of curves C n from the system of equations

(2)

and eliminate

the param-

= 0,

dx

-0.

....

dx n

*-0,

we, generally speaking, get a differential equation of type (1) whose general integral in the corresponding region is the relation (2). Example 2. Find the differential equation of the family of parabolas

y^C^x-CJ.
Solution. Differentiating equation
/'

(3)

(3)

twice,
(/"

we

get:
(4)
(3)

= 2C

(*

C 2)

and

= 2C,.
and
(4),

Eliminating the parameters C, and the desired differential equation

C 2 from

equations

we obtain

Sec

Verifying Solutions
to

323
this

It

is

easy

verify that tha

If

function

(3)

converts

equation

into

an

identity.

2. Initial conditions. differential equation

y
the initial conditions

for the

desired particular solution y

= y(x)

of a

(n)

= f(x,

y, y'

(n ~ l)
)

(5)

are given

and we know the general solution

of

equation

(5)

y = <V(x,
then the
arbitrary constants
of

C, .....

C n ),
(if

C lt

...,

Cn

are determined

this

is

possible)

from the system

equations
</

-cp(*o,

</o=

C lt .... C B ), c ..... c ). <?*(*<>.

i

Example

3.

Find the curve

of the

family
*,

(6)

for

which y(0)
Solution.

l.

We
in

y'(0) have:

2.

i/

'=
(7),

Putting #

formulas

(6)

and

we obtain

(?)

1=0,
whence
and, hence,

+ ^,
(:,=(),

2-C
C,=

2C 2

= e~.

Determine whether the indicated functions are solutions of the given differential equations:
2704. *//'== 2#, 2705. y 2706.
t2
t/

= 5x*.
JK

= x*
h
//)

(jc
//

djc -h

dy

= 0,

//

2707.
2708.

2709. 2710.

+ = 0, = 3sinjc 4 cos*. ~? + = 0, x = C, cos <o/ 4- C sin CD/. 2j/'+0 = 0; a) y = xe* b) y = x #"

//
(/

= ^=^

^/

a) jc

that for the given relations are integrals:

-(X. y^* Show

2711. (x

X/
2

e.
differential

-f

equations

the

indicated

11*

324

2712. (x 2713. (xy-x)y"

_ _
Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

+ xy' + yy'
equations

Form

differential

Q, 2y' y \n(xy). of the given families

of

curves

(C, C,, C, are arbitrary constants): Cx. 2714. y

C lt

2715. y Cx*. 2716. *>=-.2C*.

= =

272l

n *.=
y

+ay
4
,

'

a parameter).

2717. *'

9718 ii&. 971Q 2719.

2720.
2726.
#//-plane.

-* y
</'

*-.
yr
Form
thej
;

+ = <:'.

9799 *722.

0,- y .)'-2p*
fo' ? 3re P arameters >-

& M-- = 2 + Ce"^.

differential

2724. 2725.

</

= =
all straight lines in

equation of

the

2727. Form the differential vertical axis in the ^y-plane. 2728. Form the differential
xy-plane.

equation of equation
of

all

parabolas
circles
in

with
the

all

For the given families of curves find the given initial conditions: 2729. x*y* 5. C, 0(0) 2730. 2731. y C sin 2732. y^C.e-x

the

lines

that

satisfy

= y=(C^ =
l

= 0,

Sec. 2. First-Order Differential Equations

P. Types of first-order differential equations. A differential equation the first order in an unknown function yt solved for the derivative y' is the form
t

of
of

y'

= f(*.

</).

(i)

where f(x, y)
consider the

the given function. In certain cases it is convenient to variable x as the sought-for function, and to write (1) in the
is

form

where

gfr

$--.
j

x'=e(*,y)>

(i')

Taking into account that

(1)

0'

and

*'

j^

the

differential

equations

and

(!')

may

be written in the symmetric form

P(x, y)dx+Q(x, t/)<ty=0,

(2)

where

y) are knowri functions. By solutions to (2) we mean functions of the form t/ cp(jc) ihat satisfy this equation. The general integral of equations (1)
(x, y)

and Q

(x,

or

x=ty(y)
(I'),

and

or

Sec. 21

First-Order Differential Equations

is

325

equation

(2),

of the

form

where

is

an arbitrary constant.
field.

2. Direction

The

set of directions

tana = /(x,
is

y)

called a direction field of the differential equation (1) and is ordinarily depicted by means of short lines or arrows inclined at an angle a. Curves f(x, y) k, at the points of which the inclination of the field has a constant value, equal to k, are called isoclines. By constructing the isoclines and direction field, it is possible, in the simplest cases, to give a

Fig

105

rough sketch of the

field of

intagral

curves, regarding

the latter

as

curves
integral

which at each point have the given direction of the field. Example 1. Using the method of isoclines, construct the
curves of the equation
y'=*x.
Solution. rection field,

field of

By constructing the isoclines x~k (straight lines) and the diwe obtain approximately the field of integral curves (Fig. 105).

The family

of parabolas

the general solution. Using the method of isoclines, make approximate constructions of fields of integral curves for the indicated differential equations:
is

2733. y'

2734.

</'

= =

x.

-f-

2735. y'=l-ftf

8
.

2736.

y'=

2737. y'

326

Differential Equations

(Ch. 9

U\a<x<A,
f' y

3. Cauchy's theorem. b < y < B}

If

and

a function / (#, y) is continuous in some region in this region has a bounded derivative
,

(** y)> tnen through each point (* y Q ) that belongs to U there passes one and only one integral curve y y(x) of the equation (1) [cp (* ) #ol4. Euler's broken-line method. For an approximate construction of the

(* integral curve of equation (1) passing through a given point replace the curve by a broken line with vertices M,-(x/, #/), where

t/

),

we

/i

(one step of the process),

/)

(i'0,

1.

2,

...).

Example

2.

Using Euler's method

for the

equation

2
find (/(I),
if

'

We

y(0)=l

(/i

-0.1).

construct the table:

Thus,
i

/(!)=

1.248.

For

the

sake

of

comparison,

the

exact

value

is

T ss 1.284

Using Euler's method, find the particular solutions to the given differential equations for the indicated values of x: 2738. y' = y, y(0)=l; find y(\) (A-0.1).
2739.

y'-x + y, /(!)-

1;

find y(2),

(A

2740. ^' 2741.

= -X_,

t/(0)

= 2;

find </(!) find y(l)

-, y(Q)=l;

(/t

= 0.1). = 0.1). (A = 0.2).

Sec. 3]

Differential Equations with Variables Separable

327

Sec.

3.

First-Order

Differential

Equations

with

Variables

Separable.

Orthogonal Trajectories

separable

1. First-order equations with variables separable. is a first-order equation of the type

y'

An equation with

variables

= f(x)g(y} + X, (x) Y, (y) dy = Q

by g(y) and multiplying
get

(i)

X (x) Y
-

(y)

dx
(1)

(!')

Dividing both sides of equation

by

dx,

we

get

= f(x)dx

Whence, by integrating, we

the general

integral of equa-

tion (1) in the form

Similarly, dividing both sides of equation (!') by X, (x) we get the general integral of (!') in the form

(y)

and integrating,

also (as lines x

then the function y is ti Q (r/ )=0, yQ we have directly evident) a solution of equation (1) Similarly, the straight a and will be the integral curves of equation (!'), if a and b are, respectively, the roots of the equations X, (*)() and Y (*/) 0, by the ieft sides of which we had to divide the initial equation. Example 1. Solve the equation
If

for

some value y

is

y-b

'

3>

In particular, find the solution that satisfies the initial conditions

Solution. Equation

(3)

may

be written in the torm

dx~~

Whence, separating variables, we have

and, consequently,
In
|

=
is

In

x\

+ ln C
in

|t

where the arbitrary constant

taken antilogarithms we get the general solution

In C,

logarithmic form. After taking

f
where

C=

C,.

dividi dividing by y ila contained in the formula

When

we could lose ' = 0. (4) for C

'

the solution

=0. but

the

latter

is

328

Differential Equations

(Ch. 9

Utilizing the given initial sired particular solution is

conditions,

we

get

C = 2;

and,

hence, the de-

y ~~

J2
'

x equations

Certain differential equations that reduce to 2 separable. Differential equations of the form

with

variables

where u

reduce to equations of the form (1) by means of the substitution u is the new sough t-for function 3 Orthogonal trajectories are curves that intersect the lines of the given a right angle. If F (x, y, #') (x, y> ort=0 ia is a parameter) at family is the difierential equation of the family, then

is

the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories. Example 2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of ellipses

Solution Differentiating the equation (5), tion of the family

(/'

we

find

the

duerential

equa-

0.

Fig.

106

Whence, replacing

if

by

^7,

we

get

the

differential

equation

of

the

orthogonal trajectories
~~
it'

~~ x
of

'

integrating,

we have

*x*

(family

parabolas) (Fig. 106).

Sec. 3\

Differential Equations with Variables Separable

329

4. Forming differential equations. When forming differential equations in geometrical problems, we can frequently make use of the geometrical meaning of the derivative as the tangent of an angle formed by the tangent line to the curve in the pos'tive x-direction. In many cases this makes it possible straightway to establish a relationship between the ordinate y of the desired curve, its abscissa x, and the tangent of the angle of the tangent line (/', that is to say, to obtain the difleiential equation. In other instances (see Problems 2783, 2890, 2895), use is made of the geometrical significance of the definite integral as the area of a curvilinear trapezoid or the length of an arc. In this case, by hypothesis we have a simple integral equation (since the desired function is under the sign of the integral); however, we can readily pass to a differential equation by differentiating both sides. Example 3. Find a curve passing through the point (3,2) for which the segment of any tangent line contained between the coordinate axes is divided in half at the point of tangency. Solution. Let (x,y) be the mid-point of the tangent line AB. which by hypothesis is the point of tangency (the points A and B are points of intersection of the tangent line with the y- and *-axes). It is given that OA 2y and OB Zx. The slope of the tangent to the curve at (x, y) is

dy_ dx~
This
is

OA

OB~
d\
~x

y x

'

the differential equation of the sought-for curve. Transforming,

we

get

dy _ ~

~T~~y~
In

and, consequently,

\nx-\-\ny
Utilizing the initial condition, curve is the hyperbola xy 6.

Cor xy

C.
6.

we determine C = 3-2

Hence,

the

desired

Solve the differential equations: 2 2 2742. tan A: sin y d* + cos x cot ydy
2743. xy'~ // {/'. 2744. xyy' =-. = a(l 2745. // jq/' x fan ydx 2746. 3c 2747. y' tan * //.

= Q.

\x\
= + (l
+*V). x
e
)

sec*

ydy = Q.
satisfy

Find the particular solutions of equations that indicated initial conditions: x 0. 2748. (1 +e ) y y' = e*\ //= 1 when jt ! when x 2749. (xy* + x) dx-\-(x* yy)dy=* 0; //
2750. r/'sin x

the

= y\ny\ y~l

when

= = *= -|.

= Q.

Solve the differential equations by changing the variables: 2751. y' = (x+y)**
2752. i/ (8*42//+l)'. 2753. (2x + 3{/ l)dx-{ (4x 2754. (2x y)dx (4x 2y

+ fo/
-

5) dij

= 0.

330

_ _
Differential Equations

[C/i.

In

Examples 2755 and 2756, pass

to polar coordinates:

2755.

2756. 2757*. Find a curve whose segment of the tangent is equal to the distance of the point of tangency from the origin. 2758. Find the curve whose segment of the normal at any point of a curve lying between the coordinate axes is divided in

two

at this point.

2759. Find a curve whose subtangent is of constant length a. 2760. Find a curve which has a subtangent twice the abscissa of the point of tangency. 2761*. Find a curve whose abscissa of the centre of gravity of an area bounded by the coordinate axes, by this curve and the ordinate of any of its points is equal to 3/4 the abscissa of
this point.

2762. Find the equation of a curve that passes through the point (3,1), for which the segment of the tangent between the point of tangency and the *-axis is divided in half at the point of intersection with the y-axis. 2763. Find the equation of a curve which passes through the point (2,0), if the segment of the tangent to the curve between the point of tangency and the t/-axis is of constant length 2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the given families of curves (a is a parameter), construct the families and their orthogonal trajectories.

2764. x 2 2765. t/

+ y =a = ffx.
2

2
.

2766. xy 2767. (x

= a.
2 2

a)

t-f/

=a*.

Sec. 4. First-Order Homogeneous Differential

Equations

1. Homogeneous equations.
t

differential equation
(1)

P(x y)dx+Q(x,y)dy =

is called homogeneous, if P (AT, y) and Q (x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree. Equation (1) may be reduced to the form

and by means
it
is

of the substitution y xu, where u is a new unknown function, transformed to an equation with variables separable. We can also apply

the substitution

x-yu.
Find the general solution
to the equation

Example

1.

Sec. 4]

_
we
'

First-Order Homogeneous Differential Equations

Solution. Put y

ux',

then

-f xu'

= eu + u

_
= t;-fp,

331

or

Integrating,

get w

Q
In In
,

whence
x In In
.

2. Equations
If

that reduce to

homogeneous equations.

and 6
I

Ue
I

0,

then, putting into equation (2) x

#2^2

+ a,

j/

where

the constants

a and P

are found from the following system of equations,

+ c, = 0,
we
6

a 2a

+ b$ + c = 0,
t

get a homogeneous differential equation in the variables u and v. If u, we get an equation with variables 0, then, putting in (2) a,x 4- b^y separable.

Integrate the differential equations:

2768. 0'
2769.

=1

1.

277

(x-y)ydx-x*dy = Q.

y^-^.
= +

find the family 2771. For the equation (x +y*) dx 2xydy of integral curves, and also indicate the curves that pass through the points (4,0) andj_l,l), respectively. 2772.

2773. xdy ydx Vx* -\-ifdx. 2 2 0. 2774. (4x* + 3xy jf) dy f/ ) dx + (4y 3jvy 1 2775. Find the particular solution of the equation (x = Q, provided that r/=l when x 2. 2xydy Solve the equations: 2776. (2x

3y*)dx+

9777 f/ 2/77. ./

2779. Find the equation of a curve that passes through the point (1,0) and has the property that the segment cut off b\ the tangent line on the r/-axis is equal to the radius vector of the point of tangency. 2780**. What shape should the reflector of a search light have so that the rays from a point source of light are reflected
as a parallel

beam?

532

2781. Find the equation of a curve whose subtangent is equal mean of the coordinates of the point of tangency. 2782. Find the equation of a curve for which the segment cut off on the y-axls by the normal at any point of the curve is equal to the distance of this point from the origin. 2783*. Find the equation of a curve for which the area contained between the #-axis, the curve and two ordinates, one of which is a constant and the other a variable, is equal to the ratio of the cube of the variable ordinate to the appropriate
to the arithmetic
abscissa.
off

_ _
Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

2784. Find a curve for which the segment on the y-axis cut by any tangent line is equal to the abscissa of the point of

tangency.
Sec. 5. First-Order Linear Differential
Bernoulli's Equation

Equations.

1. Linear equations. A

differential equation of the

form
(1)

)-y^Q
of

(x)

degree one in y and y is called linear. If a function Q(jt)=~0, then equation

).y

(1)

takes the form

(2)

=Q

and is called a homogeneous linear differential equation. In this case, the variables may be separated, and we get the general solution of (2) in the
form

y = C-e
is

P P(X) dx
.

(3)

To solve the inhomogeneous linear equation (1), we apply a method that called variation of parameters, which consists in first finding the general solution of the respective homogeneous linear equation, that is, relationship (3). Then, assuming here that C is a function of x, we seek the solution of the inhomogeneous equation (1) in the form of (3). To do this, we put into (1) y and y' which are found from (3), and then from the differential equation thus obtained we determine the function C(x). We thus get the general solution of the inhomogeneous equation (1) in the form

^/x J = C(x).e -f
Example
Solution.
I.

Solve the equation

y'

tan **/-}- cos

x.
is

(4)

The corresponding homogeneous equation

get:

Solving

it

we

C ^- r *^I
1

Sec. 5]

Bernoulli's Equation

333

Considering

as a function of x,

and differentiating, we

fi'nd;

dC
cos x

A dx

~
I

sin

~
'

/,x>o2 cos 2 x

Putting y and y' into

1

(4),

we

get:

dC
djc

sin*
cos 2 *

C
cos*

cos*

, '

or

dC -r-=
dx

whence

Ccos 2 *d*==i-* +
of

j
(4)

Hence, the general solution

equation

has the form

COS*
In solving the linear equation
tion
(1)

we can
uv
t

also

make

use of the substitu-

(5)
(1) will

where u and v are functions of

f

x.

Then equation

have the form

(6)

[u
If

\-P(x)u]v
'

+ v'u^Q(x).

we require that

+ P(jc)M = 0,
we

(7)

then from (7) we find M, and from (6) we find u; hence, from (5) 2\ Bernoulli's equation. A first order equation of the form
y'

find y.

+ P (<) y ^ Q

(x)

y\
It
is is

where a 7=0 and a 7= 1, is called Bernoulli's equation ""*. near equation by means of the substitution z the or substitution the y = uv apply directly
1

reduced to

li-

r/

It

also possible to method of varia-

tion of parameters.

Example

2.

Solve the equation

y'

y+*
y=^u>v,

VH-

Solution. This

is

Bernoulli's equation. Putting

we

ijet

u'v

+ v'u

uv

+x

y"uv

or

u'

u
j

-f

v'u

=x

V^taT.

(8)

To determine

the function u

we

require that the relation

u'

~w-0 x
u
x*.

be fulfilled, whence

we have

Putting this expression into (8),

we

get

334

whence we

_ _
Differential Equations

[Cfi.

find v:

and, consequently, the general solution

is

obtained

in

the form

Find the general integrals of the equations:

2785.
2786.
ax

-=*. x
+ = x*.

2787*. (\ 2788. y*dx(2xy

Find the particular solutions that satisfy

ditions:

the

indicated

con-

2789. X y'

+y
j-2-7

e*

= Q\

y = b when x

= a.

2790. y'
2791. y'

1-- *

= 0;
;

y=

when x-0.

yianx =

cos x

*/

when

jt

= 0.

Find the general solutions of the equations:

2792. *l dx

+ JL = x
'

Xy* y

2793. 2xy x
2794.

0dx +

2795. 3xdy--=y(l sin A: 3y* smx)dx. 2796. Given three particular solutions y,

+x

equation. Prove that the expression

^^

y lt y 2 of a linear remains unchanged for

the geometrical significance of this result? 2797. Find the curves for which the area of a triangle formed by the *-axis, a tangent line and the radius vector of the point of tangency is constant. 2798. Find the equation of a curve, a segment of which, cul off on the x-axis by a tangent line, is equal to the square of the ordinate of the point of tangency. 2799. Find the equation of a curve, a segment of which, cut off on the y-axis by a tangent line, is equal to the subnormal. 2800. Find the equation of a curve, a segment of which, cut off on the y-axis by a tangent line, is proportional to the square of the ordinate of the point of tangency.

any

x.

What

is

Sec. 6]

Exact Differential Equations. Integrating Factor

335

2801. Find the equation of the curve for which

of the tangent is equal to the distance of the point tion of this tangent with the x-axis from the point

the
of

segment
intersec-

M (0,a).

Sec. 6. Exact Differential Equations. Integrating Factor

1. Exact

differential equations. If for the differential equation

P(x.y)
the equality

dx+Q(x

y)dy = Q
(1)

(1)

:p =-^t/)

is

fulfilled,

then equation

may

be written

in

the

and is then called an exact differential equation. The gen= C. The function U (x, y) is detereral integral of equation (1) is U (x, y) mined by the technique given in Ch. VI, Sec. 8, or from the formula
form
(x,

dU

(see

Ch, VII, Sec.

9).

Example

1.

Find the general integral

2

of the differential

equation

(3x

+ 6Af/

2
)

dx

+ (6x*y + 4y') dy = 0.
equation,
is

Solution.

This

is

an exact

differential

since
the form

-J
K/

5= i2 X y and,

hence, the equation

of

= 0.

Here,

and

=
(y)

whence

U=
U

(3^

+ 6xy*) dx +
to y,

q>

= x> + 3*V +
6jc
f

q> (y).

= x y + 4y* (by y -f (y) = y* + C*. We finally get and hypothesis); from this we get (y) f/(r, t/)-= -f-3xV + +C consequently, x -f3^V + / = C is the sought-for
Differentiating
s

with respect
4

we

find

-y

cp'

q>

= 4(/* '(//)

q>

jt

.V
.

C(

general integral of the equation. 2. Integrating factor. If the left side of equation (l)is not a total (exact) differential and the conditions of the Cauchy theorem are fulfilled, then there exists a function U, U.(A', y) (integrating factor) such that

\i(Pdx+ Qdy) = dU.

Whence
it

(2)

is

found that the function

u,

satisfies the

equation

The integrating

factor

u,

is

readily found in two cases:

336

Differential Equations

[C/t.

Example
Solution.
.

2.

Solve

the

equation

2xy

+ x*y + ~

and
Since

"
d#

Here P = 2*y + rV-f-^

Q=x*+y*

" _
-r
\\

'

hence>

ft=

dx

or

^^^ +
r
cty

r dx

'

Q jB, x dx

it

follows that
rffi
1 fdP dQ\ dx=dx and ----JS ^ Q.\dy dxj
.
.

^.

In

11 *

= ^,

11 r = ^.

Multiplying the equation by

\i

= e*

we obtain

which

is

an exact differential equation.

Integrating

it,

we

get

the

general

integral

Find the general integrals of the equations: 2802 (x t/)d^+(^ + 2z/)dy = 0. 1 2803. (V + 1/ 2x) dx + 2xydy = Q. 3 8 2804. (jc S^ 8 + 2) dx (3x'y y ) d(/ = 0.

2805.

^-^=='
.

2806.
y
y

2807. Find the particular integral of the equation

which

satisfies the initial condition #(0) 2. Solve the equations that admit of an integrating factor of the form fi = M*) or M' H'(y)

2808. (x 2809. y(l

2810.

+ y*)dx2xydy = 0. 4-xy)dxxdy = Q.
cos
t/

281

1.

(jc

y sin

r/) rfi/

+ (x sin

*/ -(

//

cos y) dx

= 0.

Sec. 7]

First-Order Differential Equation? not Solved for Derivative

337

Sec.
for

7.

First-Order Differential

Equations not Solved

the Derivative

1. First-order differential equations of higher powers.

F(x,
y,
!/')

If

an equation
(I)

= 0,
the.i

which

for example two equations:

is

of degree

two

in y',

by solving

(1)

for y'

we

get
(2)

y'=ti(x,y)>

</'=/ 2

<*.</)

Thus, generally speaking, through each point (xQt (/ ) of some region of a plane there pass two integral curves. The general integral of equation (1) then, generally speaking, has the form

0(AM/,
where
tl> 1

C^OM*,

{/,

C) 0> 2

(x. y,

C)

= 0,

(3)

the general integrals of equations (2). 2 are Besides, there may be a singular integral for equation (1). Geometrically, a singular integral is the envelope of a family of curves (3) and may be obtained by eliminating C from the system of equations
<I>

and

OJx,
or

0,

C)

= 0,

0>c

(*, y,

C)

(4)

by eliminating p =

t/'

from the system

t

of

equations
(5)

F(x

y,

p)-0,

F'

(x,y,p)=0.

note that the curves defined by the equations (4) or (5) are not always solutions of equation (1); therefore, in each case, a check is necessary. Example 1. Find the general and singular integrals of the equation
2
A'//'

We

-f

2A'j/'

Q.

Solution. Solving for y'

we have two homogeneous

equations:

do fined in the region

x

the general integrals of which are

or

Multiplying,
or
(a

we

get the general integral of the given equation (2*

+y

C)

2 (A-

+ xy) to

family of parabolas).
Differentiating the general find the singular integral
integral with respect

C and

eliminating C,

we

+ Jt-O.
is

(It

may

be verified that y-(-jc=0

the solution of this equation.)

Differential
also

Equations

by differentiating possible to find the singular integral with respect to p and eliminating p. 2. Solving a differential equation by introducing a parameter. If a firstorder differential equation is of the form
It

is

+ 2xp

#=

_
of the

(Ch. 9

then the variables y and x

1

may
dq>

be determined

from the

system of equations

where p = t/' plays the part of a parameter. Similarly, if y = ty( x #') tnen x and y are determined
>

from the system

of equations

Example

2.

Find the general and singular integrals

equation

y=y' -xy'+^.
Solution.

Making the substitution t/'=p,

we

rewrite the equation in the

form

Diffeientiating with respect to x and considering

p a function of

x,

we have

x p-*p-p-*f +*
,

ft

dp

dp

or

-p(2p

x)**(2p

x),

or-j-

l.

Integrating

we

get p

= x + C.

Substituting

into the original equation,

we have

the general solution

or

</

=y
=

Differentiating the general solution with respect to C and eliminating C, we x^ x* obtain the singular solution: */ -r-. (It may be verified that */ -r- is the

solution of the given equation.) If we equate to zero the factor 2p x which was cancelled out, we get x x2 into the given equation, we get and, putting p y=-j which is the
t

pay

same singular

solution.

Find the
(In Problems curves.)

general

2812

and singular integrals and 2813 construct the

of

the

equations:
of
integral

field

2812.

(/''-^'-M^O.
2

2813. 4y'

9JC-0.

Sec

8]

Q. 2814. yy'*(xy+l)y' + x 2 2815. yij' 2xy'+y Q. 2816. Find the integral curves

_
= tf
is is

The Lagrange and Clairaut Equations

_
y'*

339

of

the
.

equation

+y* =

that pass through the point

0,

Introducing the parameter y' = p, solve the equations: 2820. 4y = x*+y'\ 2817. x=smy'+lny'.
2818. y 2819.

= y'*e>". = y'*

2 '

9 91

,*

/2

Sec. 8. The Lagrange and Clairaut Equations

1. Lagrange's equation. An equation

of

the form
(1)

= *<P(P) + 1|>(P),
where p
f

called Lagrange's equation Equation (1) is reduced to a linear equation in x by differentiation and taking into consideration that dy^pdx:
(p)] dp.
If

(2)

p^q>(p),

then from (1) and

(2)

we

get the general solution in parametric

form:

where p
there

parameter and f(p)^ g(p) are certain known functions. Besides, a singular solution that is found in the usual way. 2. C'lairaut's equation. If in equation (l)p^<Mp), then we get
a

may

be

raut' s equation

There

^(C) (a family of .straight lines). general solution is of the form y-Cx is also a particular solution (envelope) that results by eliminating the parameter p from the system of equations
Its
I

x~
lJ:=

Example. Solve the equation

</~2t/'A'

+ i. +
;

(3)

Solution. Putting
ing

y'^p we

have //^2pv

different! a Ting

and replac-

dy by pdx, we

get

p dx = 2p dx +
or

2.v

dp

Solving this lineai equation, we will have

*=l

340

__
way. Whence

Differential Equations

__
^_

[C/t.

Hence, the general integral will be

=l(l

To

find the singular integral,

we form

the system

f/-2px +
in the usual

l,
1

= 2*2

*=
and, consequently,

Putting y into (3) we are convinced that the function obtained Is not a solution and, therefore, equation (3) does not have a singular integral.

Solve the Lagrange equations:

2822.

y-'
=
ij

2824. y

= (1 +y'
Clairaut equa-

2823. , ,' Find the general and singular integrals of the tions and construct the field of integral curves: 2826. y xy' +y'*. 2827. y xy'+y'.
2828.

+ r=FT

2829.

= = = Xy' + V \-\-(y') y = xy' + j,.

r

_
2
.

by

2830. Firid the curve for which the area of a triangle formed a tangent at any point and by the coordinate axes is con-

stant.

2831. Find the curve it the distance of a given point to any tangent to this curve is constant. 2832. Find the curve for which the segment of any of its tangents lying between the coordinate axes has constant length /,
Sec. 9. Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations

2833. Determine the types of differential equations cate methods for their solution:

and indi-

b) (*-*/)//'
c)

= = 2ju/ + *'; y'

</';

(f/8)

d) y'

Sec. 9]

Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations

341

i) j)

</'

x cos f/'

k)

= (* 4+ y sin (x* xy) y' = #';

</)';
{/'

1)
1 ;

+ 2xy')dx + + (y* + 3*y dy = 0; m) (x' 3xy) dx + (* + 3)dy = 0;

(x'
)
2

n)

Solve the equations:

2834. a) (x
b) jcln

ycos^
dy
y'^dy.

2835.

xrfx=(^

2836. (2xy*y) dx-\-xdy=-Q. 2837. xy' -\- y -^ xtf \nx. 2838. y xy' 2839. f/ or/' jc#' 2840. ^( 2841. (1

= =

+ +

2842.

y'-y^^l.
x*

2845 2846

'

(l-^

2843. y^-((/'-l 2xe>)y'. 2844. //'-|-//cosAr=sin.tcosx. 2848. (x'y

2849.

'

^'-T-^ =

2847. y' (xcosy-'r a sin

2</)

= 1.

-\-y-l) dx

(xy + 2x3yQ)dy = Q.

= y'
d.v

2850. ./"

= (x*y f 2)

<///.

2852. 2dx
. 2853.

2854.

+ y dy J-| dJf = 0. 286 =* X 2862. *. = cosA:. f/y'-hf/

.

i ,'

/ ff

2855. xdy-\ ydx^ifdx. !. 2856. //' (j: |- sin //)

2863.

/ //'==
x

= 2^'H-l/l
j (1 +lny
t )

(-y'

ln^).

2864. (2e

+y

dy
x
<je

2857.

H? = -P + P
J

S
.

dx =

2858. ^' 2859. x

x
1

d*- (x
*/" -h

4
f

y')

^-

0.

2865. 2868.

/'

=2 f
(;(/'

Zxyy'

+
2/'

= 0.

^ dydx =
v 4- 2
\
*

y-1 J

-1- 1 )

2860.

^^H-\t

2867. a(xt}' 2868. xdy- y dx

= y* dx.

342

Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

2869. (x* 2870.

)/

At,

dy +

(x*

+ 3xy V^-\) dx = 0.
Ya*

2871. J/oM1 dy+ (x y 2872. xyy'* (x* +y*)y'

+x

dx = Q.

2873. y
2874.
2875.

2</p| Find solutions to the equations

2876.

= xy' + (3* + 2;q/ = 3p

2

y'Jdx
2 2

+ f*

2xy

3y*)dy=--Q.

-t-4*/

for the indicated

initial

con-

ditions:

2877. e*- y' 2878. cot ;q/' 2879. e^(^

2880.
*/

2881.

2882. for x = 0. 2883. xy'=y\ a) //==! for jc=l; b) y for x-0. 2884. 2xy' y\ a) y=l for jc=l; b) y z 2 for x-0; b)y=l forjc=-0; 2885. 2xyy'-\-x 0; a) # = Q for je= 1. c) y 2886. Find the curve passing through the point (0, 1), for which the subtangent is equal to the sum of the cooidinates of the point' of tangency. 2887. Find a curve if we know that the sum of the segments* cut off on the coordinate axes by a tangent to it is constant and
\

= \\ y=\ for *=1. = 0. y = 2; y = 2 for = !; = for ^ = 0. + !) = for * = 0. + = cos #' for x = 0. x*\ y = 2y = y' = 2x\ y = for * = 0. y'+y
-f

y'=^\ # = y
A;;

for

jc=l.

jt

{/

= =

y-0

equal to 2a. 2888. The

is

sum of the lengths of the normal and subnormal equal to unity. Find the equation of the curve if it is known that the curve passes through the coordinate origin. 2889*. Find a curve whose angle formed by a tangent and the radius vector of the point of tangency is constant. 2890. Find a curve knowing that the area contained between the coordinate axes, this curve and the ordinate of any point on it is equal to the cube of the ordinate. 2891. Find a curve knowing that the area of a sector bounded by the polar axis, by this curve and by the radius vector of any point of it is proportional to the cube of this radius
vector.

2892. Find a curve, the segment of which, cut off by the tangent on the x-axis, is equal to the length of the tangent.

Sec. 9]

Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations

343

2893. Find

the curve,

of

which the segment

axes
is

of the

tangent

contained

between the

coordinate

divided

into half by

the parabola if =--2x. 2894. Find the curve whose normal at any point of it is equal to the distance of this point from the origin. 2895*. The area bounded by a curve, the coordinate axes, and the ordinate of some point of the curve is equal to the length of the corresponding arc of the curve. Find the equation of this curve if it is known that the latter passes through the

point (0, 1). 2896. Find the curve for which the area of a triangle formed by the x-axis, a tangent, and the radius vector of the point of 2 tangency is constant and equal to a 2897. Find the curve if we know that the mid-point of the segment cut off on the x-axis by a tangent and a normal to the curve is a constant point (a, 0).
.

problems,

first-order differential equations, particularly in phvsical frequently advisable to apply the so-called method of differenwhich consists in the fact that approximate relationships between tials, infinitesimal h.crements of the desired quantities (these relationships are accurate to infinitesimals of higher order) are replaced by the corresponding relationships between their differentials. This does not affect the result. Problem. A tank contains 100 litres of an aqueous solution containing 10 kg of salt. Water is entering the tank at the rate of 3 litres per minute, and the mixture is flowing out at 2 litres per minute. The concentration is maintained uniform by stirring. How much salt will the tank contain at the end of one hour? Solution. The concentration c of a substance is the quantity of it in unit volume. If the concentration is uniform, then the quantity of substance in volume V is cV. Let the quantity of salt in the tank at the end of t minutes be x kg. The quantity of solution in the tank at that instant will be 100 / litres,
it

When forming
is

and, consequently, the concentration

c=
the

QQ

kg per

litre.

solution flows out of the tank (the solution contains 2cdt kg of salt). Therefore, a change of dx in the quantity of salt in the tank is given by the relationship
dt,

During time

2dt litres

of

This
ing,

is

the sought -for differential equation. Separating variables

and integrat-

we obtain

ln* =
*

or

21n(100+0 + lnC C
(100-M)
1
'

C=
x

The constant C
100,000.

is

At
.

the
..

found from the expiration of

salt.

fact

that

one

hour,

xvh^n f 0, the tank

10,

that

is,

will

contain

100,000 -

ft f =^ 3.9 kilograms of

344

2898*. Prove that for a heavy liquid rotating about a vertical axis the free surface has the form of a paraboloid of revolution. 2899*. Find the relationship between the air pressure and the 2 altitude if it is known that the pressure is 1 kgf on 1 cm at 2 at an altitude of 500 metres. sea level and 0.92 kgf on 1 cm 2900*. According to Hooke's law an elastic band of length / increases in length klF(k const) due to a tensile force F. By how much will the band increase in length due to its weight if the band is suspended at one end? (The initial length of the band is /.) 2901. Solve the same problem for a weight P suspended from the end of the band. When solving Problems 2902 and 2903, make use of Newton's law, by which the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the difference of temperatures of the body and the ambient medium. 2902. Find the relationship between the temperature T and the time f if a body, heated to T degrees, is brought into a room

_ _
Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

at constant

temperature

(a degrees).

2903. During what time will a body heated to 100 cool off and during the first to 30 if the temperature of the room is 20 20 minutes the body cooled to 60? 2904. The retarding action of friction on a disk rotating in a liquid is proportional to the angular velocity of rotation. Find the relationship between the angular velocity and time if it is known that the disk began rotating at 100 rpm and after one

minute was rotating at 60 rpm. 2905*. The rate of disintegration of radium is proportional to the quantity of radium present. Radium disintegrates by one half in 1600 years. Find the percentage of radium that has disintegrated after 100 years. 2906*. The rate of outflow of water from an aperture at a vertical distance h from the free surface is defined by the

formula

where c0.6 and g is the acceleration of gravity. During what period of time will the water filling
spherical boiler of diameter 2 metres flow out of cular opening of radius 0.1 in the bottom.
it

a hemithrough a cir-

2907*. The quantity of light absorbed in passing through a thin layer of water is proportional to the quantity of incident light and to the thickness of the layer. If one half of the original quantity of light is absorbed in passing through a three-metrethick layer of water, what part of this quantity will reach a depth of 30 metres?

Sec.

10]

Higher-Order Differential Equations

345

2908*. The air

bottom of a tank with a capacity of 300 litres a mixture of salt and some insoluble substance. Assuming that the rate at which the salt dissolves is proportional to Ihe difference between the concentration at the given time and the concentration of a saturated solution (1 kg of salt per 3 litres of water) and that the given quantity of pure water dissolves 1/3 kg of salt in 1 minute, find the quantity of salt in solution at the expiration of one hour. 2910*. The electromotive force e in a circuit with current i, resistance /? and self-induction L is made up of the voltage drop

proportional ing velocity of 2909*. The is covered with

is

resistance to a body falling with a parachute to the square of the rate of fall. Find the limit-

descent.

Rl and the electromotive force of self-induction

the current
/

L^.
o>

Determine

at

time

if

and
Sec.

when

= 0.

e^Esmat

(E

and

are constants)

10.

Higher-Order Differentia) Equations

of direct integration.
If

1. The case
then

Miles
If

2. Cases of reduction of order. contain y explicitly, for instance,

I)

differential

equation does not

then, assuming y'

p,

we

get an equation ot an order one unit lower;

F(x, p

p')-0.
of

Example

I.

Find the particular solution

the equation

that satisfies the conditions

^
Solution. Putting

= 0,

f/'

when

= 0.
whence

#'=p, we have

/ = p',
a

Solving

the

latter

equation as

linear

equation

in

the

function p,

we

get

346

Differential Equations

[Ch

From

the fact that

y'=p =

when x = 0, we have

=^

0,

i.e.,

Cj==0.

Hence,

or

dx~~

___ ____ 2

'

whence, integrating once again, w? obtain

Putting
solution

y~
is

when x

0,

we

find

C 2 = 0. Hence,
*2

the

desired

particular

y^
2)
If

differential equation does not contain

x explicitly,

for

instance,

then, putting
lower:

y'=p,

y"

p-?->

we

get

an equation

of

an

order

one unit

Example

2.

Find the particular solution

#' = =p
t

of the

equation

provided that

/=!,

when
then

= 0.
our equation becomes

Solution. Put y'

tf^p-- and

We

have obtained an equation

it,

of the Bernoulli

type in p (y

is

considered

the argument). Solving

we

find

From

the fact that f/'=p

when r/=l, we have C 1 =

1.

Hence,

P=y Vy^
or

Integrating,

we have
arc cos

=C

2,

Putting

y=l

and *=0, we obtain C 2 = 0,

whence

= cosx

or t/==secx.

Sec.

10]

__
1
.

Higher-Order Differential Equations

_
(I

347

Solve the following equations:

291

/=1

2920. yy" 2921.

= jfy' + y".
+ y') = 0.
.

2912.
2913.

</"=-|T.

yif-y'
/"=
-f-

y"=\-y'\
\

2922.

-p
!)</"

2914. xy"

i/'

= 0.

2923. (x

(x-[- 2) y'

+ x+
2

+
2915.

= 0.

// = {/".

2924.

*f/"

2916. <//4- f/" s 2917. (1 I- X ) </" 2918.

t/'(l

= 0.
+
</"+ 1=0.
l.

= r/'ln^. *
!

2925

'

y'+T^" =^"'

2919.
ditions:

xy + x0' =
(1

+ t/")=a/".

Find the particular

2928. 2929.

2926. xy" /"= 2927. y""-f y"*=l. solutions for the indicated initial con-

1+x

-M')z/"
l

2*/'

= 0; =

j/

l+t/' 2j/t/"; r/=l, 2930. ytf + i/"=*y"\ y=*l, 2931. xy" 0, t/ t/' y';

= 0, = y' = y'

j/'

=3

for

= 0.

1 \
JC

forx=l.
for

x=

0.

for

= 0.

Find the general integrals

2932.
2933. 2934.

of the

following equations:

yy^Vy^ify'-y'if. yy' = y" +

y"-yy"=ify'. J = 0. f/i/"-hf/' -y'lnj/
satisfy the indicated conditions:
l,
(/'

2935.

Find solutions that

2936.

i/V=l;

f/

=
l;

forjt

2937. yy"
2938.

+ y" =

xif=V\

-\-y'

0=1, y'=\ for x=l; y=l y=

Jt
;

= i. = 0. for

for

A:

=e

s
.

2939. y"(\-\-\nx)

2940.
2941. 2942. 2943.

/-n-ln;
<

2944.

+ -^'y' = 2 + \nx;y = -^, y' = tor = -i, y'-l for jc= 1. = 2 for x = 0. y'y'' + y'(y\)=*Q; = 2, = {/-(-i/" -F 1; y= 2, y' = for ^ = 0. 3/Y = foi x = 0. -t-y"-2//'' = 0; (/=!, = and = for * = ^j/' + /'* yy" = 0; j/=l for
\ (/

</'

J/

/'

-|-

jc

1,

348

Differential Equations

(Ch. 9

2945. 2y' (y' 2946. y'y*+yif

2947.

2948.
2949. 2950. 2951.

= Q\ y = 0, y' = 2 for = 2. = 0; y=l, #' = 2 for * = 0. 2jr-3/ = 40 t/= 1, -0 for = 0. = 0; #=1, y' = for * = 0. 2yy"-\-y* I/"-*/' -*/; y=-l, y' = l for x=l.

Gx)-y"
2
*/'

A:

*/'

jc

*/'*

/ + e>y-2^' = 0;
i
-

//-I,
1

y'

=e

for

^--

2952.
2953.

= 0; = 0, 0' = for*=l. = (l+0'")0'; 0=1, 0'=1 for x = (H-00')/ (*+l)0" + x0 = 0'; 0=-2, 0'=4 forx=l.
H-//y"-f
y'
ff

Solve the equations:

2954. y' 2955. 0'

= =

2956.

/2

y"

= 4y

//

2957. yy' y" --= y'* y"* Choose the integral curve passing through x Q. the point (0, 0) and tangent, at it, to the straight line y 2958. Find the curves of constant radius of curvature. 2959. Find a curve whose radius of curvature is proportional to the cube of the normal. 2960. Find a curve whose radius of curvature is equal to the
.

+ =

normal.
2961. Find a curve

whose radius

of curvature

is

double the

normal.
2962. Find the curves whose projection of the radius of curvature on the //-axis is a constant. 2963. Find the equation of the cable of a suspension bridge on the assumption that the load is distributed uniformly along the projection of the cable on a horizontal straight line. The weight of the cable is neglected. 2964*. Find the position of equilibrium of a flexible nontensile thread, the ends of which are attached at two points and which has a constant load q (including the weight of the thread)
per unit length.

2965*. A heavy body with no initial velocity is sliding along an inclined plane. Find the law of motion if the angle of inclination is a, and the coefficient of friction is p,.
(Hint. plane.)

The

frictional force is

ji/V,

where

^V is the force of reaction of the

2966*.
is

We may

consider

that
is

the

air resistance

in free fall of

motion

proportional square if the initial velocity

to the

of the
zero..

velocity.

Find the law

Sec. 11]

2967*. A motor-boat weighing 300 kgf is in rectilinear motion with initial velocity 66 m/sec. The resistance of the water is proportional to the velocity and is 10 kgf at 1 metre/sec. How long will it be before the velocity becomes 8 m/sec?
Sec. 11. Linear Differential Equations

_
//<>
is

Linear Differential Equations

_
=
=
f

349

1. Homogeneous
!/

equations.

The

==(P/iW are called linearly dependent not alt equal to zero, such that

functions 0i q>i(x), f/ 2 if there are constants C,

q> 2 (A:)

...

C lf

...,

Cn

otherwise, these functions are called linearly independent. The general solution of a homogeneous linear differential equation

th continuous

+ P, (x) e/<"- + = coefficients P,-(x)

'>

+ P n (x) y =
....

(1)

(/

!,

2,

n)

is

of the

form

where

are linearly ...,/ (/,, y tt (fundamental system of solutions).

independent

solutions

of

equation

(1)

2. Inhomogcneous

equations.

The general

solution of an inhomogeneous

linear differential equation

(2)

with continuous coefficients

P,-

(x)

and the right side

f (x)

has the form

where and Y

the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation (1) particular solution of the given inhomogeneous equation (2). If the fundamental system of solutions (/,, y % ..... y n of the homogeneous equation (1) is known, then the general solution of the corresponding inhomogeneous equation (2) may be found from the formula
f/

is

=C

(x) y,

+C
!,

(x)

y2

+C n (x) ya

where the functions Cj(x) ing system of equations:

'[ (*)
</i

(*'

2,

.... n) are

determined from the follow-

+ C'

(*)y*

+ C'n (x)

/,

= 0,
0)

:;w</;

+...+c;(o;=o.

(the method of variation of parameters). Example. Solve the equation

(4)

350

_ _
Differential Equations

[C/i.

Solution. Solving the homogeneous equation

*ir+if'=o

we

get
(5)

Hence,

it

may
of

be taken that

yl

= \nx
may

and # 2 =

and the solution

equation

(4)

be sought in the form

Forming the system

the equation
(4)
is

(3)

and

taking
jt,

into account

that the reduced form of

t/"+~ =

we obtain

Whence

+
and, consequently,

>l

and

where A and B are arbitrary constants.

2968. Test the following systems

tionships:
a) x, b)

of

functions for linear rela-

x
,

1;

e) *,
2
;

x\
2
9

x'\

2x
1,

f)

e*

e *, e**\

c) 0,

x\

g)

d) x,

x+1,
Form

x +2;
a linear

h)

sin *, cos A:, 1; 2 2 sin x, cos *, 1.

differential

2969.
ing
its

homogeneous

equation, know-

fundamental system of equations:

l

a)
b)
c)

y 2 = cos x\ y 2 ==xe*\ y^e*. 2 y^x* # 2 = *

= sin x, = ^x

<

d)

f/,

y*

= ^x

sin ^,

f/ 8

= ^ cos

A:.

2970. Knowing the fundamental system homogeneous differential equation

of solutions of a linear

find its particular solution

y that

satisfies the

initial

conditions

Sec. 12]

Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients

351

2971*. Solve the equation

knowing

its

particular solution y

=
l

-^.

2972. Solve the equation

knowing its By the method of variation of parameters, solve the following inhomogeneous linear equations.
}

x*(\nx-l)y"-xy' 4-y = 0, particular solution y =x.

2973. **(/" 3;t xy' 2 2974*. x*y" + xy' y=x 2975. y'" -f (/'-sec A:.
.

Sec.

12. Linear Differential

Equations of Second Order

with Constant Coefficients

coeflicients p

t. Homogeneous equations. A second-order linear equation with constant and q without the right side is of the form
U)

If

and

fc

are roots of the characteristic equation

.Q
t

(2)

then the general solution three ways:

1)

of

equation
kz
if

(1)

is

\vritten in one

of the following

2)
3)

(/-CVV + C.e*-* 6, and = *,; y-eV(C, + CV) *, -^(^cnspx-HC^mpA)

if

are real and

/?,

k.\

if

(/

*,=a + p

and * a -=a
of a

pi (p 76 0).

2. Inhomogeneous

equations.
y"

The general solution

linear inhomoge-

neous differential equation

+ py' + w=fW

(3)

may

be written in the form of a sum:

of the corresponding equation (I) without determined from formulas (1) to (3), and Y is a particular solution of the given equation (3). The function Y may be found by the method of undetermined coefficients in the following simple cases: a e *P n (x), where P n (x) is a polynomial of degree n. 1. f (x) If a is not a root of the characteristic equation (2), that is, (p (a) 96 0, then we put Y e**Q n (x) where Q n (x) is a polynomial of degree n with undetermined coeflicients. If a is a root of the characteristic equation (2), that is, <p(a) 0, then r ax
is

where y
ritfht

the general solution

side

and

Y=x

Qn

2.

/ (*)

(x) t

\\here r is the multiplicity of the root * [P n (*) cos bx+ Q m (x) sin bx\.

a(r=l

or r

= 2).

352

__
If

Differential Equations

cp(a

bi)

^ 0,

then we put
[S N (x) cos bx

Y = e ax

_
N-max
,

[Ch. 9

+ T N (x) sin bx],

{n,

where S^(x) and Tu(x) But if cp(a &/) = 0, then

are polynomials of degree

[Stf (x) cos 6*
of

m},

K = x re ax
where r=l).
is

+ T N (x) sin to]

bi

is

the

multiplicity

the roots a

(for

second-order

equations,

In the general case, the method of variation of parameters (see Sec. 11) used to solve equation (3). 2 Example 1. Find the general solution of the equation 2y" y' y 4xe *. 2 & l=u has roots fc,~l and Solution. The characteristic equation 2&

fc

The general solution

of

the corresponding

homogeneous equation

(first

=4xe zx =t ax P n
tiating obtain:

type)

e* + C 2e The right side of the given equation is/ (x) = Y e zx (Ax + B), since n=l and /=0. Difleren(x). Hence, twice and putting the derivatives into the given equation, we
is
f/

==C

%,** (4 A X

+ 45 + 4^) __ e i* (2Ax + 25 + A)
zx

2 e *

(Ax H- B)

4xe zx

and equating the coefficients of identical powers of x arid Cancelling out e the absolute terms on the left and right of the equality, we have bA=4 and 4 28
744-5fl

= 0,

whence 4
f

-=-

o
-g-*

and 5
anc^

-.

Jo

2A Thus, K^

oH

ne gei] eral solution of the given equation

is

solution of the equation y* xe* y 2y 2 characteristic equation k has a double root 2/f-f- 1 x ft=l The ri^ht side of the equation is o! the form f(x)xe here, 0=1 and n=-l. The particular solution is Y =x*e* (Ax B), since a coincides \nHth 2. the double root k=-\ and, consequently, r Diilerentiating Y twice, substituting into the equation, and equating the

Example

2.

Find the general

+ =

Solution. The

coefficients,

we obtain

/l

fl

= 0,
form

Hence, the general solution of the given

equation will be written in the

l
fe
/'

Example
fc

Solution.
i.

will |see

Find the general solution of the equation */*-f y= 2 The characteristic equation and -j-l=r() has roots /?, The general solution ot the corresponding homogeneous equation 3, where a~0 and P = l| be*
3,

The right side

is

of

the form

Sec.

12]

Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients

353

where a

0, 6=1, P n (jc)=0, particular solution Y,

Q OT

(*)

= *.

To

this side there corresponds the

fc=l, r=l). twice and substituting into the equation, we equate the coefficients of both sides in cos*, xcosx, sin*, and xsmx. We then get four 44 = 1, from which we deter0, 0, 4C = 0, -25 + 20 equations 2A + 2D 1 1 X2 X mine A cos * -f- -j- sin *. 0, C 0, D Therefore,
(here,

#=1,

= 0,

Differentiating

= =
y

=
2

K=
x
-7-

The general solution

is

44

= C, cos + C
jc

x2
sin

-j-

cos

A:

sin *.

3. The
tion (3)
is

principle of superposition of the sum of several functions

solutions.

If

the right side of equa-

and K/(/
then the

l,

2,

3,

.., n)

are the

corresponding solutions of the equations

(<

y'+py'+w^-fiW
sum
y
is
l

i.

2 ..... n).

= Y + Y +...+Y n
n

the solution of equation

(3).

Find the general solutions of the equations: 2982. y" + 2y' 2976. tf 5y'6y Q. 0. 2983. 2977. if 4y' 9y 2984. y" + ky 2978. 0. 2985. 2979. iT y 0. 2980. ^_2i/ +2j/ 2981. + 40' +130 0.

yy'^Q. =
+
f

= =

y=

Find the particular solutions that satisfy the indicated conditions:

2987. y"5tj'-\-4y 2988. y"+ 3tf' +20

2989. 0" 2990. 0^

2991.

/=;
f

+ 40 = 0; + 20' = 0; 0=1, 0'=0 for ^ = = a, 0' = for x = 0.

f

= Q\ = 0; = 0,

y=5

= 8 for * = for jc0. y=5 0' = = 2 for x = 0.

t

y'

1,

2992. 0" 2993. 0"

2994.

+ 30'=0; = = 0; = +
ji

for x for
jc

= =

and and

= =

for
for

= 3.
the given

x=l.
for

type of particulai solutions inhomogeneous equations:

Indicate
the
a)

0"-40 = A:V

x
;

b) 0"

90

= cos 2x\

12-1900

354

_ _
Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

c) y"

= sin 2x + e**\ x d) y" + 2y' + 2y = e sir\x\ - 5</' + 60 = (x* + l)e* + xe**\ e) y"2y' + 5# = xe* cos 2x #V sin 2x.
4y' -f 4y
</"

f)

Find the general solutions of the equations:

2995. y" jc 4i/' 4(/ 2996. *' 6. 2997. 2^' ^ 2998. 8^ 7^=14. 2999. y"y^e*. 3000. 3001. 3002. 3003. f 3004. t/' 3005. y" 2y'-{ 5y 3006. Find the solution of the equation y" 0. satisfies the conditions y=l, */'= 1 for x
.

= / ^ +# = + ^ + + = ^. + /

+ 4y =

sin x that

Solve the equations:

W2y

3007.
2)

^-2

+ x=/l
o)

sinp/.

Consider

the

cases:

1)

o>;

p-co.
3008. 3009. 3010. 3011. 3012. 3013. 3014. 3015. 3016.

/
t/"

y"
y" y"

2y'

=
x
.

2(/'

y"-\-y'

8y = e = 5x + 2e x
/

8cos2*.
3e
x
.
.

^_y'^2;c-~l
{/" f/"
f

3017.

3018. 3019. Find the solution to the equation that satisfies the conditions /=-, f/ /==l for ^

+ 2r/ + y = ^ + ^ x x 2y + lQy=s\r\3xi-e /_4f/' + 4f/ = 2^ + if 3y' =

.

2y'=e

tx

= 0,

Solve the equations:

3020. (/" 3021. j/" 3022. 3023. tf 3024. 3025.
4(/==g

y = 2xsmx. 2x

sin2A:.

/ H- 9y = 2x sin

Sec.

12]

Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients

355

3026. tf2y' 3y x(l+e' ). 3x 2xe*. 3027. y" 2y' x 3028. */" 4y'+4y xe* 2xe-'* 3029. y" 3y 2y' (x^ l)e*. 3030*. y" y 2x cos x cos 2x. 3031. t/' 2y 2xe*(cosx sinx).

+ + = =

= + = =

Applying the method

following equations: 3032. y" + y ianx.
3033.

of

variation

of

parameters, solve
.

the

3034. 3035.

= y" + y = cot x. = -. y" 2y' y" + 2y' + y =

-(-*/

3036.
3037.

<

3038. a)
.

</"

y = tanh

A:.

b) y"

x 2y = 4x*e \

3039. Two identical loads are suspended from the end of a spring. Find the equation of motion that will be performed by one of these loads if the other falls.
Solution. Let the increase in the length of the spring under the action in a state of rest be a and the mass of the load, m. Denote by x the coordinate of the load reckoned vertically from the position of equilibrium in the case of a single load. Then
of

one load

where, obviously, k
tion
is

=
- 1

and, consequently,

7*7*

^ ~" ^ *
initial

The

general

solu-

x=C

cos

I/
/

+C

sin

I/
t

t.

The

conditions yield

Jt

=u

and

d* -77 Tt

=
:

when

= 0;

whence C

=a

and C a = 0; and so

3040*. The force stretching a spring is proportional to the increase in its length and is equal to 1 kgf when the length increases by 1 cm. A load weighing 2 kgf is suspended from the spring. Find the period of oscillatory motion of the load if it is pulled downwards slightly and then released. 3041*. A load weighing P 4 kgf is suspended from a spring and increases the length of the spring by 1 cm. Find the law of motion of the load if the upper end of the spring performs a vertical harmonic oscillation (/ 2sin30/ cm and if at the initial instant the load was at rest (resistance of the medium is

neglected).
12*

356

is attracted by each of two 3042. A material point of mass centres with a force proportional to the distance (the constant of proportionality is k). Find the law of motion of the point knowing that the distance between the centres is 26, at the initial instant the point was located on the line connecting the centres (at a distance c from its midpoint) and had a velocity

_ _
Differential Equations

(Ch. 9

of zero.

3043. A chain of length 6 metres is sliding from a support without friction. If the motion begins when 1 m of the chain is hanging from the support, how long will it take for the entire chain to slide down? 3044*. A long narrow tube is revolving with constant angular velocity o> about a vertical axis perpendicular to it. A ball inside the tube is sliding along it without friction. Find the law of motion of the ball relative to the tube, considering that a) at the initial instant the ball was at a distance a from

the axis of rotation; the initial velocity of the ball was zero; b) at the initial instant the ball was located on the axis of rotation and had an initial velocity v 9
.

Sec.

13.

Linear

Differential

Equations

of

Order

Higher

than

Two

with

Constant Coefficients

#t

1. Homogeneous equations. The fundamental system of solutions y lt Un f a homogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients n y< + a iy n + + an _,y' +a n y = (1)
>
<
.
. .

is

constructed on the basis of the character of the roots of the

Q.

characteristic

equation
(2)

Namely,

1) if k is a real root of the equation (2) of multiplicity m, then to this root there correspond linearly independent solutions of equation (1):

2)

if

then

to

the

p/ is a pair of complex roots of equation (2) of multiplicity latter there correspond 2m linearly independent solutions

m,
of

equation (1): *x y l e cos PX, #,

= e*x sin px,

yt

= xe* x cos PX,

A

y4

= xe* x sin PX,

...

2. Inhotnogeneous equations. equation

particular solution of the inhomogeneous

(3)

is

sought on the basis of rules 2

and 3

of Sec.

12.

Sec.

14]

3045. y'"

Find the general solutions of the equations: 3058. y / 13</"+12</'=0.

_
= 0.
'

Euler's Equations

__
n
,

357

3048. y' v 2J/" 3t" 3049. y'" 3050. y'v + 4y

n(n-l) ,.
'

3060.

3053.

w'v' + ^O.
w' 1
'

*054.

ai/ = b.

306 >- y' v 3062 y'"iJ

-

= x'

sss-

SB:

^T

MS,---..
y'"+2y"-{-2y'+y = x

3067. Find the particular solution of the equation

that satisfies the initial conditions y (0)

Sec.

= y' (0) = y" (0)=-=0.

14.

Euler's

Equations

A
where

linear equation of the form

n
l

y^f(x)

(I)

a, b, A ..... <4,,_,, A n are constants, is called Enter's equation. Let us introduce a new independent variable /, putting

ax

+ b-^e

1
.

Then

and

Euler's

equation

is

transformed
z

into

linear equation
1.

with constant

coefficients.

Fxample 1. Solve the equation x y" Solution. Putting x^e*. we get

==e
~Sx

+ xy' +{/ =
z

Tr

z==e dx~

(~di*~~~di)'

Consequently, the given equatioi takes on the form

whence
or

= C, cos + C, sin + y = C, cos (In *) + C a sin (In x) +

y
t

1.

358

_ _
Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

For the homogeneous Euler equation

(2)

the solution

may

be sought in the form

</

= **.

(3)

found from (3), we get a characteristic equaexponent k. If k is a real root of the characteristic equation of multiplicity m then to it correspond m linearly independent solutions m- 1 k 2
Putting into (2) tion from which
(/,

y'

...,

(n}

we can

find the

0i
If

= **.
a

0,

= **-ln*.

*/,

= ** (In*)

..., y m

=x

(\nx)

p*

is

correspond

2m

pair of complex roots of multiplicity linearly independent solutions

(/ 8

m, then

to

it

there

= *a In x cos (P In *),
1

y 4 =*Mnx.sin(plnx) .....

^m-i^*" (In*)*"

cos (p

Example
Solution.

2.

Solve the equation

X *y''

3Xy'

+4l/=0.

We

put

Substituting

into the given characteristic equation

equation, after
2

cancelling

out x k

we

get

the

46-1-4

= 0.

Solving

it

we

find

Hence, the general solution will be

y^C
Solve the equations:
3068. 3069.

3070.
3071.
3072.

*'g + 3*| + = 0. *V xy' 3(/ = 0. xY-|-x(/'4-4(/ = 0.

<,

3073. tT
3074.
3075.

^y_

3076.

Sec.
*

15]

3077. Find the particular solution of the equation

Systems

of Differential

Equations

_
!

359

*V
that satisfies the initial

+ y = 2x conditions y = 0,
xy'
Equations

*/'

when *=1.

Sec.

15. Systems of Differential

Method

of elimination.

system of two form

To find the solution, for first-order differential equations, that

instance, of
is,

normal
of

of

system

the

solved for the derivatives

of

them with respect

to x.

We

the desired functions, have, for example,

we

differentiate

one of

Determining z from the

value found,

first

equation of the system

/

(1)

and substituting the

(3)

A.. \

into equation (2), we get a tion u. Solving it, we find

second-order

equation with one unknown func(4)

where C, and C 2 are arbitrary constants. Substituting function (4) into formula (3), we determine the function z without new integrations. The set of formulas (3) and (4), where y is replaced by \|>, yields the general solution
of the system (1).

Example. Solve the system

+'-'-T*
Solution.

We

differentiate the first equation

with respect to

x:

^ + 2^ + 4^-4. dx^
dx*^
dx
^

From

the

first

equation
will

we determine

/
(

-T-

l+4x
-75-

dy
2y

and then
j

from the second

we

have -^ ax

-5-

**

&

+*+

-;

&

TT"T ax

Put ting

and j- into the equation obtained after differentiation, we arrive at a secondorder equation in one unknown y:

360

Differential Equations

[Ch. 9

Solving

it

we

find:

and then

We

can

do likewise

in

the case

of

system with a larger number of

equations.

Solve the systems:

dy

=z
3085.
dx
r/

3078.

JJ

= 0, z =

when

je

= 0.

3079.
3086.

3080.

dz

= 0, y=\

when
2

= 0.

dT
dx
dy
dz

4/_//
3087.

3081.

3088*.
dx

xy~
c) __

dy __dz_ x-\-y~~~ z dy __

'

dz

3082.

da

yz zx

xif

isolate the integral curve passing through the point (1, 1, 2).
dy

3083.

3089.

3084.

dz

3090.

.Sec.

16}

Integration of Differential Equations by Power Series

361

3091**. A shell leaves a gun with initial velocity u at an angle a to the horizon. Find the equation of motion if we take the air resistance as proportional to the velocity. 3092*. A material point is attracted by a centre with a force proportional to the distance. The motion begins from point A at a distance a from the centre with initial velocity perpendicular to OA. Find the trajectory.
Sec. 16. Integration of Differential Equations
If
it

by Means

of

Power Series

not possible to integrate a differential equation with the help of elementary functions, then in some cases its solution may be sought in the
is

form of a power

series:
00

y=2 '(* n=
o

n
*o)
-

0)

The

undetermined

series (1) into the of the binomial x

are found by putting the coefficients c n (n \, 2, ...) equation and equating the coefficients of identical powers x on the left-hand and right-hand sides of the resulting

equation.

We

can also seek the solution of the equation

in the

form

of the

Taylor's series

y(*)

=
,

^ ^^ (*-*)"
y
of the equation

(3)

and the subsequent derivatives y (n) (x ) where y(x Q) = y Q t/ ) y' (x ) = f (* are successively found by differentiating equation (2) and by (n- 2, 3, ...)
,

putting X Q in place of x

Example

1.

Find the solution

Solution.

We

put

whence, differentiating, we get

y"

= 2.\Ct + 3.2c x+...+n(n-\)cn x n -* + (n+l

s

+ In + 2)(rt-t-l) <:+,*"+...
Substituting y and y" into the given equation,

we

arrive at the identity

Collecting

together, on

the

left

of this

powers

of x

and equating to zero the

coefiicients

equation, the terms with identical of these powers, we will

362

Differential Equations

[Ch.

have

cs

^~

and so

forth.

Generally,

3.4-6. 7-...
2

(k

=1,2,

3,

...).

Consequently,

(X*
where
for
l

+ 3T4 + 3.4.6.7 + '" +

.

X1

X^
3.4-6.?..
.

.-3* (3fc+

1)

+ '" )*

(4)

c =f/ and c = y' Q Applying d'Alembert's

oo

< x < + oo
2.

test,

it

is

readily

seen

that series (4) converges

Example
Solution.

Find the solution

y'

of the

equation

We

put

We

have y =\, i^

sively find

= + = Differentiating equation y' = x + y, we succes/=! + ^=1 + = 2, y'"=y\ /o" = 2, etc. Consequently,

l

l.

(/',

For the example

at

hand, this solution

may

be written in final form as

*-l
The procedure
is

x) or

= 2e*

x.

similar for differential equations of higher orders. Testing the resulting series for convergence is, generally speaking, complicated and is not obligatory when solving the problems of this section.

With the help of power series, find the solutions of the equations for the indicated initial conditions. In Examples 3097, 3098, 3101, test the solutions 3099,
obtained for convergence. 2 3093. y' y x y 3094. y' x 1; y 2y
\

3095. 3096.

3097.

= + = 2 for * = 0. = + = y for x=l. = y for x==a 0' = / + *; = for * = 0. y' = x* y*\ # for (1 x)y' = l+x y\ y =
f/

Sec. 17]

Problems on Fourier's Method

363

3098*. 3099.
3100*.

= 0;
/'

3101*.
3102.

= for x = 0. = for * = 0. 0\ 0=1, #' + = 0; y=l, */'=0 for = + = 0; 0=1, 0'=0 for x = = 0; * = a; ~ = for = 0.
y

= 0,

y'

*/

Jt

*/

Sec. 17. Problems on Fourier's Method

To

find the solutions of a linear

homogeneous

partial differential equation

by Fourier's method, first seek the particular solutions of this special-type equation, each of which represents the product of functions that are dependent on one argument only. In the simplest case, there is an infinite set of such solutions M (tt=l, 2,...), which are linearly independent among themselves in any finite number and which satisfy the given boundary conditions. The desired solution u is represented in the form of a series arranged according
rt

to these particular solutions:

u=
The coefficients conditions.

Cn u n

(1)

C n which remain undetermined

are found
t)

from the

initial

Problem. A transversal displacement u u(x with abscissa x satisfies, at time *, the equation

of the points of a string

_a ~~
dt*

dx*

(2)

where a
string).

-?

(T Q

is

the

tensile

force
at

and Q
time
t

is
if

the
its

linear

density

of the

Find the form

of the

string

ends

x=

and * = / are

2
Fig.

107
the string had

fixed

and

at the initial
x) (Fig.
It
is

instant,
its

= 0,

the form of a parabola

=~*

(/

107) and

points had zero velocity.

Solution.

required

to find the

solution

= u(x,

t)

of

equation

(2)

that satisfies the

boundary conditions
a(0,

0-0,

!!(/,

0=0

(3)

364

and the

_ _
Differential Equations
initial conditions

\Ch. 9

(*,0)

^ *(/-*),
u

;<*, 0)

= 0.

(4)

We
Putting

seek the nonzero solutions of equation (2) of the special form

=X

(x)T(t).
(2)

this expression into

equation

and separating the variables, we get

ZL(0--*1W
a 2 7tO~~

'

(5) l '

(x)

when
by

Since the variables x and t are independent, equation (5) is possible only the general quantity of relation (5) is constant Denoting this constant X 2 we find two ordinary differential equations:
,

)*-T(t)

=Q

and X"

(x)

+ K*X

(x)

= 0.

Solving these equations, we get

(t)

X
where A, B, C,

= A cos a\t + B sin aKt, (*) = C cos Kx + D sin X*.

constants.

D
D
XA

are
(3)

arbitrary

From
sinX/

condition
(since

we have

X(0) =
is

Let

and
at

cannot be equal to

zero

determine the constants. and X(/) = 0; hence, C = the same time as C is zero).
us
It

For

this reason,

= -p

where k

an integer.

will readily be seen that

we do
To

not lose generality by taking for k only positive values every value h k there corresponds a particular solution

(k=\

2, 3,...).

Ak (, cos-j-

kan

kan

knx

tj sin-y(3).

Ihat satisfies the boundary conditions We construct the series

f
I

^
.

kant
cos

-7- + ^sm-y-J sm-j. .

kant\

knx

whose sum obviously

satisfies

choose the constants satisfy the initial conditions

We

equation

(2)

A k and B k
(4).

and the so that the

boundary conditions

sum

(3).

of the series

should

Since

du

& =2*
it

CD

~\~ A
/

kan (

sm

kant

-p + ^cos-y-J

kant\

knx

sin

-^

follows that, by putting

= 0,

we obtain

and
0)

kan

Sec.

17]

Hence, to determine the

a Fourier series,
.

_
in

Problems on Fourier's Method

coefficients

A k and B^

it

is

_
x

365

necessary to expand in

sines only, the function u(x, 0)

0.

= ^-

(lx)

and

the

..

du

function

' (x, 0)

at

^ ^n

From

familiar formulas (Ch. VIII, Sec. 4,3)

/
ft
.

we have
32h

knx

if

&

is

odd, and

Ak

if

&

is

even;
/

kast _

= *

fA Osin
,

jix

T- J
be
cos
/

d*

A = 0,

fl*

A = 0.

The sought-for solution

will

sin

(2/i-f \)jtx

3103*.
its

ends,

At the initial instant x= and * = /, had

= 0,

the
it

form

string, attached at of the sine curve

sin

and the points

at

of

had zero velocity. Find the

the
points of
a straight
of the

form of the string 3104*. At the

string

time

t.

initial

time

= 0,

0<jt</

receive a velocity -~

1.

Find the form

l are and x string at time t if the ends of the string # fixed (see Problem 3103). 3105*. A string of length /=100 cm and attached at its ends, and *=-/, is pulled out to a distance A 2 cm at point x

*=;50 cm

then released without any impulse. Determine the shape of the string at any time /. 3106*. In longitudinal vibrations of a thin homogeneous and rectilinear rod, whose axis coincides with the jr-axis, the of a cross-section of the rod with t) displacement u = u(x abscissa x satisfies, at time /, the equation
at

the

initial

time,

and

is

d/ 2
f where a

c^u_ a 2 ~~

<Pu
dx*
*

(E

is

Young's modulus and Q

is

the density of the

rod). Determine the longitudinal vibrations of an elastic horiand pulled zontal rod of length /= 100 cm fixed at the end * back at the end *=100 by A/ l cm, and then released without

impulse.

366

3107*. For a rectilinear homogeneous rod whose axis coincides with the Jt-axis, the temperature u = u(x, t) in a cross-section with abscissa x at time /, in the absence of sources of heat, satisfies the equation of heat conduction
di

_ _
'

Differential Equations

[C/i.

where a is a constant. for any time t in a rod

temperature distribution

Determine the temperature distribution

of length

100

cm

if

we know

the initial

u(x, 0)

= 0.01

A;

(100

x).

Chapter

APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS

Sec.

1.

Operations on Approximate Numbers

error.

replaces the exact

The absolute error of an approximate number a which number A is the absolute value of the difference between them. The number A, which satisfies the inequality

1. Absolute

is called the limiting the limits a

absolute

error.

A^/l^a + A

or,

more

The exact number A A briefly, A=a

is

located within

2. Relative error. By the relative error of an approximate number a 0) we understand the ratio of the absolute replacing an exact number A (A error of the number a to the exact number A. The number 6, which satisfies

>

the inequality

\*-l ^* -,
A
is

(2)

called the

limiting relative error

of the

approximate
6=

number
for

a.

Since in
limiting

actual practice
relative error.

A^a,

we

often take the

number

the

3. Number of correct decimals. We say that a positive approximate number a written in the form of a decimal expansion has n correct decimal places in a narrow sense if the absolute error of this number does not exceed
one
half unit of the nth decimal place. In this case, take, for the limiting relative error, the number
1

when n

>

we can

where k
is

is

the

first

significant
/ I
,

known
in

that
the

6^

i
.

digit \-i
) ,

of the

number

a.

And

conversely,

if

it

77:

then the number a has n correct decimal

the

2(k-\-

places

narrow

\10/ meaning
1)

of

word.

In

particular,
if

the

number a
1

definitely
If

has

n correct

decimals
of

unit

the absolute error of the last decimal

from measurements made to a definite accuracy), then it is said that all decimal places of this approximate number are correct in a broad sense. If there is a larger number of significant digits in the approximate number, the latter (if it is the final result of calculations) is ordinarily rounded off so that all the remaining digits are correct in the narrow or broad sense.

"if I To) approximate number a does not exceed a for example, are numbers resulting place (such,

in

the

narrow meaning

an

368
Henceforth, we shall not otherwise (if

Approximate Calculations
assume that
stated)
in

[Ch. 10

correct

all digits in the initial data are the narrow sense. The results of intermediate calculations may contain one or two reserve digits. We note that the examples of this section are, as a rule, the results of final calculations, and for this reason the answers to them are given as approximate numbers with only correct decimals. 4. Addition and subtraction of approximate numbers. The limiting absolute error ot an algebraic sum of several numbers is equal to the sum of the limiting absolute errors of these numbers. Therefore, in order to have, in the sum of a small number of approximate numbers (all decimal places of which are correct), only correct digits (at least in the broad sense), all summands should be put into the form of that summand which has the smallest number of decimal places, and in each summand a reserve digit should be retained. Then add the resulting numbers as exact numbers, and round off the sum by one decimal place If we have to add approximate numbers that have not been rounded off, they should be rounded off and one or two reserve digits should be retained. Then be guided by the foregoing rule of addition while retaining the appropriate extra digits in the sum up to the end of the calculations. Example 1. 215.21 -f- 14.182 -f 21 .4-215.2(1) 14.1(8)4-21 4-= 250.8. The relative error of a sum of positive terms lies between the least and greatest relative errors of these terms. The relative error of a difference is not amenable to simple counting. Particularly unfavourable in this sense is the difference of two close numbers. Example 2. In subtracting the approximate numbers 6 135 and 6.131 to four correct decimal places, we get the difference 004. The limiting relative

0.001
error
of
is

6=

.J.
,t

+1
..
.

0/XM

0.004

=- = 0.25. 4
j

Hence,

not one of the

decimals

it difference is correct. Therefore, is always advisable to avoid subtracting close approximate numbers and to transform the given expression, if need be, so that this undesirable operation is omitted. 5. Multiplication and division of approximate numbers. The limiting relative error of a product and a quotient of approximate numbers is equal lo the sum of the limiting relative errors of these numbers Proceeding from Ihis and applying the rule for the number of correct decimals (3), we retain in the answer only a definite number of decimals Example 3. The product of the approximate numbers 25.3-4.12=104.236. Assuming that all decimals of the factors are correct, we find that the limiting relative error of the product is

the

^0.01 +^0.01=^0.003.
decimals of the product is three and the be written as follows: 25.3-4 12=104, or more
0.3.

Whence
result,
if

the
it

number
is

of

correct

final,

should

correctly, 25
of the

3-4.12= 104 2
of

6. Powers and
mth power

roots of approximate numbers.

The limiting relative error

equal to the m-fold limiting

an approximate number a
the

is

relative error of this number The limiting relative error of

Is

mth root

of

an approximate number a

the

th

part of the limiting relative error of the

number

a.

7. Calculating the error of the result of various operations on approximate numbers. If Aa lf ... Aa,, are the limiting absolute errors of the appro,

Sec.

1]

Operations on Approximate Numbers

369

xitnate

numbers a t

an

then the limiting absolute error

AS

of the

resuU

S = /(a t,

..., a n )

may

be evaluated approximately from the formula

The limiting relative

error

is

then equal to

*Ji/r

,**-

".++
Example 4. Evaluate S ln (10.3+ V^4. 4 ); the approximate numbers 10.3 and 4.4 are correct to one decimal place. Solution. Let us first compute the limiting absolute error AS in the 1 r A& \ ln (a+ V ~b), AS Aa We have general form: S

^TT;
^
;

Aa=A6=i=2Q; 1^4.4
the approximate
is

2.0976...;

we

leave

2.1,

since the relative

error of

number y
'

is

equal to

=-

-r=

the absolute error

then equal to

^SOTT^JQ
20
"2"

we can

be sure

tne first decimal place. Hence,

U - UUi> 0005

'

Thus, two decimal places will be correct. Now let us do the calculations with one reserve decimal: 2.517. log (10. 3+ |/4 4) =5= log 12 4-1.093, In (10 3+ V 4.4)=^ 1.093-2.303 And we pet the answer: 2 52 8. Establishing admissible errors of approximate numbers for a given error in the result of operations on them. Applying the formulas of 7 for the quantities AS or 6S given us and considering all particular differentials

U-M
\

M Ac* or the quantities \-~equal, we calculate the * \dak \da k \f\ absolute errors Aa lt ... Aa^, ... o the approximate numbers a t
,

admissible
.

..

,a n

...

that enter into the operations (the principle of equal effects). It should be pointed out that sometimes when calculating the admissible errors of the arguments of a function it is not advantageous to use the principle of equal effects, since the latter may make demands that are practically unfulfilable In these cases it is advisable to make a reasonable redistribution of errors (if this is possible) so that the overall total error does not exceed a specified quantity. Thus, strictly speaking, the problem thus

posed

is

indeterminate.
5.

Example
(equal
to

The volume
by
a
at

of a

off a circular cylinder

plane

2R)
tan a.

an

angle

segment", that is, *a solid cut passing through the diameter of the base to the base, is computed from the formula
"cylindrical
of

2 =~ R*

To what

degree

accuracy

should

we measure

the radius

370

#=s:60 cm and the angle of inclination a so that the volume of the cylindrical segment is found to an accuracy up to 1%? Solution. If AV, A/? and Aa are the limiting absolute errors of the quantities V, R and a, then the limiting relative error of the volume V that

_ _
Approximate Calculations
is

[Ch. 10

we

are calculating

3A/?

2Act

...

We

assume

3A

-^ < m
1

and

_<2Aa
1

R "Nn^a
.

100"

Whence

cm -- =1
60
f

mm;

sin

2a

Thus, we ensure the desired accuracy in the answer to and the angle of inclination a to 9'. Ihe radius to 1

mm

1%

if

we measure

3108. Measurements yielded the following approximate numbers that are correct in the broad meaning to the number of decimal places indicated:

Compute

1207'14"; b) 38.5 cm; c) 62.215 kg. their absolute and relative errors. 3109. Compute the absolute and relative errors of the following approximate numbers which are correct in the narrow sense to the decimal places indicated:
a)

a) 241.7; b) 0.035; c) 3.14. 3110. Determine the number of correct (in the narrow sense) decimals and write the approximate numbers: a) 48.361 for an accuracy of 1%; b) 14.9360 for. an accuracy of l%\ c) 592.8 for an accuracy of 2%. 3111. Add the approximate numbers, which are correct to the indicated decimals: 3.10 0.5; a) 25.386 + 0.49 2 41.72 0.09; b) 1.2-10 3.124. c) 38.1+2.0 3112. Subtract the approximate numbers, which are correct to the indicated decimals:

a)

148.1-63.871;

b)

29.7211.25;

c)

34.22-34.21.

3113*. Find the difference of the areas of two squares whose measured sides are 15.28 cm and 15.22 cm (accurate to 0.05 mm). 3114. Find the product of the approximate numbers, which are correct to the indicated decimals: a) 3.49-8.6; b) 25.1-1.743; c) 0.02-16.5. Indicate the possible limits of the results.

Sec. /]

to

3115. The sides of a rectangle are 4.02 and 4.96 (accurate cm). Compute the area of the rectangle. 3116. Find the quotient of the approximate numbers, which are correct to the indicated decimals:
1

_
5.684
:

Operations on Approximate Numbers

_
m
1

371

a)

5.032; b) 0.144

1.2; c)

216:4.

3117. The legs of a right triangle are 12.10 cm and 25.21 cm (accurate to 0.01 cm). Compute the tangent of the angle opposite the first leg. 3118. Compute the indicated powers of the approximate numbers (the bases are correct to the indicated decimals):
a) 0.4158';

b) 65.2'; c)

1.5

2
.

3119. The

side

of

square

is

45.3
the

cm
roots

(accurate to
(the

mm).

Find the area.

3120.

Compute the values

;

of

radicands are

correct to the indicated decimals):

a)

1/27715; b) j/65^2

c)

KsTT.

3121. The radii of the bases and the generatrix of a truncated 0.01 cm; r= 17.31 cm 23.64 cm 0.01 cm; / cone are # 3.14. Use these data to compute the 0.01 cm; ji 10.21 cm total surface of the truncated cone. Evaluate the absolute and

relative errors of the result.

3122. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 15.4 cm 0.1 cm; 0.1 cm. To what degree of accuracy one of the legs is 6.8 cm can we determine the second leg and the adjacent acute angle? Find their values. 3123. Calculate the specific weight of aluminium if an aluminium cylinder of diameter 2 cm and altitude 11 cm weighs 93.4 gm. The relative error in measuring the lengths is 0.01, while the relative error in weighing is 0.001.

3124.
to 221

Compute the
1

volts

volt

3125. The period equal to

current if the electromotive force is equal and the resistance is 809 ohms 1 ohm. of oscillation of a pendulum of length / is

where g is the acceleration of gravity. To what degree of accuracy do we have to measure the length of the pendulum, whose period
is close to 2 sec, in order to obtain its oscillation period with a relative error of 0.5%? How accurate must the numbers n and g

be taken? 3126. It is required to measure, to within 1%, the lateral surface of a truncated cone whose base radii are 2 m and 1 m, and the generatrix is 5 m (approximately). To what degree of

372

to

accuracy do we have to measure the radii and the generatrix and how many decimal places do we have to take the number n? 3127. To determine Young's modulus for the bending of a rod of rectangular cross-section we use the formula

_ _
Approximate Calculations

[Ch. 1Q

P * ~~ 1 4

'

flL
d*bs
'

where / is the rod length, b and d are the basis and altitude ol the cross-section of the rod, s is the sag, and P the load. To

what degree

of accuracy do we have to measure the length / and the sag s so that the error E should not exceed 5.5%, provided that the load P is known to 0.1%, and the quantities d and 6 cm? are known to an accuracy of 1%, cm,

/50
,

s2.5

Sec. 2. Interpolation of Functions

1. Newton's interpolation formula. Let * x lt ... xn be the tabular values of an argument, the difference of which h 0,l Ax; (Ax/ *,-+, x/; i ., y n are the correspond..., n 1) is constant (table interval) and # y lt ing values of the function y Then the value of the function y for an intermediate value of the argument x is approximately given by Newton's interpolation formula
.

where

o=

"7

and A#

= #,

A2

t/

= A#,

A#

...

are successive finite

the polynomial diilerences of the function y. \\hen x 0, 1, ..., n), x/ U 0, 1, ., n). As (1) takes on, accordingly, the tabular values y { (/ particular cases of Newton's formula we obtain: for n=l, linear inter potation; To simplify the use of Newton's formula, for /i 2, quadratic interpolation. it is advisab'ie first to set up a table of finite differences. If y f (x) is a polynomial of degree n, then

& n y.

= const

and A" +1 f//=^0

and, hence, formula (1) is exact In the general case, if / (x) has a continuous derivative f ln + l} (x\ on the x lt ..., x n and x, then the error interval [a, b], which includes the points *
,

of

formula

(1)

is

where

| is some intermediate value between *;(/ practical use, the following approximate formula

=
is

(),

I, ..., n) and more convenient:

x.

For

Sec, 2]

Interpolation of Functions

373

If the number n may be any number, then it is best to choose it so that within the limits of the given accuracy; in other the difference A" + {/ w words, the differences A # should be constant to within the given places of
1

^0

decimals

Example
sin

1.

Find

sin

2615'

using

the

tabular

data

sin

26

= 0,43837,

27 -0.45399, sin 28 -0.46947. Solution. We set up the table

Here,

/i

= 60',

26
q--

15'

26

_!_
'

60'
(1)

Applying formula have

and using the

first

horizontal line of the table,

we

sin

2615' = 0.43837

0.01562

+
will

(0.00014) = 0.44229.
(2)

that

Let us evaluate the error R 2 if */ sun, then |*/ (/l '|*^l,

we

Using formula
have:

and taking into account

Thus, all the decimals of sin 2615' are correct. Using Newton's formula, it is alsc possible, from a given intermediate value of the function //, to find the corresponding value of the argument x (inverse interpolation). To do this, first determine the corresponding value q by the method of successive approximation, putting

and
?C'H

2!

n\

(i-O,
l

1,

2,

...).

Here, for q we take the common value (to the given accuracy!) m + >. Whence x jt cessive approximations q (m} <;< -{-<//!. Example 2. Using the table

of

two sue*

approximate the root

of

the equation

smhx

374
Solution. Taking y
=

Approximate Calculations
4.457,

(Ch

10

we have
0.543
5

,_5-4.457 ~
1.009

^i.oog

=0.538;

0.565-0.435
2

0.220
1.009

= 0.538 + 0.027 = 0.565; :0, 538 + 0. 027 = 0. 565.

We

can thus take

*

= 2. 2 + 0. 565- 0.2 = 2. 2 + 0. 113 = 2. 313.

2. Lagrange's interpolation formula. In the general case, a polynomial of 0, 1, .... n), is given degree n, which for *=*/ takes on given values yf (/ by the Lagrange interpolation formula

__

(x

*!> (x

x2)

(x

xn )

(x

XQ) (x

* 2)

(x

xn )

*o) (*
'

*,).

.(X

Xk ^) (X
'

"

'

'

'

3128. Given a table of the values of x and y:

Set up a table of the finite differences of the function y. 3129. Set lip a table of differences of the function y x* f 1 for the values *=1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. Make sure that JC 5jc all the finite differences of order 3 are equal. 3130*. Utilizing the constancy of fourth-order differences, set 10*' +2** 3jt up a table of differences of the function y x* for integral values of x lying in the range l^jt^lO. 3131. Given the table

log

1=0.000,

= = 0.602, log 4 log 5 = 0.699.

Use
log 3.1,
linear interpolation to and log 4. 6.

log 2 -0.301, 0.477, log 3

compute the numbers: log

1.7,

Iog2.5,

Sec. 2]

Interpolation of Functions

375

3132. Given the table

sin 10

sin 11 sin 12
Fill

= 0.1736, = 0.1908, = 0.2079,

sin 13

sin 14 sin 15

= 0.2250, = 0.2419, = 0.2588.

=

in the table by computing (with Newton's formula, for 2) the values of the sine every half degree. 3133. Form Newton's interpolation polynomial for a function represented by the table

3134*. Form Newton's interpolation polynomial for a function represented by the table

Find y

for

= 5. 5.

3135.

function

For what x will y = is given by the table

Form Lagrange's
y
for
JC

= 0.

interpolation polynomial and find the

value of

3136. Experiment has yielded the contraction of a spring (x as a function of the load (P kg) carried by the spring:

mm)

Find the load that yields a contraction of the spring by

14

mm.

376

Approximate Calculations

(Ch. 10

3137. Given a table of the quantities x and y

Compute

0.5 and for x 2: a) the values of y for x of linear interpolation; b) by Lagrange's formula.
Sec. 3. Computing the Real Roots of Equations

by means

1. Establishing initial approximations of roots. roots of a given equation

The approximation

of the

/(*)=0

(i)

consists of two stages: 1) separating the roots, that is, establishing the intervals (as small as possible) within which lies one and only one root of equation (1); 2) computing the roots to a given degree of accuracy on an interval [a, b] and If a function /(A) is defined and continuous of equation (1). /(a)./(6)<0, then on [a, b] there is at least one root or /' (x) This root will definitely be the only one if /' (x) when

a<x<b.

>

<

it is advisable to use millimetre In approximating the root paper and construct a graph of the function y = f(x). The abscissas of the points of intersection of the graph with the x-axis are the rools of the equation /(x) 0. It is sometimes convenient to replace the given equation with an equivalent as the absequation (p (#) if (A). Then the roots of the equation are found cissas of points of intersection of the graohs y q)(x) and y ty (x). 2. The rule of proportionate parts (chord method). If on an interval [a, b] of the equation f (A) there is a unique root O, where the function f (x) is continuous on b], then by replacing the curve y f(x) by a chord [a, passing through the points [a, f (a)] and [b, f (b)], we obtain the first approximation of the root

/~\
(2)

we apply formula (2) to that one of ends of which the function f (x) has values of opposite sign. The succeeding approximations are constructed in the same manner. The sequence of numbers cn (n=l, 2, converges to the .)
a

To obtain

second approximation c 2
[a, c,]

the intervals

or

[c,,

b]

at the

root

that

is,

c2 ,

Generally speaking, we should continue to calculate the approximations c,, until the decimals retained in the answer cease to change (in accord ., with the specified degree of accuracy!); for intermediate calculations, take one or two reserve decimals This is a general remark. If the function / (x) has a nonzero continuous derivative /' (x) on the interval [a, b], then to evaluate the absolute error of the approximate root
.

Sec. 3]

crt ,

we can make

_
u=
a

Computing the Real Roots of Equations

use of the formula

_
2,

377

where

min

and f" (x) ^ for 3. Newton's method (method of tangents). If /' (x) a^x^b, where f(a)f(b)<0, f(a)f'(a)>Q, then the successive approximaof an equation f(x)=Q are computed tions * (rt = 0, 1, 2, ...) to the root
rt

<x<

(/' (x) b

|.

from the formulas

(3)

Under the given assumptions,

tonic and

the

sequence x n (n

1,

...)

is

mono-

lim * n -> oo

To evaluate

the errors

we can

use the formula

where u,= min

a

<

<b

\f'(x)\.
it

For practical purposes

xQ

is

more convenient

to use the simpler

formulas
(3')

= a,

= *_,
the

a/^.,)

i/i

l,

2,

...),

where
If

a=

.,

which yield

same accuracy

as formulas (3).

&. f(b)f"(b)>Q, then in formulas (3) and (3') we should put x 4. Iterative method. Let the yiven equation be reduced to the form

= <PM,

(4)

where \y' (x)\*^r< 1 (r is constant) for a ^x^b. Proceeding from the iniwinch belongs 4o the interval [a, b], we build a sequence of tial value * numbers x lt x 2 ... according to the following law:
,

If

a<jc

rt

<6

(n

l,

2,

...),

then the limit

is the on/r/ roo/ of equation (4) on the interval [a, 6]; that is, xn are successive approximations to the root |. The evaluation of the absolute error of the nth approximation to x n is given by the formula

IS

it

_ xn
y

^^s
to

xn + l
j

_r

xn

Therefore,

if

xn and x n + l coincide
-r

within

E,

then

the

limiting

absolute

error for x n will be

In order to transform equation f(x)

Q to

(4),

we

replace the latter with

an equivalent equation

where the number

A,

is

chosen so that the function

-7-

[x

Kf

(x)]

f
1

Kf

(jc)

.378

should be small in absolute value in the neighbourhood of the point example, we can put 1 X/'(x )=0]. Example 1. Reduce the equation 2x Inx 4=0 to the form (4) initial approximation to the root * = 2.5.
Solution. Here, /(x)
lent

_
x

Approximate Calculations

__

[Cft.

10

*
for

(for

the

= 2x

In *

4;

/'(jc)

= 2-~. We

write the equiva-

equation values of A,;

=x
I

k(2x

\nx
is
is,

4)

and

this

number
that

close

take 0.5 as one of the suitable of the to root the equation

1

|l_ A,( 2|

The
or

X ] initial

U = 2.5 =0,
equation
is

close to

r^O.6. .6
4)

reduced to the form

=x

0.5 (2x

Inx

Example
equation that
of
(5)

2.

lies

Compute, to two decimal between 2 and 3.

places, the root \ of the preceeding

Computing the root by th Example 1, putting x ? = 2.5.

with one reserve decimal.

iterative method. We make use of the result We carry out the calculations using formulas

*f
*,

=2+

y In2.458ss2.450,
In 2.450

= 2 + 42

^2. 448,

*4 = 2

+ ~ln2. 448=^2. 448.

here
since

And so 1^:2 45 (we can Become fixed) Let us npw evaluate the
(p(*)

stop
error.

the

third

decimal

place

has

Here,

= 2 + ~lnx
to

and
xn

<P'(*)=^..
in the

Considering that
get

all

approximations

lie

interval

[2.4, 2.5],

we

of the

Hence, the limiting absolute error remark made above,

in the

approximation to x 9

is,

by virtue

A==

^-^-=0.0012 ^=0.001.
lies

Thus, the exact root g of the equation

2 447

within the limits

< g < 2.449;

of this

we can

take g^2.45, and all the decimals be correct in the narrow sense.

approximate number will

Sec. 3]

Calculating the root by Newton's method.

_
take

Computing the Real Roots

of

Equations

Here,

On the interval 2 we have: /(3)f (3)>0. Hence, the conditions

<x<3

/' (x) of 3 for

>

and
*

> 0; /(2)f(3)<0; = 3 f (x)fulfilled. are

We e

We

carry out the calculations using formulas

(3')

with two reserve decimals:

jtj^S
*,

= 2. 4592 = 2.4481 *, * 4 = 2. 4477

0.6(2-3 0.6(2-2 4592 0.6(2-2.4481 0.6(2-2 4477

In 3

=2 4)

4592;

In 2

4592

In 2. 4481

In2. 4477

= 2 4481; = 2. 4477; 4) = 2 4475.

4)

4)

At this stage we stop the calculations, since the third decimal place 2. 45. We omit the does not change any more. The answer is: the root, evaluation o! the error; 5. The case of a system of two equations. Let it be required to calculate the real roots of a system of two equations in two unknowns (to a given degree of accuracy):

f(*.

0=0,

and

there be an initial approximation to one of the solutions (|, r\) of system Jt x ot y = y Q This initial approximation may be obtained, for example, graphically, by plotting (in the same Cartesian coordinate system) the curves f(x, #) and by determining the coordinates of the points of interand tp (x, #)
let

this

section of these curves.

a)

Newton's method. Let us suppose that the functional determinant

dtf.jp)

d(x,y)

Then by Newdoes not vanish near the initial approximation y Q1 y ton's method the first approximate solution to the system (6) has the form where a P O are the solution of the system of two. a x f/ x,
.

xx

= +

j/,

= +P

linear equations

The second approximation

is

obtained in the very same way:

^1

= *!+<*!, *,
where a p $ v are the solution
of the

= ^1+ Pi,

system of linear equations

Similarly

we obtain

the third and succeeding approximations.

380

the system of equations

_ _
Approximate Calculations
b) Iterative method.

[Ch

10

We

(6),

can also apply the iterative method to solving by transforming this system to an equivalent one * F(x.y).

and assuming thai

t

= \ y (D(*,
(

(f)

y)

|F>.y)| + |0;<x 0)|<r<l;

\F' (x, y)\ y

\<S> v (x.

#|<r<

(8)

in some two-dimensional neighbourhood U of the initial approximation (* y Q ) which neighbourhood also contains the exact solution (, rj) of the system. The sequence of approximations (x n y n ) ( = 1, 2, ...), which converges to the solution ol the system (7) or, what is the same thing, to the solution
, t
,

x>f

(6),

is

constructed according to the following law:

= F(x
If

t,

yz )

*/,-c

all

(*, y n ) belong

to

then
n

lim
-+ oo

lim
n
-

y n =i\.

oo

The following technique is advised for transforming the system of equa* tions (6) to (7) with condition (8) observed. We consider the system of
equations
(

a/

(x.

which

is

equivalent to

(6)

provided

that
,

a.
Y.

0.

Rewrite
y),

it

in the

form

y)^F(x
the
Y.

Choose the parameters

functions F(v, y)
of the
-jnd

a,

O (x,

p,

y, & such y} will be

that
a,

partial

equal or close to
fi,

in other words, we find approximation; system of equations

o as

derivatives of the zero in the initial approximate solutions

,v

t/

= 0,

Condition (8) will be observed in such a choice of parameters a, P, Y on the assumption that the partial derivatives of the functions / (x, y) and <p(A, y) do not vary very rapidly in the neighbourhood of the initial approximation (X Q // ). Example 3. Reduce to the form (7) the system of equations
,

given the initial approximation to the root *

= 0.8,

= 0.55.

Sec. 3]

_
y
)

Computing
f (x t

the Real Roots of Equations

__
t

381

Solution.

Here,
<P*
(*<>.

y)-=x*

+ y*\
,

q> (x,

y)=x'-y- fx (x
1.

i/ c )

= 1.6,

f (x* v

= 1.1;

= 1-92, 0o)
2
2

Write down the system (that

J
in the

<fy(*
is

y ) equivalent to the initial one) /la, pi

VI Y. *l

a(* + // -l) + p(*'-i/)-0, 2 2 \ Yl* + -0-i-a(*'-</)=0

form

For suitable numerical values of system of equations

1

a, p,

Y anc* ^ choose the solution

of

the

+ 1.60+1.920 = 0,
l.la
1.6 Y

+ 1.925 = 0, + 1. lY 6 = 0;

p-0,

i.

e.,

we put a =^0.3, p ^r 0.3, Then the system of equations

i

y^
2
2

0.5,

b^QA.
0.3(Ay),
t

=x y=y
x

0.3(^

2
r/

1)
2

0.5 (* -{-#

1)

+ 04 (x*y)

which

equivalent to the initial system, has the form (7); and in a sufficiently small neighbourhood of the point (x Qt y Q ) condition (8) will be fulfilled.
is

by means

Isolate the real roots of the equations by trial and error, of the rule of proportional parts compute them to

and two

decimal places. s x 1-0. 3138. X * 4 + 05* 1.55 = 0. 3139. 8 4* -1--0. 3140. x Proceeding from the graphically found initial approximations, use Newton's method to compute the real roots of the equations to two decimal places:

-\

3141.

JC

_2jc
In*

5-0.
4

3143. 2
3144.

= 4x.

3142. 2x

= 0.

logjc=y.

Utilizing the graphically found initial approximations, use the iterative method to compute the real roots of the equations to

two decimal places: 8 3147. jc x 3145. x'-5.*M 0.1=0. 2 = 0. = cos*. 3146. 4* Find graphically the initial approximations and compute the real roots of the equations and systems to two decimals: 3151. x- In* 14 = 0. 3* -(-1=0. 3148. A:' 8 2 8 = 0. 3152. x +3* 0.5 = 0. 2* + 3* 5 3149. * 2 4 3153. 4* 7sin* = 0. 3150. * +* 2* 2 = 0.

382

Approximate Calculations

[Ch. 10

3154. x* 3155. e*
'

+ 2x + e- *
8

6 ~~

= 0. = 0.
~~

x*

157

+y

= 0,

'

\Qgx-l =0.

"

" Lff

3156.
3158. 3159.

Compute
jc

to three decimals the smallest positive root of

the equation tan

jc.

Compute the

roots of the equation x-tanh

x=l

to four

decimal places.
Sec. 4. Numerical Integration of Functions

1. Trapezoidal formula. For the approximate evaluation

b

of

the

integral

If (x)
[a,

is

a function

continuous on

[a, b]]

we divide the
of

interval of integration
calculations

b]

into n equal parts

Q

and choose the interval

h==

be the abscissas of the partition points, and // /(*/) be the corresponding values of the integrand f(x). Then the trapezoidal formula yields y

Let

= x + ih Xi

(x

a, let

xn

= b,

0,

1,

2,

..., n)

with an absolute error

of

where M 2 = max f (x) when To attain* the specified accuracy

|

when evaluating

the integral,

the

in-

terval h

is

found from the inequality

That

is,

off to the smaller

h must be of the order value so that

of

V^e

The value

of

h obtained

is

rounded

a== n ~~
h

should

be an integer; this is what gives us the number of partitions n. Having established h and n from (1), we compute the integral by taking the values of the integrand with one or two reserve decimal places. 2. Simpson's formula (parabolic formula). If n is an even number, then
in the notation of
b
1

Simpson's formula

h
Q-

K#o + #n)

+ 4 (y\ + #3+.. +yn -\) +

+0n-2)l
(3)

Sec. 4]

Numerical Integration

of Functions

383

holds with an absolute error of

(4)

where

M 4 = max

!
|

(x)

when
integral,

the specified accuracy e when evaluating the interval of calculations h is determined from the inequality

To ensure

the

(5)

That

is,

the interval h

is

of the order

J/JF,
is

The number h

is

rounded

off

to the smaller value so

that n

an even integer.

val h
in

Remark. Since, generally speaking, it is difficult to determine the interand the number n associated with it from the inequalities (2) and (5), practical work h is determined in the form of a rough estimate. Then,

after the result is obtained, the number n is doubled; that is, h is halved. one to the number of decimal If the new result coincides with the earlier places that we retain, then the calculations are stopped, otherwise the pro-

cedure

is

repeated, etc.

For an approximate calculation of the absolute error R of Simpson's quadrature formula (3), use can also be made of the Range principle, according to

which

where 2 and S are the results h and // = 2/i, respectively.

of calculations

from formula

(3)

with interval

3160. Under the action of a variable force F directed along the x-axis, a material point is made to move along the x-axis 4. Approximate the work A of a force F if a to x from x table is given of the values of its modulus F:

Carry out

the calculations the Simpson formula.

i

by the trapezoidal
2

formula and by

3161. Approximate

J (3*

4x)dx by the trapezoidal

formula

putting rt=10. Evaluate this integral exactly and find the absolute and relative errors of the result. Establish the upper limit A of absolute error in calculating for n=10, utilizing the error formula given in the text.

384

Approximate Calculations
i

\Ch. 10

3162. Using the

Simpson formula,

calculate

* *

J *
o

to four
*

decimal places, taking n== 10. Establish the upper limit A of absolute error, using the error Formula given in the text. Calculate the following definite integrals to two decimals:
3,63.

Ife.
1

3,68.

(-!<,.
Jl

3164. C

-~.
-

3169.

317

>

3166.

[x\ogxdx.

Q | 7i

fcos* dX. FT \+X Jcos*

,

8187.

dr.

3172>
places the

3173. Evaluate to two decimal

a PPlyi n S the substitution
1

improper

integral

-7--

Verify the calculations

ft

Jy

by applying Simpson's formula to the integral

+
QO

rr x ~r
*

where b

is

chosen
3174,

,so

that

2 7^72

<

10

plane figure bounded by a half-wave of the sine curve *-axis is in rotation about the x-axis. Using the Simpson formula, calculate the volume ot the solid of rotation to two decimal places. 3175*. Using Simpson's formula, calculate to two decimal

f/=sin^ and the

places the length ot an arc of the ellipse

in the first

y+

situated

quadrant.
Equations
method).
Let
there

Sec. 5. Numerical Integration of Ordinary Differential

of successive approximation be given a first-order differential equation

1.

A method

(Picard's

subject to the initial condition

y'^f(x.y) = # when x = *

<1)
.

Sec. 5]

Numerical Integration

of

Ordinary Differential Equations

385

The solution y (x) of (1), which satisfies the given initial condition, can, generally speaking, be represented in the form

y(x)=
where the successive approximations
y
,

lira yi (x) -* 00

(2)

*//(*) are

determined

from

the

formulas

(*)=#<>+

(x.

yt-i (*)) dx

If

the right side f(x, y)

is

defined and continuous

in the

neighbourhood

R{
and
satisfies,

|x

in this

neighbourhood, the Lipschitz condition

\f(x,

Vi)-f(x. i/JKJ-ltfi-tfil
of

(L is constant), then the process converges in the interval

successive

approximation

(2)

definitely

I*

*
y)\.

where

ft

= min(a, ^ M/ \
/?

and

Af = max|/U,
/?

And

the error here

1

is

- y n W \<ML* ~

The method of successive approximation (PicarcTs method) is also applicable, with slight modifications, to normal systems of differential equations. Differential equations of higher orders may be written in the form of systems
of

differential equations.

2. The Runge-Kutta method. Let

,

it be required, on a given interval to find the solution y (x) of (1) to a specified degree of accuracy e.

To do

this,
,

we choose

the interval of calculations /i=

by dividing

the interval [* X] into n equal parts so that h* Xf are determined from the formula
X|

< e.

The partition points

=x +M

(i=0,

1,

2,

..., n).

By the Runge-Kutta method, the corresponding values function are successively computed from the formulas

/;

(/

(x/) of

the desired

1900

386

Approximate Calculations

[Ch. 10

where
f

=0,

1,

2,

...,

n and

(3)

*i"

=/(*/ + A,,
it is

To check the
the quantity

correct choice of the interval h

advisable

to

verify

e=
The fraction 6 should amount
reduced.
of the error of the to
a

few

hundredths, otherwise h has to be

.

The Runge-Kutta method is accurate to the order of h 1 A rough estimate Runge-Kutta method on the given interval [x X] may be obtained by proceeding from the Runge principle:
,

n R

y*m
15

Urn

'

where /i = 2m, y 2m and y m are the results of calculations using the scheme (3) with interval h and interval 2/i. The Runge-Kutta method is also applicable for solving systems of differential equations
y'

= f(x,

y> z).
t/
,

*'

= <p(x,

y,

z)
.

(4)

with given

conditions / 3. Milne's method. To solve initial conditions y=^y when X values

initial

= z = 2 when x x the Milne method, =(1) by in some way find X we

Q,

subject to the the successive

yi=y(*i),

y=0(*i).

=*/(*)

of the desired function y (x) [for instance, one can expand the solution y (x) in a series (Ch. IX, Sec. 17) or find these values by the method of successive approximation^or by using the Runge-Kutta method, and so forth]. The ap-

proximations y t and y] for the following values of successively found from the formulas

r/ t

(i=4,

5,

..., n)

are

*=

+~(7"
Hi)-

\vhere

fi

= f(x

it

y^ and7i = /(*i,

To check we

calculate the quantity

(6)

Sec. 5]
If

Numerical Integration of Ordinary Differential Equations

e/

_
.

387

does not exceed the unit of the last decimal \(y m retained in the y (x), then for f/ we take I// and calculate the next value y/ + 1 10~ w then one has to start from the berepeating the process. But if e/ ginning and reduce the interval of calculations. The magnitude of the initial interval is determined approximately from the inequality h 4 10~ m For the case of a solution of the system (4), the Milne formulas are written separately for the functions y (x) and z (x). The order of calculations remains the same. Example 1. Given a differential equation */'=*/ x with the initial condition y(0)=1.5. Calculate to two decimal places the value of the solution of this equation when the argument is x 1.5. Carry out the calculations

answer

for

>

<

by

combined Runge-Kutta and Milne method.

Solution.

We

To avoid involved writing,

integration from 0.25 by means of points x f (i 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6); we denote by y f and y^ the corresponding values of the solution y and the derivative y' We calculate the first three values of y (not counting the initial one) by the Runge-Kutta method [from formulas (3)]; the remaining three values we calculate by the Milne method [from formulas (5)] 1/4. */s y& The value of // will obviously be the answer to the problem. We carry out the calculations with two reserve decimals according to a definite scheme consisting of two sequential Tables 1 and 2. At the end of Table 2 we obtain the answer. # #, x =^0, // =1.5 Calculating the value y r Here, / (x, */)

choose the initial interval h from the condition /r*<0.01. let us take h 0.25. Then the entire interval of x to jc=1.5 is divided into six equal parts of length

fl

/i

= 0.25.

A^

=i
=
,

(*<

= 4- (0.3750 + 2-0. 3906 + 2.0.3926 + 0.4106) ==0. 3920; D

(

0)

= / (*o. =
/
/
(

0o) h

0+
fc

.5000)0.25-0.3730;

*(>

Xo

+~
/

\ + -y- j = (- 0.125+1.5000 + 0.1875) 0.25= 0.3906;

/i

(0)

*i

)=s

=n *o+y.

0o

\ + -|-) ^ = (0 125+1.5000 + 0.1953)0.25 = 0.3926; ^= 0.25+1.5000 + 0.3926)0.25 = 0.4106;

(

& (0)

= 1.5000 + 0.3920 =1.8920

Let us check:

(the

first

three

decimals

in

tins

approximate number are guaranteed).

20 |0.3906Q.3926|_ .1 = 0. 13.

10.37500.39061""

156

By
in

this criterion, the interval h that

Similarly

we

calculate

the

we chose was rather rough. values y t and y 9 The results are tabulated
.

Table

1.

13*

388
Table

Approximate Calculations
1.

[Ch. 10

Calculating^,,
f(x, y)

jr 2 ,

y9

by the Runge-Kutta Method.

Calculating the value of

j/

jf4 .

We

have: f(x, y)

y,

/z

= 0.25,

=1. 5000,

^=1.5000,
Applying formulas

= 1.8920, = 1.6420, ^'

r/,

y t = 2.3243,

,== 2.8084;

^=1.8243,

= 2.0584.

(5),

we

find

= 1.5000 + 4
=

-^
A OK

(2-

1.6420-1.8243 + 2. 2.0584)

= 3.3588;

1+3.3588 = 2.3588;
02

+ ^(01

h y' ) t

= 2.3243 +

^
1

(2.3588

+ 4- 2.0584 +

.8243)

= 3.3590;

.
hence, there
is

'

3.3588-3.3590

no need

to reconsider the interval of calculations.

Sec. 5]

Numerical Integration of Ordinary Differential Equations

389

We obtain i/ 4 y4 3.3590 (in this approximate number the first three decimals are guaranteed). Similarly we calculate the values of y^ and y^. The results are given in Table 2. Thus, we finally have
y
(1.5)

= =

= 4.74.

4. Adams' method. To solve (1) by the Adams method on the basis of the initial data */(x ) we in some way find the following three values /o g of the desired function y (x):

[these three values may be obtained, for instance, by expanding y (x) in a power series (Ch IX, Sec. 16), or they may be found by the method of successive approximation (1), or by applying the Runge-Kutta method (2) and so forth]. With the help of the numbers X Q x it * 2 x t and */ y lt y zt ys we calcu, ,
.

late

</

q lt q 2

?, where

= h y' = hf (x
2

2,

// 2 ),

qs

= hy' = hf (x,,
3

We

then form a diagonal table of the finite differences of

q:

V'=f(x,

y)

I/O

f/2

i/5

390

ces with the aid of the

_ _
Approximate Calculations

[Ch. 10\

The Adams method

consists in continuing the diagonal

table of differen-

Adams formula

Thus,
in

utilizing
i

the

numbers
e

</ 8

A<7 2 ,

A 2 ?,, A 8
of

</

situated
(7)

diagonally in

Hhe difference table,

it,

we
A? 2

calculate, by
o

means
A*<7
.

formula

and putting n-- 3

A#,

= + -<7,

+ IZ A <7,+
2

-r^

After
,

finding

A//,,

we

calculate

#4

we calculate q^~hf(x^ f/ 4 ), difference table and then fill into it the 2 A 3<7,, which are situated (together with 4 ) along finite differences A</,, A ^ 2 a new diagonal parallel to the first one. Then, utilizing the numbers of the new diagonal, we use formula (8) 4 in it) to calculate A// 4 */ R and q t and obtain the next diagonal: (putting n A 2 <7,, A*<7 2 Using this diagonal we calculate the value of */6 of the ft, A^ 4 desired solution y(x), and so forth. The Adams formula (7) for calculating by proceeds from the assumption that the third finite differences A 3 </ are constant. Accordingly, the quantity h of the initial interval of calculations is determined from the inequality 4 /t <10~ m [if we wish to obtain the value of y (x) to an accuracy of
*/3 8-

+ A*/

And when we know * 4 and #4

</

introduce

*/ 4

A# 8 and

into the
,

].

In this

sense

the

Adams formula
(3).

(7)

is

equivalent

to the

formulas of

for the Adams method is complicated and for practical purposes is useless, since in the general case it yields results with considerable excess. In actual practice, we follow the course of the third finite differences, choosing the interval h so small that the adjacent differences A 8 <7f and A*</; +1 differ by not more than one or two units of the given decimal place (not counting reserve desimals). To increase the accuracy of the result, Adams' formula maybe extended by terms containing fourth and higher differences of q, in which case there is an increase in the number of first values of the function y that are needed when we first fill in the table. We shall not here give the Adams formula for higher accuracy.

Milne (5) and Runge-Kutta Evaluation of the error

Example

2.

late to two decimal places differential equation

Using the combined Runge-Kutta and Adams method, calcu(when #1.5) the value of the solution of the x with the initial condition f/(0) 1.5 (see

y'y

Example
of

1).

use the values y lt y z //, that we obtained in the solution Their calculation is given in Table 1. We calculate the subsequent values //4 f/5 #6 by the Adams method (see Tables 3 and 4).

Solution.

We

Example

1.

The answer to the problem is #4 = 4.74. For solving system (4), the Adams formula (7) and the calculation scheme shown in Table 3 are applied separately for both functions y(x) and z(x).

differential equations

Find three successive approximations to the solutions and systems indicated below.
3176. y'=jf+y*\ y(Q) Q. 3177. y' x y 2, z' y-z\ f/(0)=l, z(0) 3178. */" -#; y(0) 0, y'(0)=l.

of

the

= + + =

= =

= -2.

Table

3.

Basic Table for Calculating

/(*,
</)

= -* +

y4 y
,

*/;

fc

y^ = 0.25

by the

Adams Method.

(Italicised figures are input data)

Answer: 4.74

Table

-1

Auxiliary Table for Calculating by the

153

Adams Method

[Sec. 6]

calculate

/i = 0.2, use the Runge-Kutta method to approximately the solutions of the given differential equations and systems for the indicated intervals: 3179. 0' = x; 0(0) = 1.5 (

Putting the interval

_
0'

Approximating Fourier

Coefficients

_
l

393

3180.
3181.

=|
a

0';
1.

0(1)

y'=*z+

z'=0

x,

(Kx<2). 0(0) = 1, z(0) =

(0<x<l).

combined Runge-Kutta and Milne method or Applying Runge-Kutta and Adams method, calculate to two decimal places
the solutions to the differential equations and systems indicated below for the indicated values of the argument; 0.5. 3182. 0'=x+0; 0=1 when x=--0. Compute y when x 0. Compute y when x=l. x* 3183. 0' 0; 0=1 when x 0. Compute when x 0.5. 3184. 0' 3; 0=1 when x 20 x 3185. J0' 20+z,

= =

= =

= + z' = x + 20 + 3z;
z

Compute y and
3186.
f0'

when x = 0.5.
y=
z,

= 2,

when x = 0.

30
z;

)2r'=y and Compute

3187. 0*
3188.

2,

when

=2

0;

= 2,

= = 0.5. = 0'
z
A:

when x = 0.
when x = 0.

Compute

when x=l.

Compute y when
3189.
2

0V +1=0;
A:

0=1,
=1.5.
0;

0'

when jc=l.
Jc'

^ + |-cos2/ =
A:(JI)

x = Q,

when

f=-0.

Find

and

x' (n).

Sec. 6. Approximating Fourier Coefficients

Twelve-ordinate scheme. Let y n

of

~f(x n

(n

= 0,

1,

...,
of

12)

be the values

the function y
-f/ 12

f(x) at equidist equidistant points

set

xn = -

the interval lU,2ji],

and y Q

We

up the tables:
y* y\

yz

y* y*

yu

y\9 y> y*

Sums

(2j)

Differences (A)
Q u l uz Iu U 6 M 4 U*

Sums
Diilerences

s
t

s l s 2 s,
tv

Sums
Differences

394

Approximate Calculations

\Ch

10

The Fourier

may

coefficients a n b n (n 1, 2, 3) of the function 0, y be determined approximately from the formulas:

,

= f(x)

6t

a2

=s

&,
s,

+ 0.5(s,

s 2 ),

&8

= 0.50! + 0.866a + a = 0.866 (1, + *,), = a, a

2 8,

8,

(1)

where 0.866

=
10

.
30

'

We

have
f(x) zz

+
used.

(an cos

nx +

b n sin nx).

Other

schemes

are

also

Calculations

are

simplified

by the use

of

patterns.

Example. Find the Fourier polynomial for the function y represented by the table

= f(x)

From formulas

(1)

we have
2

= 9.7; a, = 24.9; = 13.9; 6 = 8.4; 6,

2

=i0.3; a a = 3.8;
6,

= 0.8.
8.4 sin 2x)

Consequently,
/ (x)

^ 4.8 + (24.9 cos x + 13.9

Using the

sin x)

+ (10.3 cos2x

+
cos 3*

+
for

(3. 8

+ 0.8 sin 3x).

12-ordinate scheme, find the Fourier polynomials the following functions defined in the interval (0,2:rc) by the

Sec. 6]

Approximating Fourier Coefficients

395

tables of their values that correspond to the

of the
.

equidistant

values

argument. 3190. </ = 7200

3191. y

3192.

= = 6.68 y, = 9.68 - 2.714 = 3.042 y, = 2.134

t/,
J/

/2

= 4300 = 5200 y = = 9.72 y, = 8.97 = 8.18 y, = 1.273 = 0.788 y y = 0.495

#,
4
t
f/ 4
t/ s

yg

= 3850 = 7.42 y, = 6.81 y, = 6.22

</ 8

= 7400 = - 2250 y,
/,

</,

= 7600 = 4500 ^, = 250

0, y.

y,

4
s

= 0.370 = 0.540 y, = 0.191 y,

=5.60 / 10 =4.88 / n =3.67

y,
#,
t/

=-0.357

= 0.437 n = 0.767
first

3193. Using the 12-ordinate scheme, evaluate the Fourier coefficients for the following functions:
a)

several

f(x)

(x>

ANSWERS

Chapter
1.

Solution. Since
\b\

>|a|
Besides,
b) x

<

then a \<\ab\ + \b\. Whence (a b) + b \ab = & a (^ 6 |a Hence, |a & ^ a = |a/ + |6 3. a) -2<x<4; \a-b = |a + b) |<|a| + -6| < x < 0; d) x> 0. 4. 24; 6; 0; 0; 0; 6. 5. 3, x > c) .; ~; 0. (*)= --x +

a=(a
(

and
|

|.

|.

|.

1;

1;
.

7.

b)~oo
be 2

<*< + oo.
oo;

12.

00,

2), (~-2, 2), (2, 14.

is,

+00).

13. a)

oo

<*<
should
either
i.

/2<*< +
+*
oo

b)

x'^0,
* but

or ^
is
1,

*=0, |jc|^ K2. 2

^

2<0;

that

A'+l^O,
Jt^*2,
16.
19.

2<0,
this

i.

e.,

l<x<221.

l<;t<2. Solution. It 2)<0. Whence (A:+ 1) (*

or

*-|-KO,
18.
2

<^<
Jt

-4-< <
= 2^

0<*<1. 17. 20 K*<100.

-

impossible.

Thus,

2<x<2.
a)

K*<2. \<x<
15.

2^0,
1

e.,

x<l,
2,...).

Arji<A:</ Jt + ~(/2 = 0,
Even, b)odd,
/

1,

22. q>(*)

5* 2

10. i|>(x)

3^ + 6x23.

c)

even, d)odd,

e) odd.24. Hint. Utilize the identity

= i[f (x) + / (x)

r = -r-,
A

(-x)}

+ ![/ (x)-f (-x)}.

7 =ji,
d) periodic

26.

a)

Periodic,

T=

2 -^ n, b) periodic, u

2n

c) periodic,

T = JI,

e)

nonperiodic. 27.

y=

x,

if

0<x<c; = 6
t/

if

C<
when

/1

= ^i^i + ^2(^ when + /2<^</, + + =

-'i)
/

m q^ when m = qil +q + q /^A;^/,-!-^;

28.
/.

29. (p[x|)(jc)]

37.

-^-;0;

7-. 38.
i/

a)

=Q

when

=2 x=

2l 2

2Jf

;^[(p(x)]
1,

= 2^

(x

2)

30. x. 31. (x

>

when #

>

1,

+ 2) y <Q
2
.

= when x = when jc< and * = 2, / > when 1 <x< 2, 1; b) < when oo < x < 1 and 2 < x < -f oo; c) z/>0 when oo<x< -|- oo; when x = 0, x = ]/~3~and A;= /" "3, r/>0 when V%< x<0 and d) j/ =
1 i/

and

l<x<-f
\

oo,

y<0 whenO<^<!
and
x

39. a)

= -- (y

3)

oo);

b)

x=V y +

Answers

397

c)

if

oo<#< +
y=u = arc
l
t/

oo);

d)

= 2-10>

oo<#< +

oo);

e)

y lanyf
.

~
41.

<y<^\
a)

^=--;

d)
c)
2
,

* = # when oo<0<0; x=/l/ when = 2x 5; b) # = 2a = cos.r, c) = u u= x 42. a) # = sin x; b) sinw, a = 3

40.
,

</

= arc tan
43. a)
c)
*/

VlogT;

y = 2(x*

1)

if

|x|<l,

and

=
10*),
46.

if

|*|>1.

= -cosjc
when

!/""<

JC
| |

#=
\j

oo<x<0 and

b) y = log (10 = x when 0<x< + oo. y

< 1/2S;

-oo<x<l;

Hint. See Appen-

dix VI, Fig. 1. 51. Hint. Completing the square in the quadratic trinomial 2 we will have y y and yQ (4ac b 2 )j4a. a(x * ) where * b',2a Whence the desired graph is a parabola y ax* displaced along the *-axisby See .Appendix VI, 53. Hint. XQ and the t/-axis along yQ by

= +
Hint.

=
.

Fig.

2.

58.
is

See

Appendix
,

VI,

Fig.

3.

61.

Hint.

The graph

a hyperbola
62.

y=

shifted

along

the

*-axis by

X Q and along
2
13 -/

the t/-axis by
(

yQ

Hint.

Taking the integral

part,

we have y=-~ o

/
'

x+
5.

\ (Cf. 61*). 65. Hint. See

71.

Appendix VI, Fig.

4.

67.Hint. See Appendix VI,

Appendix VI, Fig. 6. 72. Hint. See Appendix VI, Appendix VI, Fig. 8. 75. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 19 78. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 23. 80. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 9. 81. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 9. 82. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 10 83. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 10. 84. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig 11. 85. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 11. 87. Hint. The period of the function 5 sin 2x with amis T 2njn. 89. Hint. The desired graph is the sine curve y plitude 5 and period n displaced rightwards along the x-axis by the quantity
Fig.

Hint.

See

Fig. 7. 73.

Hint.

See

1
,

90. Hint. Putting

a=A cos
(p

cp

and

b= A
--- V

sin

cp,

we

will have

y=A

sin (x

cp)

where

=-

V& + b
i

and

arctan(

In our case,
is

4 = 10,

cp=0.927. 92.

Hint. cos x

yl yl

=x =x

and and

t/

i/ 2

the
Fig. Fig. Fig.
Fig.

points
15.

= -jr-(l+cos2jc). 93. Hint. The desired graph the sum of the graphs = sinjc. 94. Hint. The desired graph the product of the graphs = sinx. 99. Hint. The function even For x>0 we determine and 3) y =\. When x at which >+<, # = 0; 2) y =
2

is

is

1)

\\

y+\.

101. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 14. 102. Hint. 103. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 17. 104. Hint. 17. 105. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 18. 107. Hint. Hint. 18. 118. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 12. 119.
120.
13.

12.

VI, Fig.
Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 25.

134.
139.

Appendix VI, Appendix VI, Appendix VI, Appendix VI, Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 13. 121. Hint. See Appendix 132. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 30. 133. Hint See Appendix VI, Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 31. 138. Hint. See Appendix VI, Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 28. 140. Hint. See Appendix VI,

See See See See

141. Hint.

398

Answers
a table of values:

Form

Constructing the points (x, y) obtained, we get the desired curve (see Appendix VI, Fig. 7). (Here, the parameter t cannot be laid off geometrically!) 142. See Appendix VI, Fig. 19. 143. See Appendix VI, Fig. 27. 144. See Appendix VI, Fig. 29. 145. See Appendix VI, Fig. 22 150. See Appendix VI,
x 2 It is 1^25 Fig. 28. 151. Hint. Solving the equation for y, we get now easy to construct the desired curve from the points. 153. See Appendix VI, Fig. 21. 156. See Appendix VI, Fig. 27. It is sufficient to construct

y=

the points

(x, y)

corresponding

to the abscissas x

= 0,
-^
(

a.

157. Hint.

Solving

the equation for x, we have * 10 \ogy Whence we get the y points (x, y) of the sought-for curve, assigning to the ordinate y arbitrary values (*/>0) and calculating the abscissa x from the formula * Bear in oo as y -+ 0. 159. Hint. Passing to polar coordinates mind that log y -*
.

*]

YX* -f- y*

and

tancp=~

we

will

have
x

160.

haver=
162.

Hint. Passing to 3sin cp cos cp

cos 8
q>
>

polar

coordinates

r = e? (see = rcosq,

Appendix VI, Fig

and

32)
will

+ sin
1M.

Appendix KK

VI, x

Fig. ft

32) /
163.

(p

= 0.6* (10
r=" x = 0.4

*);

=15

when

= rsincp, we 161. F = 32 + ^=
//
i

l,

8C

.),,-'
*2

d)

e)

x=1.50;
f

b)

*,=_;
:2.9,
y,

^=-2;
.1
/2

= -2,
2.5;

f)

= 0.86. =2

165.
;

= 2, ^ = 5; * = 5, a) *! ^ = 2,^ = 3;^ = 3, y = 2; c)
2

f/

= 2;
9;
Sit

=i=

d)

^^=

3.6,
e)

y,25s
Xl

3.1;
yi

A-

^=2.7, y z

^2

x,=--2,

=.,
10; c)

=
32.
167.

**=
/i

_1^ 2
1=JV.
b)

'

166.

> -~
V
e
b) 169.

a)

4; b)

/i

>

^
-

>
a)

a)
c)

A^=9;
0.0002.

W = 99;
a)

c)

A^

=
when

168. 6

(e<l).
b) 2*

002;

0002;

logAr<

0<*<6(AO;
170.
a)
0;

>N

when

x>X(N); c)\f(x)\>N when \x\>X(N).

171.

b) 1; c) 2; d)

~
oU

I.

172. 1.

173.
2
!

~~.
2

174.
2

1.

175. 3.

176.

1.

177.

178.

j.

Hint.

Use the formula

182.
0.

+2

-f

+i = -g
186. 2.

+ l) (2/i+
188.
197.

1).

179. 0.

180.0. 181.

1.

183.

oo.

184.
2.

0.

185. 72.
oo.

187. 2.

oo.

189. 0. 190. 1. 191. 0.

.

192.

oo.

193.

194.

195.

196.

3a a

3* 2

198.

-1.

199.

^-

Answers

399

200. 3. 201.
208.

202.

i-

203.
210.

-1
--

204.
211.

12.

205.

206.
213.

-- i

207.

-|

1.

=:. 209.

212.

x
215. 0. 216.
a)

3
217. 3.

2
218.

---.
Jt.

j/jt
b) 0.

22'
214.
-

-^s\n2\ z
sin a.

A
2
226.

2 19. 4". 220. o

221.

I
Z
b)

222. cos a. 223.

224.

ji.

225. cos

A:.

--JL
2

227.

a)

0;

1.

228.

A.

229.

1.
.

230. 0. 231.

232.

~:j4=.
235. 243.

I(rt
i-

-m
2
.

2
).

233.

234.

1.

4 o

236.
Jt

237.

I.
4
245.
0.

238. 246.

ji.

239.

240.

1.

241.

1.

242.
249.

-i 4
"*.

244.

-|.
250.
e*.

e" 1

247.

248.

e" 1

251.6.252.

a)

1.

Solution,

lim (cos*)
X-+0

lim [1

(1

X-0

cos x)]

2sin a

"m

Si nee lim V

=
*

2 lim
X-+Q

2-1- lim
v
^n

7=0,
*

it

follows

that lim (cos*)

*->o

=e

1.

b)

V
i

"/==-. e

Solution.

As

in

the

preceding

lim

case

(see

a),

lim (cos x)*

X-+0

=e
it

Since lim

2 lim

= _J_, 2
lOloge. 255.
259.

follows

that

lim (cos*)*
*-).o

=<?

=
y
e

253. In 2. 254.

1.

256.

1.

257.

-z

258

'

Hint

Put

6*^1=0,

where a-^0.
M
-i
a)

Ina. Hint.

Utilize the identity a

= e na
a

260. In a

Hint. Put

= a,
.

where

-*

(see

Example

259)
1.

261.

6.

262.

1.

263. a)
1.

1;

b)

264. a)
1;

-1;
1.

b)

1.

265. a)
1;

-1;
1.

b)

266. a)

1; b) 0.

267. a) 0; b)

268.

b)

269.

a)

b)

270. a)

oo; b)

+00.

400
271.

Answer*
Solution.
if

If

&

kn (fe=0,

1,

2,

...),

then

cos*x<l and y=0;

when

but

/Swi,

then cos 2

x=l
1

and
273.
J/

/=!.

272.
274.

y=x
j/

0<x <

1;

-5-

when x=l;

when

x>

= |x|.

y
278.

when x<0; # =
j/

whenx = 0;i/ =

y
1

when

x>0.
277.

275.

0=1 when 0<x<l;

x 2 -*oo.
si.

=x

when

l<x< + oo.
280
e
t
.

276.

^g.
4-

*,-*---;

279.

281.

282.

+
fL
e
2

*
.

284.

lim <4C n n-Mo

= 4"
"
of

285

^ 2^ *
-

-!
is

6=0;
287.

the

straight
1
1

line

y=x
)

the

asymptote
is

the

curve

y^zT

Q/^^Qo

where k
.

the
i
,

nj
288.

proportionality factor (law of

a)

compound
c)
|

interest);

Q t = Q<fkt
1
1

U|>

|*|>10;
a)

b)

U|>100;
1
|

x\

>

1000. 289. |x

<~
1
1

when
0.0005
a)

0<e<l;
290.

jx
a)

< 0.05;
6

b) |x
b) 6

1|<0.005;
c)

c)

<

|x

2|<

-^-=6;
,
.

= 0.1;
b)
2;

= 0.01;
293
3.

= 0.001.
-i
;

291.

Second, b) third.
295.

1 ~

292.

a)

1;

c) 3.

a)

1;

b) a)

c)

d) 2; e) 3.

No

296.
c)

15. 297.

1.

298.

1.

299.

300.

1.03(1 0296);

b)
d)

0.985(0.9849);
10.954(10.954).
4) a)
2;

3.167(3.1623)
301.
1)

Hint.

)/"lO= l/"9Tl
2) 6)
If

=3
7)

y
3)

+1;

0.98(09804);
1.12(1.125);
.

1.03(1.0309);

0.0095(0.00952);

3.875(3.8730);
b) 4; c)

5)

072(0.7480);
x
|

0.043(0.04139). 303,

d)
|

307.

Hint.

> 0, r

then

when
cos

\&x\<x
A:)

we
309.
310. a)

have

J/x-fAx-- /"il
advantage
of

=
an

Ax|/(V A:+

Ax+

l^"x)<| Ajc|/V^x.

Hint.

Take

the
is

inequality |cos
integer; b) x inequality
1

(x-f- AJC)

<|
Ax
I

Ax

7=

+kn, where

kn, where k
1

is

an integer
313.
c) /(0)

x+ A*
b)

<,\

311. Hint. Take advantage of the l. 315. No >l=4. 314. f(0)

d) f (0)
e)

316.

a)

/(0)

= n;

/(0)1;

= 2;

317. x 2 is a discontinuity of the second 1 is a removable dis2 is a discontinuity of the second kind; x=2 is a removable continuity. 319. x= 320. x is is a discontinuity of the first kind. 321. a) x discontinuity a discontinuity of the second kind; b) x=0 is'a removable discontinuity. 322. x=0 is a remo vable discontinuity, x kn (k=\, 2, ..) are infinite discontinuities

= 2; kind. 318. x =

= = 0; / (0)

f)

/(0)

1.

323.

x=2jifcy

(fc

= 0,

1,

2,...)

are

infinite

discontinuities.

324.

x=

x^kn (=0, is a 1, 2, ...) are infinite discontinuities. 325. x 1 is a removable discontinuity; discontinuity of the first kind. 326. x 1 is a point of discontiauity of the first kind. 327. x 1 is a discon-

Answers

401

is a removable discontinuity. 329. x=l tinuity of the second kind. 328. of the first kind. 330. x 3 is a discontinuity of the first is a discontinuity is a 1 kind. 332. discontinuity of the first kind. 333. The function is continuous. 334. a) is a discontinuity of the first kind; b) the function kn (k is integral) are discontinuities of the first kind. is continuous; c) x 335. a) k (k is integral) are discontinuities of the first kind; b) x is integral) are points of discontinuity of the first kind. 337. No, since (k the function y E(x) is discontinuous at x=l. 338. 1.53. 339. Hint. Show that when * is sufficiently large, we have P ( x ) P (x ) <0.

x=0

x=

x=0

x~k

Chapter
341. 344.
a)
a) 3;

II

b)

0.21; 1560;

c)

2ft

+A

2
.

342.

a)
1;

0.1;

b)

3;

c)

624;

b)

0.01;

100; c)

0.000011. 345. a) abx; b) 3x*&x

c)

e)

-.;
jt+Ax-f-J^x

2*(2-_l)
b)
>
-

g^'-i); A*
-

AX

346>

IT)

a)

~~

l;

l;

c)

"" h;

347>

21 -

348. 15 cm/sec. 349. 7.5. 350.

352. a) 353. a)
354.
355.

/(*+Ax)~ /(x)
Ax

35l

(x)

]im f(x A*-*O

of

+ Ax)
Ax
at

/ (x)

Ar

2;
;

b)

JP=
dt

lim
Af-M>

Ar

2,
,

where where
is

cp

is

the
the

angle

turn

time

t.

b)

~-

=
,

lim

is

temperature
of

at

time

t.

rX =
dt
a)

lim
A/-H)

A!?
At
b)

where

the

quantity

substance
b)

at

time

t.

Ax
201

lim
AJC-M)

356.

Ax

a)

L^
357.

0.16;

A =^
21
2

0238;

c)

^
lim
*

0.249;

^ =E =
AJ^-^O
2

'=
X

Ax

_ _
0.25.

sec x.

Solution.

Ax cos x cos
2

(x-f-

Ax)
;

AX
b)

*o

Ax
;

lim Ax->o cos x cos

"^
d)

1
.

sin 2 x

+ Ax 8 = hm Ax AA:^O Ax 8 8 [ J/ (8 + Ax) + ^/ (8 + Ax) + j/ ] = Hm = = 1. 360. r(0) = -8, r(l) = 0, 12 Ax-^o 3/(8+ Ax) + 2^/8 + Ax+4 = 0. 361. x, = 0, x = 3. Hint. For the given function the equation /'(2) = x 362. 30m/sec. 363. 2. 364. /'(*)=:/ (x) has the form 3x = ^. 366 L 2 tanq>=3. Hint. Use the results of Example 3 365. nx
..

-"

= J^- = sec x. cos x (x+ Ax) 1 Solution. 359.

"

358.

a)

3x 2

-4 x*
^ (8

c>

2 V^

7=
v

12 "~

n8)=
8
2

lim
A*-M>

A ^~^
Ax
,

(8)

_2
8
.

1,

1.

xo

and Problem

365.

367. Solution, a)

f'(Q)^ lim

Ll
Ax

!_=

lim

=
AX

4- oo;

AJC+OJ^/

402

Answers

b)

/'(!)= lim
r

1^15^= Ax
2

lim

^_
I
|

==00;

c)

/'/2*-fl
2x 8 370.
.

2fe+l

=
=
371.

*+A

\\

lim

*JL '=
5x 4

lim

sin Ax ~ L^iJLJ=-l; ,.

r,

lim

sinAxl

A*->+o
1

Ax
5x
2
.

=1.

368.

12x 2

+ 2.
rn

369.

l + 2x
3

372.

mat m

-l

+ b(m-\-n)t
8

+n-1

6ax
.

ji

373.

374.

-JL
375.

1
x
9
.

2x

'

5x

3x- 4

376. -*

Hint. y
9y2 ^A
2

= x x* = x
z

i
2

JL
8
.

377.

wy
1 *

U*U.
(c
l

o*7A OIS7. 379.

fW-4-9ft VJA -7- z-o

!

OOU. 380.

on

4***
2

3x
1.

l/x

+ dx)

(x

5x
383.

+ 5)
sin

x 2 (2x
.

I)

Y
385.

r^
2
/

2 (1

7=
2)

2. 382.

5 cos x

3 sinx.

384.

2x

(sinx

cos x)

sin/.

386.

y'

= 0.

387.

cot x

sin 2

^x
.

*
' .

388.
y

arcsinx-fj/~i

"

X2
v5

389.

x arc tan x.

390.

xV(x-f-7).
x 2 e x 396. e x
.

391.

xe x

O
393.

392.
1

*>y*

^f-.
2

394. e* (cos x

sin x). 395.

/^arc sin

x+

\
398.

397.

* (21n
In

*~ 1)
.

x /
.

3x 2 lnx.

399.

1+1H/-A.400. x x x
2 2

^1 10 1 x In x
4()4
1

401.

sinh x

+ x coshx.

402
405.

toco.h^dnh* cosh x
2

403
406.

_ tanh2x

-3(xln* + sinh*cosM
xln 2
arc sinh x
;

xsmh 2 x
1

2x 2
.

-f-

arc sin

y.

x
407.

y
x

x
2

*\ arc coshx
Vx
,
.

-|-2x arc

tanhx
.

(1x
412.

....

3a fax-}-b\ 2 fax b \

+
c

2 2 )

\
.

411.

12fl6+18^
fex2

2
//.

16x(3

+ 2x

2 8
)
.

413.
(2x
8

414.

I)

/I
1-tan
2

x2
4

41B

>X
8 2
)

416.

-.1/j/l;-!. X f
^
15 cos
2

418.

+ tan

COS 2 X

"~
419.

420. 2

x sinx.

421.^^^--sin 8 2/

.Hint. x
3 cos x

2 sin x

cot x
sin

= sin- +
2
1

*
423>
3

sin>

^
424>

422.
(1

+ 2 sinx
lOcosx
'

3cosx)
cos 4 x

425.

_2cos^

Ssin^^

^
/"l
x*

cos*x

2 V^lSsinx
1

2 1^1
' >

x 2 >^1-|- arc sinx

427.
!

L
2(l+Jt )V^arctanjc

_3jari!*)l

^
'

(1

+ x ) (arc tan x)

Answers

403

429.
.

430.

4 32.

2*
433.

2
-}-

1)

x
p).

(2x-5) X
sin(2/+q>).

cos(x

5x+l)
X 2 COS 2

-.
X

asin(ax +

434.

435.

?21i
sin

""*
.

436.
.

437.

s
l
,-

n2

^
a
"~ 2

x cos 2x 2 sin 3x 2

438.

Solution.

V^l
442.
446.

(2x)'

2
.

439.

(2x)

lA
f

4x

2
2

x/V
2*5~* f
pX

440.

T
2 J^jc
445.

1
.

"~
441.
1

1
.

+x

-p^jf
sin2
t

443.
t /

10xe~*
2.

444.

In 5.

2xi0 2 *
.

(1

+ x In

10).

+2
.

2
448.

cos 2 In

447.

449.

cot x log

e.

450.
1

^
x2
(1
-j-

451.

^^
x

452.
(e
.

xlnx

-}-5sinx
]

4 arc sin x)

VI
x
-

453.

L
In x) x

+
(1 -j-x
3

J
)

454.
/
I

arc

455. Solution, y'

3 H- sin

(sin

5x)' cos

2 -

tanx x
6

+
1

+ sin

5x

cos 2

-=-

2x \ In x-jx \ 2
'

= 3 sin

\
2

) 6 J

5x2 cos
4x

x f -^
f

sin --

x\
)

= 15 sin
6
.

5xcos5xcos 2
x'
.

x2 ~sin
459.
.

5x cos 5x5 cos 2

8

5xcos x

-r-

xx
3

sin --

456.

3
457.

x 2 -f4x

458.

463.

x
465.

4x 3 (a

2x 3 ) (a

5x 3 ).

474. sin 3 x cos 2 x.

sin

x cos 4 x

476.

10tan5xsec 2

479.
.
.

3cos*cos2*. 480. tan'*. 481.

484.
V

-- 1

arc sin x (2 arc cos x -

]/"l

x2

5x.

477.

xcosx 2

478.

3/

sin

2/.

-f
sin
4

482 .
2
. OB 485.

arc sin x)
' .

K a
-

sin 2

+p
.

cos 2 x

2
2
1

486.

AQC

'

V^x

1+x 2

487.

491.

492.

arc sin

...

1^2x

xa

25x 2 arc

sin

5x

404

494.

_
,
.

Answers

495.

- 1

496.

2xcosa + xt
2

5
500.

+ 4 sin*
sin ' x
.

1+cos 2 * a w *lna. 502.

f

. 499.

/?*
-

sin 2xe

e*(acos p/
506.

x p sin pO- 503. e" sin p*.

(1

504.

e-*cos3x. 505.

^-'a-^fn

2xMna).

l(/tanx

+ l/Tosxln a).

1+*-

"""
(1

_)/.
(1

Psinhpjf)'. 539.

6tanh 2 2x
543.
^

tanh 2 2x)
.

540.

2coth2x. 541.
.

^L
xarctanhx
y' (0)

542.

544.

-^sinx

545.
y'

546.

x y In 2 x
547. xarcsinhx.

cos2x
548.
a)

y'=l when x>0;

549.

1
1

x2

when x
{

< 0;

does

not
552.

exist;
1

b)

'-,*,.
553.

1 ,' =
/

550.

f'W/+

I
b)

y+
(0)

1^3 I -.
5
c)

6n. 554.

a)

/_

(0)

= -1,

(0)=1;
(0)

/.

(0)

2
,

V (0)= =^;
do not have

/I (0)=
1

1,

/'

+ (0)-0;
556. 2

d) /'_ (0)

=/'+
557.
it

= 0,
1.

e) /'. (0)

and

/'+

exist. 555.

x.

+ ^-.

558.

561. Solu-

tion.

We

y'

= e" x (1
566.
*

or

xy'=y(\x)

567

= -(lx) (1 +2x)(l +3x) + 2(l+x) (1 +3x) + 3(x + l) (1 +2x). ~

x).

Since e' x

=^

follows that y'

2

Answers

40S

-24
>-

573 '

574.
,

575.
.

'n*.
* '
.

576.
/

2!li

+ cos x Inx

578.

SIn

(cos x)

(cos * In cos *

- sin * tan x)
(arc tan x)X
'

+x*)arctanx

58
581.

a) ;

.-- 4'585.

"
588.

fir-*- ra.
tan
f.

<(2 "" <t)

.

586.

589.

-.

590.

601.

W.
1.

-tan^.592.
oo.

~
,;

={
604.

593.
J

-*-.
an iden
1

594. tan^. 596.

tity.
.

597.

599. No. 600.

603.

602.

-.
2

Yes, since the equality

is

-.
2

2j/)
.

605.

_=_
l-f3ju/ -f4(/
615.
.

r
10

6 08
10

3 cosy

xy
;

616.

+y
45-.

y,

ex
arc tan 2

yVx*+y*
=^63
26'.

\nx-xx
624.

620

a) 0; b)

c)

0.

622.

623.

45.
627.
632.

arc tan

~^r 36

21'.

625.

(0,20);

(1,

15);

(-2, -12).
631.
b) d)

626. (1,

-3).

</

= **- *+ 1.628. k = ^.629.

11

f-i o
\

-1^
lo

y-5 = 0;

+ 2 = 0.
2x
x\

1=0; y = 0.

633.

a)

y=2
2^ 7x
1

^2y =x
= 0,

l=0;
1;

y=l

1=0
635.

+ y2 = 0; c) 3 = 0; e) 2x + y
for

6x Jt 2// x 2f/-fl=0
(

= 0;
634.

for the point (1, 1);

the

point

1,

1).

34 = 0.
13
GA;

= 0.
637.

636.

5y-f 21=0.
;

t/

= 0.

638.

At

the
2\

point

(1,0):

= -Ilf
6;

at the point (2, 0): (/=

x-f-2; y

=x

at the point

(3,0):

t/

= 2x

639.

14;c

0;

41

=0.

-406

Answers

640.

Hint.

The equation

of the

tangent
,

is

crosses the x-axis at the point A (2x 0) and the y-axis at B (0, 2f/ the midpoint of AB, we get the point (* y Q ). 643. 40 36'. 644. at the at bolas are and intersect point (0, 0) tangent
,

ZXQ

^-{-^-=1. 2y Q

Hence, the tangent

).

Finding
angle

The paraan

arctan-i=^88'
648
'

at

the

point

(1,1).

647.

S,

'

652

'

T
arc tan

653.

~.
2
;

654.

-y +2(p

'

655
656.

'

Sf =
S,

= 2jia

/1+4JT 2
>

rt

=a
fl

~ n -~
2

--

}/~l-|-4ji

tan^i

=
.

2jt.

= a;
0;

5,,= -^;
I

2_|_p2.

tan|i=
660.

q>

657.

658. 15 cm/sec. 659.

-g
2

-^-in/sec.

The equation
is

2
.

The

range

u
*

cm /sec;

cm /sec

of the trajectory sin

\sy=x tan a
velocity,

2a
.

The

uj

2u g/sina

+g

2 8
/
;

the

slope

of

the

velocity

vector

is

cosa

To determine system. The range

Hint.
of

the trajectory, eliminate the parameter t from the given is the abscissa of the point A (Fig. 17). The projections

velocity

on
~

the
'

axes

are

and

jis

The magnitude

of

the velocity

is

the velocit y vector

directed along the tangent to the

~
8 CO
663.
of
1

Q
,

he

40

cm

- '6. 8 cm/sec, the area, at a rate diagonal increases at a rale ol 2 664. The surface area increases at a rate of 2ji m /sec, /sec
f

the volume, at a rate of 0.05

is

JT

m'/'sec. 665.
is

360

g,
is

the

density

at

M
.

y cm/sec
672.

666.

The mass

of the rod

5* g/crn,
210,Y +~~
4
.

at

670.

60g/cm. 2(1 ~"* 2)

.

667.

56x 6

the density at x* 668. e (4^

is 0,

+ 2).
680.

the density 2 cos 2x 669.

671

3(1
673.

2 arc tan x

_
1

x2 v

+
(1

674
x*)
.

cosh
a

i*

6 79. y"'

= 6.
1; 2;

/'"(3)

681.
is

The acceleration, a 0; 0.6. 686. The law 0.006; the is x acoscof; the velocity at time / is point M, 2 acD cos(of. Initial velocity, 0; awsincof; the acceleration at time / is aw 2 velocity when * initial acceleration: is -aco; acceleration when The maximum absolute value of velocity is aa>; the maximum * is 0. n (n+l value of acceleration is aw 2 687. y (n) absolute n\a 688. a) n\ (1 \ x)~
of

u = 5;

682.

vl
//

~64sin2x

684. 0;

2.

685.

The velocity

4997; motion of

4.7.

b)

_ ir +

= =

i
.

689

Answers

407

d)

2 n jc

691

^(OJ^-tn

1)1

692.

a) 9/

8
;

b) 2/

+ 2;

c)

/"T^?.
-

693. a)

777
4a
sin
4

694 a > 0; b) 2e>al 695 - a)

-

XU+*-);

b)

<

696.

=.
'

697.

=l-

"
707.
711.

~
'

---.
$

708.

a)

^b) 3
AJC

-o

-j;
-

2 2 ft-4-.
cf(/
//

709.

"J 256

7,0.
16

f- .712. Ar/

= 0.009001;

d/-0.009.

713. cf(l
2

when

x=\
718.

and No.

4o
d//

714

^5 = 2^Ax, A5 = 2^ Ax +
.

(AA')

717. For *

= 0.

719.

^=^-0.0436.
722.

720.

d(/

= ;=i 0.00037.

721.

dy= 45

0.0698.

=.
A:

M+

723.

725.

^~^-

726.

2xe~**dx. 727. \nxdx. 728.

x

y*xe
735.

IJ

~dx.

737. a) 0.485; b) 0.965; c) 1.2; d)

8
.

0.045; e)

~ + 0. 025^0
^640=^ 25
b)

81.
3.

738.
740.

739. 565_cm ^^4.13; ^70^=8.38; /70=^4.13; J/ 200=5=5. 85. 741. a) 5; ^/10=^2.16;

"""

5"=^ 2. 25;

d) 0.9.

742.

1.0019.

743. 0.57.

744. 2.03.
2
.

748.
(1

(d **'
iy
.

749.

l.l;c)0.93; *( dx ?
.

^)*/i

750.

sin,ln, +
fc). 753.

~(^)

(1

X2 )

/a

751.

(dx)*. 752.

-e

-.754.

3.2"

sin

408

755.

758.

__
Answers
757.
e

xcosa

sin(*sina + na)-(d*)
x = ~x
is

/l

No,

since
of

/'

(2)

does

not

exist.

No. The point

(2,
4).

discontinuity

the

function.

762.

&

= 0.
2

763.

765.

a)

=^;
1

b)g = -~.

768.

In

x=(x- l)-i (*-l)

*=

-f

2(

3U'

1)8>

where

|= +6 (x- 1),
1

0<0<

1.

769. sin
-

x-^- +
where where

~ sin
|2

J,,

where

^ = 8,*, 0<9 <1;

770.

sin

x = x-

~ + ^(

sin g 2 ,

= 8 *,
2

C<8,<1.

c*

=i+x + J+|J. + ...+ ^lL.+5jeS

?-6*,

0<B<1.

772. Error: a)

b) '

A
= 77:.
1

2!L_ 8
40

both cases g

6jc;

0<6<

1.

773.

The
x
\
J

3
error
is

less
_i_ *
.

than =7
5!

775.

Solution.

We

have

j_

/
we

( _ = H
[

x \ (1 -(

Expanding both
2

factors in

powers
x

of

#,

-L
.

__L
x ^ + -_ -- x
.

.
,

x \

get:

^1-f-)

^
I
,

x -\
J
y*

8
1

-^~^1H //T"
x

y ---

^~9~2x
a

Tne n

expanding
^77.

in

powers
778
788.
for
oo

of

we

get the

same polynomial
781.
790*.

x x =^rlH---r-n~-2
783.
oo.

IT

779.
788.

780. 3. 789.

~
0.

782. 5.

784. 0. 785.

1.

~.

1.

791. a.

792.

oo

for

>
1.

1;

for

l;

n<l.'
1

793. 0.

795. -1

796.

~
\2

797.

1.

o
1

799.

800.

e*.

801.

1.

802

803.

804.
e

805.
e

806.
e
is

807.

1.

808.

1.

810.
for

Hint.
area

Find

S
lini
-^
,

where S

R2 = -~2

(a

sin a)

the exact

u ~>0
of

expression

the

3"^
the segment (R
is

hh

the radius of the corresponding circle).

Chapter
811.

III

812. ( increases; (2, oo), decreases. oo, 2), decreases; 813. 814. increases. (2, oo), increases. oo), 0) and (2, oo), increases; (0, 2), decreases 815. 2) and (2, oo), decreases. 816. 1), 817. increases; (1, oo), decreases. 2), 8) and (8, oo), decreases. 818. (0, 1), decreases; (1, oo), increases. 819. ( and (1, oo), in00, 1)
2),

(00,

(00, (00, (00,

820.
(

(00,

(00,

(2,

creases;

1,

1),

decreases

00,

oo),

increases

821.

(0,
oo,2),

],

de-

creases;

oo
j,

increases. 822.

(2,

0),

increases. 823.

decreases;

Answers
increases.

409
decreases.'

(2, (0,

oo),
1),

824.

00, a)

and

(a,

oo),

825.

(00,
.

0)

and

decreases; (1,
-

oo), increases

827. ymax

when

*=-

828.

No

1296 when x = 6. extremum. 830. t/m in = when x=Q; t/ mln =0 when x= 12; t/max when x= 1; t/ mfn =^ 0.05 when 0.76 when x=5=0.23; i/ max = 831. t/min^ 2 833. #max = 832. No extremum. x=^1.43. No extremum when x = 2.

when *=0;

|/

=2

when

=2
f/

834.

#max

=9
yg

when x = 3.2.

835.

t/

max =

= 3/3 when x =
838.
i/

when
837.

x=
j/

max

mm -0 when

= V"3 when x = 2^3; *=1; ma x = when x =

(/

^L; yO

min

= 3/3"
l

when

^==^
r

836.

r/

max

= /2
r
".

y min
839.

K^3"

when x = 2K

y mta =

s/"3 when

840.

[/

m ax-= 5 when

^= 12

9rr

^ n; ^/max^^cos
Ji;

when

x=1
x

Scos^when
1,

*=12

fjkJ:^

y min=l
x

when

=6

(2fe

1) JT

(fe-^0,

2,

...).

841.

ymln ==0when
x

= 0.

842. y mln

= -844.

when x =
f/

-.

843.

t/max^^845.

w ^n

= ~;// min ==0

when x =
1.

when
846.
848.
f/

x=\
mln

m?n

-l when
4

y mln

=
f/

when x = 0;
849.
\.

when x = 2
value
is

//max--2
*,

847.

min

m=

75-

for

= g when x=l. x~ greatest

1;

No extremum.

Smallest

value,
851.

M = 7rwhen

850.

m
1)

when x =
Af

and x

= 10; M = 5
1,

for x

= 5.
...).

m=~

when x = (2fc
x

-f-

-j-

for x

fcjT

j- (fc^O,

2,

852.

m^=0 when

= l; M=JI
854.

when
6

x== _l.

l when 853. /n=s when x=l; M=-^2o6 when x = 5;

x=
b)

1; M = 27 when x = 3. m = 1579 when x =

10;

M = 3745

a)

m--

when

x=12.
862.

856.

p=

2,

<7

4.

861.
a

Each

of the

terms must
863>

be equal to

The rectangle must be

square with side

-7--

Isosceles.

864. The
of
tlit

side adjoining the wall

must be twice the other

.

side

865.

The

side

cut-out square must be equal to

base. 868.
is

866.

The altitude must be

to
of

half

the

-g-

867. That

whose

altitude

is

equal

the

diameter

of the base
,

Altitude of the cylinder,

-^L y3

radius
869.

its

base
of

R ]/

ro

where

i<

__

the radius of the given sphere.

Altitude

the

cylinder,

RV'2
--

where

is

the radius of the given sphere.

870. Altitude of the cone,

410

where

where
cone

__
Answers

R
3

is
is

the radius of the given sphere.

871. Altitude of the cone,

872.

-^

R,

the radius of the given

r
is

sphere.

Radius

of the base of the

-jr-r,

where

the radius of the base of the given cylinder. 873. That

whose altitude is twice the diameter of the sphere. 874. q> section of the channel is a semicircle. 875. The central

jr, that angle of

is,

the crossthe sector

zero;

/~2
is,

876.

The altitude

of the cylindrical

part

must be

that

the vessel should be in the shape of a hemisphere. 877. h

= \l*

878.

^- + *yo = 1. * XQ
-^-

879.

The

sides of the rectangle are

of the ellipse.
lie

a^Tand
The
(-~-a;

6J/~2,

where
of

a and b are the respective semiaxes

the vertices of the rectangle which

880.

coordinates
2

on the parabola
is

I/ ^M-

/
881.
(

~Y=.,

3 \ -j J.

882.

The angle
883.

equal to the greatest of the numbers

arc cos

4-

and

arc tan

^
b),=

AM=a
If

^L

^_

884.

-4r

885.

a)

t-y-.
887.

=;

*.

886.

,=
l

P min = y%aqQ.
spheres,

the

velocity
a

impact
/HI

with
.

m*V +w
the

\f~Mm. Hint. For a completely elastic impact of two imparted to the stationary sphere of mass m after sphere_of mass m 2 moving with velocity v is equal to
"I/
v

888.

n=
is

r
,

(if

this

number

is

not an integer or

is

not a divisor of

7V,we take the closest integer which

of

is

a divisor of TV). Since the internal resistance

battery

the physical

meaning

of the solution

obtained

is

as

follows: the internal resistance of the battery 2 external resistance. 889. y h. 891. ( o

must be
oo,

as close as possible to the

2),

concave

down;

(2,

oo),

concave up;
893. 894.
(
(

M (2,
3),

oo,
oo,

6)

inflection. (00, oo), concave up. 12), point concave down, ( 3, oo), concave up; no points of inflection. and (0, 6), concave up; ( 6, 0) and (6, oo), concave down;
of

892.

points
^"3")

of

inflection
(0,

M,

(6, --|Vo(0,
(

0),

Af 2 ( 6,

|-V
oo),

895.

(00,

and
of

^3), concave up;

1/~3,

0)

and (1^3,
0(0,
,

concave down;

points

inflection

M lj2
(

(|/*
(4/e

0)

and

0).

896.

-jr-

J,

concave up;

+3)

-^, (4

+ 5)~

concave

down

(&

1,

2,

...);

points of inflection,
l)it,

concave up; ((2k

2&Ji),

f(2fe+l)y, concave down(fe=0,

oV
1,

897. (2/m,

i2,
[0, \

...);

the abscis),

sas of the points of inflection are equal to

xkn.

898.

V&J

concave

Answers

411

down;
;

[7^,

oo

Y
J

concave
up;
3)

V/>
oo,

up;
(0,

M
oo),

(Y*
oo),

^=

_JL

W)

is

a point of inflection.
is

899.

0),

concave

inflection.

900.

(00,

and

(1,
l

concave down; 0(0, 0) concave up; (3,

2

a point
1),

of

concave
A'

= 901. of inflection are M ( 3, T and M ( = x. 905.0 = *, = 0. 902. *=1, x^=3, = x= 2, y= 903. 904. = right 907. jc-= = x, right. 906. = left, left, left, = 2, left, y-=2x 2, right. 909. 0^2 y=-x,jt-=0. = *, right 908. 910. 911. * = 0, 0=1. 912. i/^O. 913. *-=!. 0=1, left, = 0, right. = x n, left; y = + right. 915. y a. 916. ma x = when x 0; 914. 4 when x = 2\ point of inflection, Af,(l, ~~ 2 917 ^/max^ when min = r = 0; points of inflection Ai l|f when jf=V 3; m ~) == 4 when x = 918. y min = Q when je=l, point of inflection, M, (0, 2). m ax 919- f/max^ 8 wnen ^ = 2, m n = when = 2; point of inflection^ M (0, 4). when A'^0; of inflection 920. M lt2 (Y5, 0) and points //min^
down; points
1,
j

J.

iy

1.

1,

l,

1,

JC

JT,

)-

in

r=:

jc

1,

1;

//

Jt

\,

921

^max^
Points

when x^O;
of
f/

/y

min

^2

when x-=2; asympT2); asymptote O. asymptote, AT

totes, x

= 0.

1,

923.

0=-xl. ~
max

922.

when x
point
*

1;

mm

inflection M, lt 4 when i=l;

(l,

924. (farm

=3
~

when jc=l;

of

inflection,

M(

1/2,

0);

asymptote,
J '

= 0.

925.

0max~'Q- wnen o

= 0,
2

points

of

inflection,

asymptote,
927. y m n
\

=
1

926. # ma x-~

when

= --J;

m jx ==l whenx=l;
asymptote,

when x--0; asymptotes,

M lt (\ \ x--2 and
=l when
0.

r 4 J 0. y

\\

points of inflection, 0(0, 0)

928.

and

Ai

lf

J2/"3,
inflection,

-^)'.
Ai(5,
\
0);

=
and

max

x-^4;
Point
,

point
of

of

77-]; y
/

asymptotes, x
x
=-

=2

and

929.

inflection,

0(0,

asymptotes,
x
0,

= 0.
931.

when
*---

8
jc^=
1;

-;

asymptotes,

=4

and
x

97 -930. nnx = 4 when max =

f/

'16
A
(0,
2) 4)

0min

=4

vvnen

x~\\

asymptotes, r

and /^(4,

(8,
(

4)
3,
0);

2 V 2 when 2) are end-points; ma x are end-points. Point of inflection,

= Q and =2
;c

= 3v
933.
0).
/I

932.

(8,

and

0(0,

934.

End-point,

m in^=
0);

when x =

2.

935.
1;

End-points,
point of

and

B(Y$*
Q

0max=

V%

when jg=

A(Y$* 0), 0(0. 0) inflection, M (1^3 -f 2 f^J,

points
of
0);

V M, t(l,
0=^
x.

V
s

~YH
max

936f

^nax^
1;

when

x
t

= 0,

inflection,

0).

937. Points of inflection,

938.

when x =
4;

when
940.

= 0; m n=
x
2

points
4

when x =
x

of

inflection,

asymptote,

= 0.

max j

when

= 3.
jc=

941.

ym n
\

=y

K 2); asymptote, 4 wh'en x==4; point of inflection, 0(0, ~~ ^ 3 / 4 4 when x when x 2, 0mi n
~~
i

m = M 1>2 (1,
in
1

(Q

1)

and M f (1, (when x = 0)

asymptote, 939. max -=2

0.

0);

942.

=2

when
944.

= 0;

=K

asymptote,

x=2.

= 4;

943.

Asymptotes,

and

= 0,

0min^

T7=
1/2

when

412

Answers
f

J/max

TT= when V 2

1/~JT

Q
3,

points of inflection,

Af,

-n-l,

0(0,

0)

'

(3
3,
of inflection,
of

\
;

-o-

) J '

asymptotes,

x=l

945.

/12,

j^r=V, asymptote, x = 2

946.

*/

/2 max =
= 0.
~\
2

3 = -0-7=

when x = 6;

point

when x=l;
of

point

V
inflection,

/iooy
/
I

M
5)

2
2,
-j-

\
;

asymptote, y
a,
)
;

= Q.

947.

Points

inflection,

M,
x

3a,

and
of

2 (

asymptote, y
/ 8 ^ 2 i/"~ ^2
,

948. f/max 1111162

wn en
y

= 4;
//

points

inflection,

M^J

);
1,

asymptote,
950.
J.
t/

= 0.
1

949.

rnax

=2

when
w min

>:

= 0;

points of inflection,
951.

f lf 2

max

when
point
952.

jc=l;
of

when ^ = 0.

t/max^

74

when
*

^e ^ 7
2

39

inflection,

(e"'*

^14.39,

0.70);

asymptotes,
inflection,

and
,

# = 0.

/min=
f/

j-

wnen

^ = -4=.,
point
f/

point of
inflection,

(-rr==

"""472)1;

953.

min

=g

when x = g;
x-*0.

of

2
,

(e

~V,
jc

asymptote, A:-y
1

y-+Q
/min

when

954.

max

= -F ^0-54
Ai

when

^=

86;

=
as

when * = 0;

point

of

inflection,

f\ e

1^0.63;
1

^=0.37); J

y
of

-^

*-

1+0

(limiting end-point). 955.

y m{n =

when

x=
956.

2;

points

inflection, 1>2 (1.89, 957. Asymptotes, r/ Q.

=
,

1.33);

asymptotes, x=*l. (when x-+ oo) and y

=
not

x (as

Asymptote, x oo).
the

958.

Asymptotes,

=
.

= 0, # =

1;

the function

is

defined on

interval

-- ,0
j n+
2Jfeji;

959. Periodic

function

with
2A5Ji

period
(fc

2n. y m n
\

=
2,

when

jc

t/

max = ^2" when A:=

j+
e

= 0,

1,

...);

points

of inflection,

Mk
o

-j-

n + kn,

Oj.

960.

Periodic

function

with

period

2ji.

y mln ==
(fe

^3
1,

when
2,

*=

j Ji-f2/5Ji;
of

max

V$
0)

when
and
2xc.

x=

~+
the

2fen

= 0,

...);

points

inflection,

M k (kn,

Nk
On

fare cos

~^-J+2fejx,
[

yg )^l5j.
ji],
t/

961. Periodic function with period

interval
i/

ji,

max

*=n;
M, 4
nal
(

m in

=
i/

when ^ = 0; points
0.95).

when

x=

~;

m in =
2;i.

when
inter-

of

inflection,

2 20,
2it],

962.

Odd

(0.57,

0.13) and

periodic function with* period

/

On

[0,

max

when x = 0;

ml n=0.71

when * =

*.

i/max=l when

__
Answers

413

Ji

'

^nin

When * =

ymax

= ^- 7
points

wnen

*=

#min

when

=l

when

= 2n;
0);

of

inflection,

Ai^O.36,

0.86);

(1.21,

0.86);
963.

M,(2.36,
Periodic

M 4 (3.51,
with
ji

0.86);

M
= 0,

(4.35,
\

0.86);

A4 e (5.50, 0).

function

period

2n.

V~2 ~ ym n = L
1,

when
...);

when * =
3

+ 2foi

(fc

2,

asymptotes, x=-r-Ji
inflection,

+ ^Jt
kn,

964. Periodic function with

period

n;

points

of

Mk

965.

Even

^+

-y- J

(fc

= 0,
t/

1,

2,

...);

asymptotes, *
the

=
-

j JI+/JJT.
[0,

periodic

function

with

period

2n

On

interval

=
c

rr^s

when ^ =

arccos-^;
^min

max

= 0whenx-n;t/ mln =
of

^= when
(

= arccos --7=)'
(

=
;

wnen ^==0; points

inflection,

Oj

Af t

skill:?,
function

(arc periodic

lO^ with
m
i

(jt^arcsin
2it.

J^

period

On

^-)
[0,
;

966.
t/

Even

the

interval

n]

ma x

when
vvhen

= -F=
A:

when
1

= arccos

-=.
of

^min=--FM!
f

= arccos

^zr

(/

when x^Ji;

points

inflection,

-y

Oj;

967. 968.

-.(/S-i/S)' Odd
Limiting
points
of

function. Points of inflection, M* Even function. End-points, 4, 2 83, Af J(1.54 (cusp); points of inflection, lf

(- (-/I)=
(fcjt,
1

-i/g)1,
1

fejt)

(/j

0,

2,

(2

...).
A:

57)

t/max^
969.

57

when

'

0.34).
(1,

Odd
1

function.

graph

1,

oo)

and

0(0,

0);

asymptotes, x\.
/

970.

Odd

function.
O
JI

+ oo). Point of inflection, + ?JT when max = -^t/

-j-

+ /en;

M k (kn,
function,

2fcrc);

= -J + 1 asymptotes, x^-y -^ (6 = 0, = 0; asymptotes, = t/mln^ when x

m in = n + 1 +2^n when
2k 41

A;

/JJT;

points
2,

of

inflection,

1,

...).

971.

Even
and

(/

-^-^

(as

x-*

oo)

//

=^.^1

(as
1

*-*+oo).

972.

(/

when x =
"

(node); asymptote, y

l.

+-fr

when

JC==1;

^max=

--

Whe "
JC=1;

X=S ~" I;
(left)

P oint

(right).

inflection (centre of 974. Odd

l;

#==

^-^

= 1.856 when M 0, -^- asymptotes, = -- + (when of inflection, point y and # = * In2. (as ^-^+00). 975. Asymptotes, # = oo) and y = -^
function.
t/

symmetry)

(0, Ji);

asymptotes,

y = x + 2n
t/

and

y=x

m in=1.285 when
f
;

max

t/

ji

414
976.

Answers

j/

m n =1.32 when
i

*=1;
when

asymptote, x

= 0.
t/

977. Periodic function

with
2;ri

period

2jt.

t/

min

=
-g-

x=^-ji

+ 2&JT;
/

max ^=e

wnen * =

^- +
e
2

(fc

= 0,

1,

2,

...); points of inflection,

M^ Urcsin
I

i/^ + 2/m, UlA

g

978. (2fe+l)n,e 4(0, 1) End-points, ^ B(\, 4.81). Point of inflection, M(0.28, 1.74). 979. Points of inflection, 4.81 (as *-*-|-oo). 0.21 (as x -+ (0.5, 1.59); asymptotes, # oo) and r/ 980. The domain of definition of the function is the set of intervals (2kn t where fc Periodic function with period 2ji. ... 0, 1, 2, 2/jJt-f-ji),

and

A^ and
=

arc sin

t/

max

when * =
The

2&Ji

(&

0,

1,

2,

...);

asymptotes,

kn.

981.

domain
where

of

definition

is

the set

of intervals

(2fc+-jrjJi
Points
of
-^-

is

an

integer.
0) of
(fe

Periodic

function
2,

with
...);

period

2ji.

inflection,
2fejt.

Mk
x

(2fcji,

= 0,

1,

asymptotes,
increasing
2/jn
|

x=

982.

Domain
0.

definition,

x
of

>

0;

monotonic
]x

function;

asymptote,
1,
(/e

983.

Domain

definition,

<~

(fc~0,

2,
1,

...).

Periodic
...);

function

with
x

period

2jr

y mm =l when

2/jJi

= 0,
i/-^
1

2,

asymptotes,
(limiting

+ kn.
min

984.

Asymptote,
End-points,

r/=1.57;

1.57
57);
-+

as

-*

end-point).
986.

985.

lf

,(1.31,

y mln
1

when ^^0.

i/

^ 0.69
4 (+0,
of

when
Q);

*=

p0.37; y
i

as

^-^ +

987.

Limiting

end-point,

t/max^ 6

when / = (0 = 3); y mm = 1 M, (0.58, 0.12) and M 2 (4 35,1 40). 988. Jc inln = when / = (x^3) 989. To obtain the graph it is sufficient to vary / from to 2jt. a (cusp) when ^min^ awhen^-ji(// = 0); ^max = awhen / = (#-0); min 1 1

^ 1-44
1

when # = e=^2.72; asymptote,

(/

!;

point

inflection,

t/

=
.

+-2.

(x;

= 0);
3jT

ma x
5jl

+
7-,

fl

(cusp)

when

<

-y

U = 0);

points of inflection

when
990.

= -j3T

r4
1
t

44
1

7jT

-j-

Jf

m in=

r wnen
f

*=
I/" 2,

to=

^)l

^max =

wn ^n

=
j

l(jK:

= e);

points of

inflection

when

i.e.,
j

XJ.

_ /"^"t
= 0.991.
992.

and when

t=

i.e.,

V'Se
\
*

8
,

-TT=;

when

asymptotes, jc=0 and y

i/

xmin =l
i/

andymln =i
when
*

(cusp); asymptote,

= 2x

when

-*

+ oo.

m in =

= 0.

Answers
d
dx,

415

$93. ds

cosa =

u
;
<*>

where

c=-

Ka 2

62

995.

ds^

=
x
sin

I/

tanh
(X

-.

998. ds

= 2asin~rff;
Z

tit
.

997.

ds

= cosh

dx:

cos

a=

cos

sin--;
Z

sin

cos

-~-

999. ds

=
=

Z
2

~3asin ^ cos/

d^;

cosa=
tp*

cos/; sin

sin/. 1000. ds
-

=a

V^l +(p
1002.

d<p;

cosp

"(p;cosp=
.

ds==
cos*

dcp;

1003.
1

=
cos-|-.
n2 az

1004.

zzz

1005.

ds==

d(p;

sin

= cos 29.

1006.

K^36.
/(-=

1007.

^"3^2"
at

"

&2

' ;

KB =

1009.

K^
[

1010.

4^

both

vertices.

1011.
(

~
.

and

-f-

1012.

(-!"*..
1015.

^).,0,3.
.

,=
3

1014.

R^-

1016.
-^-

a sin 2t

1017.

= |a/|.

1018.

/?

f k2
!023.
(

.
|

1019.

-^-

a cos

1020.

(2,2).

-ilfl,
2

^a

-pK
c
2

l025 -

3)

-8.
_

1026.

= ~(X
6
2
.

p)

(semicubical parabola). 1027.

^c

8
,

where

=-a 2

Chapter IV
In the answers of this section the arbitrary additive constant

is

omit-

ted

for the

sake of brevity. 1031.

aV.

1032.

2x 3

+ 4* + 3*.
2

1033.

416

Answers

1037.

j/
3x*

J.

1038.

--' a 2 x---a'x
fi

'-+-/
'

<*

''---~. '*'---

1009.

JC .

x
13

3x 2
4//2

1040.

+
1043.3=
arc

1042.

tan

1044.

-4= In 2/10
2

/"lO
.

1045.

ln(x+

/4 + x
a)

2
).

1046.

arc

sin-

2/2
cotx

1047. arc sin

-^~ln (x+ /x ^).

2

1048*.

tanx

x.

Hint.

Put

= sec
-x;
s

1;

b) x

tanhx. Hint. Put tanh z

1050.

x=l
.

r-j

1049. a)

b)

x-cothx.
I

^j~
{

1051. a in

a
c
.

Solution.

_i
a

'

J
Solution.

=
the

1052.

Dividing

numerator

by

the

denominator,

we

get

1053.

-I' + T
|.

*
1

1054.

1055.

1056.

c--l|.
1

1057.

1058.

~+
.

|.

1059.

Inlx

fll

^
r

1060.

,,
~~'
y.

"
^
2

(x+W
Solution, f

I06li

1062.

_Jiy(a_.

1063.

/x +l.
1065.

1064. 2

--^-.
1067.

-L arc tanx
a
:ln

]/

~.
.

1066.

In

+ b + x V ab

/7 + 2
1068.

/"2

arc

tan

In (2

+ V7 + 8x
^=

2
).

1072.

-~=

arc sin x

1073.

In

3*- 2

Answers

417

1075.

y
1077.

=l n 5

1). 1076-.

^*
l

31n|x +
1079.

V^=
2
2
2
ft

-ln|jt

1078.

^ In (a * +

)-}-

arc tan

^.

1080. -i arc sin

^-

1081.

are tan
1082.

1|.

1083.

^(arcsmx)

8
.

1084.

1086.
l

2
\-e~

V
a
1090.
-H-

2
1092.

,/

r?

3 Ina
i

1095.

x
.

1096.

'

!n~5"
1100.

1097.

In

e*

1|

1098.

(a

1099.

~
4

3 In 2
1102.

In (2-

+ 3)

Hint.
1103. 1106.

_^L_J.
arc sin
e*

HOI.

jJ
o
1108.

arc tan (a*).

-Jr
r

1104.
sin

008(0

+ ^)lOx

1105.

2sni -^r.
1109.

^-cos2ax. 1107. 2
sin
2

/"x.

In

Xcos(logA:)

__

!. Hint. Put
in

jc=

~(1

cos 2).
ft).

1110.

--

Hint. See
1113.

hint

1109

lilt.

~ tan

(fljc

1112.

ax
a In
1

tan

ft

1116.

tan(x

2
).

1117.

-^-cos(l

r).

1118.

-^ cot x
1121.
(a

^'.1119.

ln|cosx|.
sin

1120.

ln|sinx|.

ft)X

Xln

sin

a
-

1122. 5 In

4]

1.

1123.

21n|cos/"x|.
1126.
2

1124. 1127.

1125.
1

In

tan*
-

.
|

|sin
1130.

^.

1128.

4a

1129.
sin

o
1132.

1131.

-^-tan -^.

U33.

-|
5

1134 .

_3^_lJL.

M55.1
(

tan

U 36.
j).

+ 2au.) l(ln tanf

| |

14-1900

418
1

1137.

4- In 3a

ocot3x|
-r.

1138.

_. -------

23
Answers
D
1142.

1139.- +1143.

1140. In

tanh

1141.

2arctane*.

ln|tanhx|.

Incoshx.
.

1144. In

sinhxl

1145.

*/(5=x^.

1146.

ln|x*-4x+
-

1147.

Xarc tan

1148.

".

n49

J/

arc tan

]/
1151.

| ).

1152.
lr

ln(x
1153.

1150.

In

sec

1155.

In

tan x
'

1156.
1)

fls n

1157

*. 1158.

1159.

in

&

arc sin (x 2 ).

1160.

taniw-x.

/(^
1165.

2 In cos
|

Vx
K.

1
|

1166.

-i-ln

tan^-l.
.

1167.

tan

jr

1168.

1169.

^21n
ln|x|

tan

-p=.

=.
1172.
e
sln

1170.

1171.

+ 2arctanx.
1

1173.

-l^arcsin^A
.

^
\n(e*

1174.

1175.

Ve*x

2).

.-

a
f

ln|tanox|.

arc cos -^

1181.

2
jc
.

1182.

arc sin

1183.

-2cot2x.
1

1184.

/"l
<40 -

1185.

ln(secx+

l/~sec x-i- 1).

1186.

= In
=
x
r

V 5 -f

sin

2x

sin2x
.

1187.

- 1=r:
7

arc tan

/tanx\ I == }
v

Hint.

1189.
.

s inh(x

1190.

-Latanh*.

1191. a)

-~=arccos^

when x

> ^2;

b)

In (1

+*-*);

Answers

419

c)

(5*'-3)';

d)

e)

ln(sinx+- J/"l+ sin**)-

1194. In

V 2x4-1

1195.

2arctan \e*

1.

1196.

In*

In

21n Inx-f
|

Hint.

Putx =

-.

1201.

--

TT arc sin x.

1202.

-~ V2~x -^ V2-x
2
,

2
.

aarccos
Put
x

1204.

arccos

if

> 0,

and arccos

~J

if

x<0*)
'

Hint.

= ~=
may
be used in place
of

1206.

Note. The

substitution x

the

trigonometric

substitution.

~
1213.

a|.
x arc
sin x-}-

1211.

xlnx
1214.

x.

1212.

x arc tan
1215.

x--^
*
st

In (1 -|-x

).

x2

sinx
12 18.

xcosx.

3*

^ o

igf
y

1216.

^r~-

1217.

^T^Yf

(9x

6x-f- 2). Solution. In place

of undeter-

of repeated integration mined coefficients:

by parts we can use the following method

xV*dx = (4x 2 + Bx + C) e*x

2

or,

after differentiation,

X 2e* x
3

= (Ax + Bx -f C) 3e + (2Ax -f B)e9X

3Jf

* and Cancelling oute equating the coefficients of identical powers of

whence ^

=
ax
,

-^-;

122
B=
;

x,

we

get:

= 3C +
In

c=

2f

the

6eneral

C
^ orrn

p n to e ax dx =

=Q
a

(x)e

where P

rt

(x)

polynomial
See

of degree

is the given polynomial of degree n and Q n (x) is n with undetermined coefficients 1219. e~* (x 2 -f-5}

Hint.

Problem

1218*.

1220.

-3e

"(x-h9x

+ 54x+ 162).

Hint.

See

*)
is

good

Henceforward, in similar cases we shall sometimes give an answer thai for only a part of the domain of the integrand.

420

Answers

Problem

1218*.

1221.

is

4^8

sin

2x
1222.

cos 2x

Hint. It

also advisable to

apply

the

method

of

undeter-

mined

coefficients in the

form px dx

Pn
where P n (x) polynomials
1223.
is

(x) cos

= Q n (x) cos PX + R n (x) sin

2

of

the given polynomial of degree rc, and degree n with undetermined coefficients
1224.

Qn

(x)

(see

and R n Problem
ln *

(x) are

1218*).
l

^-Inx--^. y o
2

xln x

2xlnx + 2x.
arc tan x

1225.

O^2
ij(,

Ay2 ^Ar
1

'

x
-^
i
.

x
1228.

1226.

/"xlnx
-|-

4
x*.

1227.

arc sin x
2,

2
1229.

-j 4

arc sinx
sin

-|-

l/T

x In

(x+ V^l+x
.

2
)

2
.

1230.

xcotx-f
cos x)

+ In
1238.

1231.

sinx
.

x
1232.

tan ~^ 2

e* (sin x

"
1234.
2

cos (In x)J.

f

1236.

(x*+
-/m -_

1).

1237.
1,
1
1

-1).
x
1240.

1238.
2

fy-*
2

Inx
1241.

x8

+ -3x.

x2

x2

1239.

Inf-^-x. +X

In x ~^-^--2 In x

X
2

[ln(lnx)-l].lnx.
x arc tan x
2x.

1242.

^ arc tan 3x-^ + ^o In(9x +l). 1243. ~-^X

2 ).

X (arc tan x) 2
Xarcsinx
Xarcsin
,

+ -^ In (1 + x
arCMn *

1244.

x (arc sinx) 2
1246.

+2 V
2
.
'

x2 x

1245.
._

+
^

]/T=Ixx

+2 V
,

ft

rt

x.

1247.
\

- -- -- 1
I

1+
,

xtan2x

In

cos 2x

2
<rt
'

1248

/ cos2x -2sin2x

V
du = dx
1

'

""

xcos

(2 In x)

2xsin (2 In x)
x dx
d

10

1250.

a=x

and

we

get

and

*
.

^ ( x ~r

Whence

x*dx

1)

2(x +l) 125K

Hint.

Utilize

the

identity

a ~2

x 2 ].
2

1252.

xy a

^x* + -s^
j..

arc sin

Solution. Put

a=-

x;

we have f }/aa
a*
-;

= Ka x and -x'dx = x ^a -^xa

r

whence

f -/-^ 2
\

Ka

=. ,f x 2 dx+a2 l
,

dx

^a2

Answers
dx = x

421

Consequently, 2

y~a*x
.

Va

x*

2 -fa arc

sin

~.

1253.

~ V& +**
/ f ~<T=

Hint.

See

Problem

1252*.

1254.

-~
.

-| arc sin o 2
-

Hint. See

Problem 1252*. 1255.

arctan
2

4 A

arc tan
a

^~2t

1256.

~
2

l257

Fn

TTT
1261.

1258

'

ln( *

1260. x
l

=
3

1259.

-ln

(x

arc tan (x
2

2).

2
(jc

z
arc tan

--T

arc tan 7

7=-.
7

x-f31n(x
1).

(A:3).

,262.

1/2
1265.

Larcsin^P^. ^
2

1263. arcsin(2jc

1264. In

4jc-f5.

1266.

-2 V -x-x* -9 arc sin

1 1

=^

1267.

In

5/"1
1268. In
.

'71

1269.

arc sin

?=. 1270. arc

x

sin (

y$

1271.
,273.

arc sin

1272.

2 In
1274.

+ 2*

+5).

"*

8
1276.

9
-

arc sin

2x4-1 o

arc tan

1278.-ln|cosx + 2+
~'

1279.

y\
jc

4 In x

In 2 x

2 arc sin

l!L~.

1280.

o
3|

- -b

x
\

+a

1281.

+ 31n|x

31n|A;

2|

1282.

1283. In

1284.

5*

+ In

(x-4)'

.1285.

1+*
11

(*-!)'
1286.

4-j

^
2

27
1288.
=

30

x~5
x-f-2

2U-3)

1289.

49

U
x

5)

49 (x

+ 2)^4*

1290.

-^-r
.

1292.

1293.

ln|

x-3|-

In

U~l +
[

In

422

Answers

X arctan(* + 2).
x*-x V

1294.

In

= arc tan

1295.

arc tan

K"-\

,,., 1297.

arc tan x
1298.

+ arctan(*+l). In
.

1299.

In

arc tan
|

1300.

+ji-i*1

1302.

_|arctanx- TT^-jT -^
f

5=41.
5

1303.
2

'+4^
1305.

arc tanx.

1304.

In (x

tan (x-^1).

4r (8

1306.

+ 21n

x
2

1310.
1

ln|x|

y ln|* +H
7
1
.
i

Hint.
1

Put

= (*

7
-J-

1)

x7

1311.

1312.

arc tan

o
1

(A:

+1)-^- arc o
Sx^Sx*
1316. 1318.

tan x
1

*+l
.

1313.

._7
'

9(jc_l)>
1315.

4(x

_ J_ J
.

l)"

7(jc

I)

FT
6)']

(A:

X[2

56

^/(a* +
In

1317.
1319.

2 arc tan

-3

X -6

(l+/l.
3 In
|

3^/1-6 ^/"x
1320.

+ J/l + 6 arc tan

|

*/l.

In

^3
1322.

-^=.

arc tan

Xarctan]/|-.

2 arc tan

^1-x.

1323.

(jf_2)+-I

In

=il.

1324.

where

Answers

423

=7+l).

1327.

*-li
1330.

1329.

-+i
.

-arc sin -^
-* + l).
1332.

1331.

4/7=1

-retan
.

1334.

where

,336.

1337.

-2

(*

+1)

1
.

1338.

sin

x
g-sin'x.

1339.

-cosx+-jtos>
1342.

-cos.,.

1340.

*J^-**. |841.4eo.|-^|.

>-.-.+
, 344 .
i

._ ._.
1347.

_ 7 i_sin6x. 144

cot

jc

,849.

__-. 35
|

--^ =

cot*

Jt
.

1348.

tan x

+ -^ tan o
^.

21
8

+ T tan o

1350.

1351.

-1

3 In

tan x

+2lnt.n.
COS 2

1353.

"[

ln

t,n|

*+i
1358.

3 cos*
.

1354.

sin 4 A:

In

8siu*x

,357.

_S2*lf_in|sinx|.

cot'

+ cot x + x.
.

1359.

-tan! --f

1361.

J-J^

1362.

-1 J/55?x + -| J/cSS*-^ J/cw

11

!. 1363. 2 J^twix. 1364.

xlB

SrRj{"^
.

arc tan

^'
.

where I

" iain

1365 '

cos!!H +

,366.

1367.

-+3-.

.368.

-cosx.

.369.

,370.

lE_^M+<P).

137 ,.

424

Answers

sin

5*

sin

^ Jo

7*
.

1372.

^ cos 6* -^ cos 4* --5- cos 2*. z4 o lo

tan
--

tan|
1373.

-f In *

1374.

-!-

tan *

+
.

1376

'

1377.

In

tan

1378. arc tan (l \

+ tan 4V ^
/

1379.

||*--^ In lo id
a
,

2sin *

a= !3'
r

3 cos x Solution. Whence 4- P (2 sin* -{-3 cos*)' 12 5 .,, Q

We

put 2u
,

3 sin x

3^

P== -!3*
-f-

We
lO

have
5
ln
|

+ 2p = 2 p3sinx + 2crs*

= 3,

2 cos x

===

(2 sin x

3a

and,
==

3 cos x) consequently,

12

J
rfx

2^77+3^7^
.

13
In |cosx
situc(.

J
1381.

Si

iiC
f

= j2^_

1380.

5>

<.

1*3

arc tan

-^^

Hint. Divide the numerator and denominator of the

fraction by ccs 2 x

1382.

-=- arctan
V
.

Hint.

See

V*
See

Problem
1384.

1381.

Hint.

Problem
1

1381.

4 In x

1387.

/" 2 -f
2

sin

V2
~~"

Vi
r~~~

t388.

sni2*'

4-ln^^^.
Hint.

1389.

arc tan

/\

/"

arc ian

Use

the

identity

1
.

1390.

(2

sit

sin*)

sin*

sin*

+ 21n
tan
'

Hint.

sin

Use the identity

1392. 1395.

x+cos*
*

1-j-smx

cos*
1393.

-j-sin
,

Sm

* *
.

cos*
1394.

3
-JT-

^>
In

tanh

r cosh *
!

-.

1396.

2coth2*.

1397.

In (cosh

*)-^^ 2

cnth 8 *
'

2
.

1398. *

coth*
*
arc tan
,
/

1399. arc tan (tanh*). 1400.-~=.arctan

V
*

5
Hint. Use the identity
,

12
or
If

-j=. O
r

(f V

* iA-?\l
5)
I

+m+ 1401.

sinh * ^ *
1402.

sinh 2x r
*

^ ^

.,

..

..

...

sinh*

cosh*

-^ (sinh* %

-J*

cosh*). '

-7=1 In (/" 2 cosh* 4-

^2

^ cosh 2*).

Answers

425

1403.

1404.

~ ^2 + x + In (x +
2

1405.
-

H06.
1407.

|1408.

J/"^IT~2
.

In

+ yV
6x
I

4|*
7

_
3+ Kx
2

In

2x

+ +2
1

1409.

^ VV
r
17)

8ln| x
97

6x

7|.

1410.

^
2

JT

1411.

1412

'

1413.

--Uarctan.
2

* *

1414.

1-x

L=ln
4-

1415.

Y*

-54-~']

1416.

1417.

2
sin

1418.

-TT (2

sin2x

4 sin 4x4-c< s4x:\ c

:

1419
1421.

._.

e*
-

142
1422. x 1424.

_~ + o Z
-

lnk*-l|4--O

1423.

xln'(x+

V\+x*)2 V\

1425.

arCCOS (5x "~ 2)

-25.v'-3.

1426

*!
a1)

,3 + 2? arcta "
.

,.

l428 '

n cosxsin -'x

tanx.

1430.

/.^-x'.1).

...

2x+10-9...
1).

1431.

arc tan

1432. In

V>

2*

+2

4 arc tan (x
.434.

1433.

_+
1435. 2 ,
.

In

x'

|arctan(2x+l).
1436.

j In
1437.

426

Answers

l-x 2
2 3
1442.
In

'

'"
1

x
.

1439 l439
1

2x

arc tan

-^r

1440.

l"\

1443.

/
1446.

/2X-4- J/(2jc) 5V
2
(

5
.

1444.

--5-^

J/x+1
2

J/5^x

I)

4 In

(1

J/JT^t).

1448.

-1
1

X arc sin

x 2 4T,'

1450.

1452.

^lVr>_ 9 _
arc sin (8*
1)

1453.

(8x--l)

1458.

hi

----

arc tan

,r-

where

=
1461.
In
|

tan x
2

|~cot

*-

1462.

cott3cos5x
T^ In

1463.

~ (cos
,465.

6)

cos 2

cos5<

tan

t^ +

tanS *

1466.

~sin2x.

1467.

tan 2

+2

In

X arc tan
1

1469.

-= arc tan
1

1470. arc tan (2 tan

x+\).

1471.

ln| tanjc

+ secjc|-i-cosecjc. 2
1473.
In
|

1472.

-^= xarc
j/

an
tan
V

?=?

|A3
.

T -r=X
1

Xarctanl

A.n|\). -^
>

tan *

y 2

'
2

+ 2+
-

^"tan

tan
In |cos 3x

^74. J_ x
a
1476.

X In (sin

ax

ax).

1475.

x tan 1478

3*+--

r-^-^.

1477.

^uu-1).

le-.

1479.

fin |O=5-

Answers

427

1480. 1483. .n

|l+cot*|-co tje .

J481.

^-?
|

1485.

r
\

x.

1486.

4- 1" cosh 2x. 1487. 5

*coth*4

+ ln
1490.

sinhxl

1488.

gL-^ + lln |e*

2|.

1489.

i-arctan^^-

-1 */(?

x^-'+fir
1494.
In

1496.

(coslnx

+ sinlnx).
1498.

1497

x2
tan

y x sin 5x + 3x cos 5x +
-|
1500.
In (2
-'
,

lcos5*~

|sin5*V
'

1 [(^

2) arc

'

t499

^^r
Chapter V

1501.

fc

a.

1502.

vjg~.
the
L
t

1503.

3.

1504.

1505.

156.

Hint. Divide the interval from tervals so that the abscissas of

x=\
x2
1

to x

=5
.

points of
x b q*,
.

the x-axis into subindivision should form a geo.,

on

metric
Hint.

progression:

x =^l,
1505.

See

Problem

sina

+ sin2o+...+sin/io =
a
2)
at?

2sin

xl

=x q

xn

= x$ n
)

1506.

In.
formula
1)

1507.

cos*.
(

Hint.

Utilize
1
.

the

cos

_l
_

^~ cos V n-}--^ a J 2 2;
-

1508.

3da

- r -;
in

=
in o

1509.

In*.

1510.

1511.
2.

1512.

-f- cos
x

-. x

1513. *

1,2,3, ...). 1514. In

1518.
,

1515.

~~
o

1516.

**

5-^ = 2 sinh*.
/i
1

1517.

sin x.

Solution.
.

The

sum
as
4

1,2,
gral
i

sum

of the function /(A:)

1/1,2, ^r-^V^ + 7T + =

'

'

'

+ ~~T" J
sn "

1\

may
[0,1].

be
Therefore,

mtc sn

X on the interval

lim n
-*oo

rH M\ 1+1 a
[

-^ 2

1519. In 2. Solution.

The sum

= -i- H
n+1
/i

--o-+."H-- \ may
i+Ji n
1

\-^ +2 +

. . .

H
/I

+M
sum

be regarded as the integral

of

n /

428

the function /(x)

__
Answers

--

--

on the interval

[0,1]

where the division points have

lim
n ->
oo

the

form

xk

=l+ n
1521.

(&

!,

2 ..... n).

Therefore,

sn

=
^r o

f J
o

^2- =
1

In 2.

H-*

t520.

p
1526.

-|- 1

j-7

~
o

1522.

152

oo
^.

= 334-

1523

"T 4

1524

1525

-4 o

-jln-|
.

1527.

In

j
.

1528.
1531.

35~-321n3.
1532.
1

1529. arc tan 3

arc tan 2
1534.

= arc tan
1535.

1530.

ln-|
1536.

-1=
15 38.

1533.

~.
1539.

~.

~ In
O

%-+\-. 4 o
1542. arc

1537.

|o

In 2.

cosh
e J

1540. 0.

1541.

^7= + ir. 9^36

tanh
if

tang

~.
4
^-

1543. sinh

= -i-

2 \
2ji.

(*

1544.

tanh(ln3)
1548.
; 1

(In 2)

=
-^-

1545.

+ -|-sinh
1549.

1546. 2.

1547. Di1550.
1554.

verges.

p
1552.

p<l;
1.

diverges,
if

if

p^l.
p>l;

Diverges.
if

~. 2
n.

1551. Diverges.

1553.

^-r
1557.

diverges,
1558.
T

p<l.
1559.

1555.

-=.

1556.

Diverges.

Diverges.
1563.

Diverges.

1565. 3 1569. Converges. 1570. 1566. Diverges 1567. Converges 1568. Diverges verges. 1571. Converges. 1572. Diverges 1573. Converges. 1574. Hint. B(p
.

t560. ,-!-. 1561. Diverges. 1562. -i k Ina

~
8

1564.

l + ~ln3
3
4

Con%

q)=

f(x)dx+{ f(x)dx where

t

(jc)

= x^-

(1

x)?"

1
;

since

lim

/(x)x
1

-^=l
q<l,
where
is

1
j

and lim
-> i

(1

^)

"^/(x)=

1,

both integrals converge when

p<\ and
f

that

is,

when p>0 and

~l
e~*. The

(/>0.

1575.

Hint. ?

(p)=\f (x) dx+(

1

(x) dx,

-x p

first

integral converges
2

when p>0,
IL
2

the second

when p
In
3

arbitrary. 1576. No.

1577. 2 /~~2

("

/7rff.

1578

00

1580.

C^f f !?"**#. 1+' 1 J

1581. x

= (6
2 1^1

a)/+a. 1582.4
-^
1587.

21n3. 1583.8

^JT. 21^3
/""S3

1584.

2~
2
n.

1585.

-^
1/5

1586.

4-^

1589. 4

1590.

~ 1"
o

H2.

1591. In

^-| y

1~~. 4
1592.

1588.

~ + T^
4

1593

nr o

Answer^

429

1594.

-2

1599.

-Z

600

1-

1601.

^rr^ o

1 6(>2.

4-(^ + l^. 2
xPe~*
dx.

1603.

1.

00

1604.

1605.

z\

b z-

606

Solution.

r(p+l)=C
U,

Applying

the formula of integration by parts,

we put *P
dx,

e~ x dx

= dv.

Whence

~ du = px. p l

v=

e~*

and

If p is a natural number, then, applying formula account that

(*)

p times and taking into

we

get:

1>35
2k

"
,

(2fe
is

246
2
ii

an

even

number;

2-4-6

n=
/

2k-\-

is

an odd number
/

1-3-5 ... (2k

9

_ 128 "
3l5

_ 63jt
10

'

~"

'

512
'-Hr^
Hint.

t608

^7 V

W
...
-

1609.

^B
1614.

^,
~.
1619.

Put

1610. a) Plus; b) minus; c) plus Hint. Sketch the graph of the integrand for values of the argument on the interval of integration 1611. a) First; b) second;
c)
first.

1612.

1613.a.
1618.

1615.

1616.

-|

2 arc sin -i.

1617.

2</</"5.
The integrand
1.

|-</<l

^jt</<yJi.

1620.

0</<~
-

Hint.
1624.

increases monotonically. 1621.

%< l <-^-12.

1623

= 32

1625. --

Hint.

Take account

of the sign of the function.

1626.
1633.

4~
4-i

1627. 2. 1628. In 2. 1629.

1634.
10

In 3.

1630.

naa

1631.

1632. -~-p

2
.

4O

1635. 4.
In

1636.

~.
O

1637.
1640.

~~4-O
n

t638

^+~~2 = 2(coshl -1). 6

1.

1639. ab[2 1641.

V"l
.

(2+
2

/~~3)).

na8
-g-

Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 27.

1645. 1646. 3jra2 .

2a2<r 1

1642.

-^a

1643.

15n.

1644.

yln3.

Hint.

See Appendix VI, Fig. 23. 1647. a2 f 2

1648.

+ ~-V

Hint. See

Appendix VI, Fig. 24.

.

2n + -

and

6n--|

1049.

^ji-i|-?

and

~ n+ p

1650.

430

Answers

1651. 3na2

1652. n(b*
t

+ 2ab).

1653.

6na2

1654.

fl2 -

Hint

For

the lo P

the

parameter
1655.

varies within the limits

.

0<+oo
Fig. 28.
.

See Appendix VI, Fig. 22.

-|na
VI,

Hint. See

Appendix VI,
^
.

1656. 8jtV. Hint.

See Appen-

dix

Fig. 30.

1657.

1658. a2

1659.

~.

Hint.

See Appendix VI,

1664.11)^2.
1666.
1667.

Hint.

Pass

to

polar

coordinates.

1665.

VhT^tf.

Hint. Utilize the formula

1668.

cosh q

sinh 2

^(10/161). a= 1.

l/T+ln(l+/n
l-f-lln-|.

1669.
1673.

1670. In (e

V'"?11!). 1671.

ln(2+VT)
fc=ln
1678. I6a. 1679.

1672. ~-(e
1676.

+l).

aln.

1674. 2a

/T".

1675.

ln~
4

Hint. See

Appendix VI,

Fig. 29. 1677.

^^
[
.

+
-

1680. 8a. 1681. 2a

V2" + ln ( 12"+
In 3).

0]. 1682.
1688. -1

, 68 3.

JQ!.
1688.

1684 .
-Ji
2

4- [4 +
1689.

1685.

^
-

no*.

1687.

(5

+4
av

c- 2 ).

je

=
1694.

1690.

1691.
1696.

t;^

= ~;
&

= 2n. 1692.^^. o
1697.

1693.
10

Jia

8
.

A "P o

8
.

1695.

~
1U

^(15 2
c)

16 In 2).
l

2n a.
1702.

1698.

^^. z
O

1699.

~nh*a.
10

1701. a

b)

6jia;

(9n -16).

na'.

1703.
1707.

-na.

1704. 1708.
1713.
5

,705.
1709.

*(x* + ^
5

+$ +fl 6).
,

1706.

*.

}.
lUi)
1

4 U
nabc.

4-JW &

^. 1710.
1

~a o

s
.

1711.

na 2 /"p^.

1712.

nabh (
\

+ -^- / oC )

1714.

DOT -!;

i[5^T-8].

1715.

1716.

n(5-^T) +
2

nln. +
V5
1

17l8.^(e*-ff 4

+ 4) = ^(2 + sinh2). z
=
-

1719.~rta 2 1720.
.

1721. 4n*ab Hint. Here. y b external surface of a torus; taking the

^tfx*.
8

Taking the plus sign, we get the minus sign, we get the internal sur2

Do
+
a)

1717.

-^(e1

face of a
_

torus.

1722.

1)

2n6 2 -f
of

arc sine; 2) 2na

1723.

81|-^
In
~~~8

where

(eccentricity

ellipse).

-\

b) 16n

a 2 ; c)

~
a

Answers

43 1

1724.

~jia 2

1725.

2ita

(2-

/2~).
2

1726.

na 2

1727.

1728.

M = ~2
;

M & = ^.
x
-

1729.

M x =- V M X =M K = ^2na 2
4
.

J=y = y.

1730.

M x =M K =-~a
._00

= y = ~a.
<

1731.

1732. x

=
4a

a 24-sinh2

asina

,__

^sstion.

I736t

^^SBa

=Jia 1737< *~

^=|-

1738>

Divide the hemisphere into elementary spherical slices of area da by horizontal planes. We have da 2jiadz, where dz is the altitude of a slice.

2ft f

az dz
= z

Whence
tance of

z=
-j-

2nfl

Ct

-?r.

Due
the

to

symmetry, x = y = Q.
of

1739.

At

dis-

altitude

from

vertex

the

cone.

Solution.

Partition the

cone into elements by planes parallel to the base. The mass of an elemen2 tary layer (slice) is dm,YftQ dz, wnere Y * s * ne density, z is the distance

of

the
h
Jt

cutting

plane

from

the

vertex

of

the

cone,

= -J-Z.

Whence

=
_^

3
h.

3
0;

1740.

0;

+-g-

a )-

Solution.

Due

to

symmetry.

5T-=

we partition the hemisphere into elementary #~=0. To determine layers (slices) by planes parallel to the horizontal plane. The mass of such an elementary layer dm ^nr^dz, where Y s tne density, a is the distance 2 2 is 2 the of the cutting plane from the base of the hemisphere,
*

r= ^a
o

[a

2
)

zdz
3 =-Q-a. 1741. /==jta

radius of a cross-section.

1742. I a

11 "33
= -z-ab*\
(#J
circles.

We
s

have:

4""
b.

I b =z-^a
/?J).

1743.

7=-/?& 8
15

1744.

= "4 JW&
a
--

11
8

Ib W

= -T na*b.
4

1745.

/=yjt

Solution.

We
each

partition

the

ring

into

elementary

concentric

The

mass

of

such

element

dm = y2n.rdr
/

and

the

moment

of inertia 7

= 2nCrdr =

y n(/?*

#J);( Y ==1). 1746.

^nR*Hy.

to

Solution. We partition the cone into elementary cylindrical tubes parallel the axis of the cone. The volume of each such elementary tube is dV 2nrhdr, whe r e r is the radius of the tube (the distance to the axis of

the

cone),

=H

s-

is

the altitude of the tube; then the

moment

of

432

Answers

inertia ia

/=Y
/

2jttf (

^)

dr

^lr^

'

where

is

the

densit y

of the

cone. 1747.
cylindrical

2
-

5
tubes,

Ma 2

Solution.
axis of
r

We
which

partition
is

the

sphere

into

elementary

the

the given diameter.

a tube,
a

volume dV
is its altitude.

2nrhdr, where

is

the

radius of

Then the moment

of inertia I

= 4nay

_
1

An elementary
I/ f

h = 2a

-r
1

"

a2

I/

L./-*dr

=A

na'v,

where y

is

e density of the sphere,

2
.

and since the mass

S--=4n 2 ab.
Hint.
71

M=
a)

ita'y, it

fol-

lows that y
9
b) x==(/

= |- Ma
o
the

1748.

V--=2n 2 a 2 b\
4 f/^-rr
r

1749.

7-=//~=4 o

a;

= T7-n.
1U

1750. a) x^=0,
jc-axis

The coordinate axes are choand the origin

of the solid a
is

sen

so

that

coincides

with

the

diameter

the

centre of

the

circle; b)

^=4 o
is

Solution.

The volume
its

double

cone obtained from rotating

a triangle

about
of

base,

is

equal to V

-o

rft/i

2
,

where b

is

the base, h

the altitude
2Jtx
-z-b'i.

the

triangle.
is

By the Guldm
of
tlu>

theo-

rem, the same volume

of

V
the

where x
\\hence

the

distance
-

centre
vt' ^
2
.

gravity

trom

base.

1751.

1752.

-lnl+--.
2 2

1753.

x=<Mua>t:

D flt,=

-f

1754.

= ~^/?
weight

//

Hint.

The elementary

force

(force

of

gravity)

is

equal to

the

the volume of a layer cf thickness dx, that is, dF = where y is the weight of unit volume of water. Hence, the elex} dx, where x is the water level. mentary work of a force dA ynR'* (H

= ynR

of

water in

dx,

1757.

A=ryR
A = ynR*H.
mass
l^&

2
.

1758.

1759.

1760.

^=

tn0h

A ---^ R*TM
;

^Q 79-10* -0 79- 10
Solution.

kgm.
acting

/lo.-mg/?.

The

force

on

is

equal to

F= k

j-

where
R

r is
f

the distance from the centre

of the earth. Since for r

=R

we have

F=mg +
h.

it

follows that

kM=gR
-

2
.

The

sought-for work will have the form

A=

m^-

kr-dr *
1761.

kmM
1.8-10
4

{ -^-

\KK-\-nJ
ergs.

When/i = oo we have A

= mgR.

Solution.

The

__
Answers
force of interaction of charges
is /
7

433

= ^i

dynes. Consequently, the

work

-J-=S Jd.x

= *o*i(/ --- \ = 1.8-10 X X / isothermal process, pw = p

1 1
*

*'
4

ergs.

1762.

4=800 nln2

kgm. Solution. For an

expansion of a gas

tV The work performed

v\
l

in the

from volume v
Solution.

to

volume v
an

is

A=

J
UQ

p di>=p

i>

In

^
^0

1763.

A
k

=5=

15,000

kgm.

For

adiabatic

process,

the Poisson
i>i

law

pv

= pj>^

where

*^1.4,
1764.

holds

true.

Hence

A=

( J

-^dv- -Ms k k
v

4=~jiu.Pa.

Solution.

If

is

the radius of

the base

of a shaft,

them
of

the pressure

on unit area

of the

support p

p
3ta a
z
.

The
is

frictional

force

ring of width dr, at a distance r from the centre,

2uP

-^~rdr. The work perrevolution

r*

formed

by

frictional

forces

on

ring

in

one

complete
f
a

is

Therefore,

the complete

work

A=^x
of

dr

JifiPa,

Solution. j M# = ^~da where dK=^L1765.

2

<D

The
da
is

kinetic

energy
of

particle
is

of

the disk
it

an element
is

area, r

the distance of

from

the

axis

of

rotation,

the

surface

density,

= -^j.

Thus,.

Whence
1767.

K-^J,-*-^
8

766

* = | X M*W.
is

K = ^/?

co

= 2.3-10

kgm. Hint. The amount

p = -^-.
o
1769.

of

work required
fe

equat
,

to the reserve of kinetic energy. 1768.

p^fo +
is

^fr)

^n

10>r

1770.

P = abyxh.

1771.

P = ^-_

(the vertical

component
gf
a

directed upwards).
(k a
is

1772. 633

Igm

1773. 99.8 cal.

1774.

M^~
.

cm. 1775.
2
f( a

the

gravitational constant).

1776.^-

Solution.

Q= (v2nrdr =
2

r*)rdr

__ 1777
15-1900

Q==

^^-^

a6

UJ A Hlnt

434

Answers
perpendicular to

along the large lower side of the rectangle, and the y-axis,
ua
it

in

the

middle.

1778.

Solution.

S=\ J
vt

dv,

on the other hand,

7^=a, at
t'a

whence

dt

dv,

and

consequently,

the

acceleration time

is

/=l- = S.

1780.

M*=:

(xt)ktdt + Ax=j(l'x*).

1781.

Q =0.12 TRI* 9

cal.

Hint.

Use the Joule-Lenz law.

Chapter VI
1782.

V=

2
(i/

x 2 )*.

1783.

S=

(x

t/)

/"4z

-}-3

(xy) 2

-f.
Oje//

_...
f (x)

j^S.

1786.

/<*,

x2 )

= \+x-x

2
.

1787.

^ Ri

/?

4
.

1788.

V = l/

Hint. Represent the given function

replace

in the

form

/(-=M= I/

+1

and

by
_,

x.

1789.

f (x,

y)

o~~^

Solution.

Designate

+ y~u,
=

Then
.

^=

UV
v, x

It

remains to name the arguments u and

Hint.
2
~|1

and

y.

1790. / (a)
1)

= x~\+V"y.
then

In

the
hence,

identity

*=1+/(VT
2

put

1=^;

* === (a

and,

/(w)=:w

-}-2a.

1791.

/(</)

Solution.

When *=1
-

we

have
"

the

identity

Then

a)
z

Single circle

with centre ai origin,

*; c) halfincluding m the circle (x y 1); b) bisector of quadrantal angle # #==0 (x y>Q)\ d) strip contained plane located above the straight line * lines ( between the straight lines (/= 1, including these e) a 1 and /= 1, includsqua're formed by the segments of the straight lines l<t/<l); f) part of the plane adjoining the ing its sides x including these lines and *-axis and contained between the straight lines when x x when 0, excluding the coordinate origin 2, 2<i/<2; h) the 2<i/<2 and *<0); g) two strips x^2, 2 2 2 2 2 2 a and x -ff/ 2a including the ring contained between the circles * -r-i/ boundaries; i) strips 2/uK jc 1) n, r/^0 and (2n+ 1) Ji<x<(2n (2/i 2) it, where n is an integer; j) that part of the plane located above the

#=
t

K#<1);

(Kx^l,

(x^y^x
=
+

y=

*<

>

x<t/<
,

<

_ __
Answers

435

~y > 0); ,k) the entire j/-plane; 1) the entire *t/-plane, x*(x* parabola y with the exception of the coordinate origin; m) that part of the plane located above the parabola y* x and to the right of the (/-axis, including the points of the t/-axis and excluding the points of the parabola (*:^0, y > V x)\ 0; o) the n) the entire place except points of the straight lines *=1 and t/ x2 + y 2 n (2k + 1 ) ( = 0, 1, 2, ...). family of concentric circles 2n k 1793. a) First octant (including boundary); b) First, Third, Sixth and Eighth octants (excluding the boundary); c) a cube bounded by the planes x= 1, 1, including its faces; d) a sphere of radius 1 with centre y~ 1 and z

<

<

1794. a) a plane; the level lines are at the origin, including its surface 0; b) a paraboloid of revostraight lines parallel to the straight line *-f */ lution; the level lines are concentric circles with centre at the origin; a hyperbolic hyperbolas; paraboloid; the level lines are equilateral c) d) second-order cone; the level lines are equilateral hyperbolas; e) a parabolic 0; t/rf- 1 cylinder, the generatrices of which are parallel to the straight line x the level lines are parallel lines; f) the lateral surface of a quadrangular pyramid; the level lines are the outlines of squares; g)_level lines are parabz C ]fx i) the level Ifnes olas y^-Cx h) the level lines are parabolas y 2 2 2*. 1795. a) Parabolas are the circles C (* (C y ) 0); b) hyper2 2 C 2 d) straight lines y ax-{-C; bolas xy^C(\ C 1); c) circles jt -f*/ lines y-=Cx(x^Q). 1796. a) Planes parallel to the plane c) straight 0, x-\-y-\-z^=Q\ b) concentric spheres with centre at origin; c) for u one-sheet hyperboloids of revolution about the z-axis; for u 0, two-sheet hyperboloids of revolution about 2 the same axis; both families of surfaces 2 za are divided by the cone * 4-r/ 1797. (u 0). b) 0;c) 2; a) 0; k limit does not exist; f) limit does not exist. Hint. In Item(b) e d) e) to polar coordinates In Items (e) and (f), consider the variation of x pass kx and show that the given expression and y along the straight lines y may tend to different limits, depending an the choice of k. 1798. Continuous. 1799. a) Discontinuity at je 0; 0, y b) all points of the straight line of line of is the circle x c) (line y discontinuity); discontinuity 2 the tines of the coordinate axes. l; d) discontinuity are

|<

y^Cx*

>

<

>

1800
is

Hint. Putting y

=y

=^ const,

we

get the function (?,(*)

=
2

which

continuous everywhere,
f/ 1

since

for

yl

the denominator * 2
jt

when
<p2

^0,
2

q^M^O.
is

Similarly,

when From
(0, 0)

= *, = const,
is

-|-f/

^0, and
function

the

2v u (y) =
is

everywhere continuous.

the set of variables x, y, the

function z

discontinuous at the point

since there

no limz. Indeed,
X
-*

evident that then z -* sin

1801.
1803.

r cos cp,f/ r sin <p), we get z~ sin 2<p, whence it is passing to polar coordinates (x > if x and y -+ in such manner that (p const (Os^qx; 2rc), 2(p. Since these limiting values of the function z depend on the direction of cp, it follows that z does not have a limit as x and y -+ 0.

~^3(jc 2

ay),

^ = 3(#

^=
dx

dy
x*

1805

=
(

l*'

dy

436

Answers

.-s,^i/
ox
x*

ln

dy

cos^.
x
dz

,810.

*
ox

xy*

V2x'-2y*

dz

yx*

V2x*-2y*

oz
4813.

-r-=i/2*'ln2,

-5-=x2*"ln2,
/;(1,2,
0)

x-=zxtf2*"
1,

1814. r

1820.

-- -.

1815.

fy (\, 2, 0)

= ~,
cp (x).

^(1,2,0) = !
1827.

5^-.

1821. r.

1826. z

= arc tan ^ +

2-^

1828.

1)

tana = 4, tanp=co,

tan p

= 4,

tan Y =-~- 1829

^=y *
= +

If^T'

1'

Check

to see that the function is equal to zero over the entire x-axis and the entire i/-axs, and take advantage of the definition of partial derivatives. 1831. A/ Be convinced that f' (0, 0) ^(0, 0) 0. 4Ax+ A(/ 2Ax 2 x 2 4dx &\ -f 2AxAi/-t-Ax Ar/; a) A/ b) A/ df dy\ d/=- 0.062. df 2 1833. dz'^3{x*y)dx 3(y*x)dy. 1834. dz 2xy*dx 3x*y dy. 1835. de

2
\**
I

i. 2
/

(xy

dxx
y.

y dy). 1836. dz

= sin 2xdx
(xdx

sin 2(/di/.

1837. dz

1838. dz

=-

+ ydy).
dx
.

1839.

^=
d/(l,
1)

18401 dz

= 0.
t/z

1841. d0

=
x
sin

d
*

1842.

dx

x
1843.

du =

dx

+/x dy + xy dz.

1844.

du

(x

dx

y dy

+ z dz).
x

1845.

du=xy +

y^.
(5dz

1846.

dw;

~
1850.

zdx+\-xzdy +
:74

r/dx

+ xdt/--dz.

1847. d/ (3, 4,

5)-

3dx

4di/).

1848. d/

= 0.062
-r-

cm; A/==0.065 cm. 1849. 75

cm 3

(rela-

live to inner dimensions).

of

cm. Hint. Put the differential

of the area

the sector equal to zero and find the differential of the radius from that. 1851. a) 1.00; b) 4.998, c) 0.273. 1853. Accurate to 4 metres (more exactly,
1854.

4.25 m).

n ag ~Ef.

1855.

da==-^

(dy cos

dxsia

a).

1856.

^=

77

Answers

437

-sin*

In sin*). 1861.

d*

=_.;
x'-l-y
1

dx -,--,. 1+x 1

1862.

dx

=W:
*

dx

-.
1864

1863.

= 2x/,
.l.
l867 1865.

= 0.
-j)

^l( *-

<!/+
(

S=^
1873.
_
.

"

>+<
perimeter
increases
at

+ /^(*,

a rate of 2 m/sec, the area increases at a rate of70m*/sec. 1874.

1875.

20/52 V5 km/hr.
68

c) (7,2,1).

cosa=s-r-, o
cp

_ 221 66
i/.

z)[^(x,

y)

ty' (x, v

y)<f' (x)].

The

1876.

- 9 ^3
<fc

1877.

1.

1878.

J^..
A

1879.

1884.

9/-3/

1885.

j (5/-3/). 1886. 6/-f 3/ +

-O-.

2A?.

1887.

grad a|=6;

cos p

COSY =

1888. cos

-^QQOQ-r ^=83 37.

lfiol

1891.

^-;= ^'

'

^ ^=
.

9 = -7=. y 10

1889. tan (p^= 8. 944;

I7 1/1

1894.^=0. 1895.^ = ^ xd^ ^x

,897.

dy dz
1898.

^yi^
0)

2
f/

cos
0)

(jry)

2jc sin (xy).

1899.

(0,

0)

= m (m
of
f' (x, x

1);

v (0,

= mn;
,,

^
4\
2

(0.

= /i(n
of

1).

1902. Hint.

Using the rules

verify that

differen-

tiation

and

the

definition
/y

a
A'

partial

derivative,

y) =3

_
that For x
ticular,

irp-yi+^i [~2

+ yvj
for
1.

(when
(/,

1
J/

?4 0)'

MO.

and

consequently,
1;

and

any

/^ (0,

y)^
we

y.

Whence
f", IJC

f (Q, y)= xlt

0) = 1.

in par-

fj,,(0,

0)=

Similarly,

find that

\Q,

1903.

o);

"i-i-

-if

-g^r--/ii\".
1904.

/("'

0)

+ 4*0/

Jll ,

(M,

y)4-*

w (,

u).

438

1905.

_
!/)

Answers

1914. u(*.

I(y

dx

1918.

= q>W + t915. + * (y). 1916. d*z=e*y x (*, /)=*cp d*u = 2(xdy dz + ydzdx + zdx dy). 1917. + x dy)* + 2dx dy]. Y* X 1919. dz = d*z = 4<t"(t)(xdx + ydy)* + 2<f'(t)(dx* + dy*).
1>(</).
((/)

(f

= a M (a, o) x x 1921 dz = (ye*f' + eVf" + <2ye +yf' + y*e* w dx* + nv v uu + 2 (&f'u + e*f'v + xe*yf +e x + y +xy f + ye* x fo dx dy + uu 1922. d'z = e* (cos y dx* + (xeyfu + x*e*yf + 2xe*+yf + e**Q dy\ uv uu 1923. d'z = 3 sin y dx dy 3 cos y dx dy + sin y dy # cos x d* 1924. d/(l, 2) = 0; d f(l, 2) = 3sinxdx*dy 3cosy dxdy + xsiny dy*.
1920. d z
.

f'

(\

tlv

).

1925.

d 2/

(0,

0,

0)=
x't/

1926. xy
1929.

+ C.
2
|/

1927.
2 )

~ + sin x + C.
o

1928.

y ln(^ +
a=
1,

+ 2arc
1,

tan

+ C.
2

1930.

~+

C.

1931.

^?+p + C.

1932.

6=

=
t/z

+C

'

l933

8 1934. x

+ 2^ + 3x2 + ^ 1936. + + + c.
the

2z-j-C. 1935.
1937.

JC

2
//2

+ y + 2 +C
f

1938.

^,=

1.

Hint.

Write

condition

of

the

total xy

differential

for the

expression

Xdx+Ydy.
;ri= dx2
2 a5^1; y*

1939.

f^f' y

1940.

a=f(z)d2 + C.
a

1941.

=
is

-^ y
a2

^I=-T-I. dx* a*y*

lines.

^42.

The equation defining// M &

ln

the

equation of a pair of straight r

1943.

^= ^
-1;
'

x^ *

1944

^=y dx
_

dx 2

=
(\-y)*
dy

1945

=3
(axy)*
2

or

*% 2
dx

=8
.

or

-8.
x2
'

1946 1943

axy'
2

dx 2

'

dx 2
,

dz_x
<9jc

yz
z
2
'

dz_Gy

3xz2
(xt/

xf/

%~~

a
)

'

^^

dz_zsinx
'

cosy

dz
d/y

dx

cosx

t/sinz*

Answers
d*z
d*z
:

439

dx*~

a*b*z>

^
dy*''

1953.

dxdy

*;*;
i/

1954. d2

=
2

dx
2

dw; *

-^^dr/ 2*

f
.

1955. d2

= 0;

d 2 2=

Tc(^ IO

2
rf l/

)-

l956

dz

=
z

dy);

).

1961.

-r-

=00;

T"

11111

"^"*

T~9

=
dxfy
u

1;

r-^

= 0.

1964.

dw

:^;
1965.

,966. a) 7

=-

dz

c cos y

1967.
.

=F;(r,
q>

cp)

cos

<p

,-

sin

q,^.
1969.

9)^.
+ ^O.
1972.

cos

dz
1968.

dx
1970.
-

|).

- +

1971.

a)

-20;
pp^-.
1974.

b)

g-0.
1975.
tt

~=0.

~-. z== 0.

1976.

sina

440
1983.

Answers
3*

the tangent planes are the points (1, 1. 0), -f and (2, 0, 0), to the j/z-plane. parallel to the xz-plane; at the points (0, 0, 0) There are no points on the surface at which the tangent plane is parallel to
c

+ 4j/-H2z
2

169

= 0.
Ai

1985. x

+ 4y + 6z =

21

1986.

/ a 2 -f &2

1987

_n ~

the x#-plane. 1991.

-^

1994. Projection

on the xi/-plane:

1.

*
Projection on the
(

=
2

._w_ )=0
on
the

/z-plane:

<

3y*

I^Q

Projection

xz-plane:

=
|

3x 2

4-z

A 1=0.
,

Hint. The line of tangency of the surface

with the cylin-

der

projecting this surface on some plane is a locus at which the tangent plane to the given surface zis perpendicular to the plane of the projection 2 ax + 2bxy 1996. /(* k) /t, y cy*-{- 2(ax + by)h + 2(b* + cy) k i-ah 2 2 1997. (xH-2) /)=! /(*, 2(jc-f2)(t/~l)-f3((/ -f 26/ifc-K/z 1)2,

+
2

1998.

A/(x,
(/,

i/)

= 2/i + fc-M + 2/i/e-f/i

2

*.

1999.

/ (x, y, z)

+ =

(2

-_1)H2(*-1)
z)-f

(*/-!)--(</-- l)(z-l).

2000.
z)

f(x

/(^

2[/i(x~t/

-z) + k(y-x

= (x + H,
.

I)

4-

(//

I)

+ k,

z+/)

+ =

2001.

+ x,+.2002.
1).

^
a)

2003.

-!)(!/-

2004.

+
.

[(jt

1)

(y

Dl

r
>

2005

Un?^

b)

Hint. Apply Taylor's formula for 2006. a) 1.0081; b)J).902. rx in the neighbourhood of the point (1,1); the functions: a) f(x,y)=\ y* in the neighbourhood of the point (2,1). 2007. z= 1 -}-2(x~-l) b) f (x, y) 2 when x=l, 10 ( X -l)(y-l)-3 (y- !)'+.. 2008. z mm -(t/-l)~-8(x~l) 2010. z min -= 2011. z max =108 1 whenx=l, 0=0. i/=0 2009. NocxVcmum.
(3 n z_4M)p2j

yy

= 3,t/ = 2.20l2. z min =

There
is
.

when x =

Y^ y =

1^2

and

when

no extremum

for

x=j/ = 0.

2013.

2 max

^
3

at

the points
at the

X^-TTL, t/---^
^

and*=
,

ab

points
jc
i/

when

= = 0.

T^
2015.
4
3-

y==
zm i n

a"d

* ==

""Ff

wne "

=
2017.

1"\ at points
min

of the circle

*2

+y =
2

when x =

21
1.
,

x=0 = 0;

'~'Vf'

y==

2 14 '

F?'
1,

;?Tnax

"=1

nonrigorous

maximum
y

2016. zmax

= 1^3 whenx=
2018.

1.

-j

z=l.

w min

=4

when

JC

J/1' z== ^ 2019. The equation defines two functions, of which one has a maximum (z m ax 8) when *=1, f/=2; the other has a minimum 2jwhenx 1,0 = 2, at points of the circle (x 1) 2 + (t/ -f 2 2 -^ 25, (Zimn =
functions has a boundary ext-emum (z 3). Hint. tions mentioned in the answer are explicitly defined by the
of

=Y

eacn

these

The

func-

equalities

2 1^25 (x\)* (f/-f2) and consequently exist only inside and on 2 2 the boundary of thecircle (x 25, at the points of which both I) -|- (l/ 2> functions assume the value 2 3. This value is the least for the first function and is the greatest for the second. 2020. One of the functions defined by the the other has a 2, 1, r/ equation has a maximum (*max"-~~~ 2) for x minimum (2 min 1) for x 2, both functions have a boundary extremum 1, y

e=3

__
Answers

441

at the points of the curve

4jt

4i/

12*

+ 16r/
2 min

33=0.
----

2021.

2 max

=-j

for

*=#=-.
2023.

2022. 2 max
for

=5
=

for

x=l,

f/

= 2;
2024.
.

for

1,

#--2

imta

~. ^~.

max

-j/

= 5 + *:i,
r
r/

2025.
2.

for

2026. MMIX -=fl 2 2.4 2027. w max

= 2, 2 = = 2, 2= 2, "max^ 9 *=1, = 2 = 0; Wmin^C for x = t/=0 2^C. *= at the points .6Mor x = 2, y=4, 2=6. 2028. u max -4
1,
r
j/

fl

I/

27

(f
2,
1)

f
(2,

I)' (41,

f T)=
2).

2)

(1,

2,

2030.

a)
j/

(f f T)'--=3 Greatest value

2

for

= 0,

y=l;
,

b) smallest value 2

=2

for

x==

1,

= 0.

2031. a) Greatest value

2=
^

for

/^
"3

^^ T

/"T
;

smallest

value

z== "~

TFT
1,

for

x==

V
Y

/""2"

y
z

I/

-IT;

b) greatest

value

for

*= =

y-^0;

smallest

value

for x

= 0,

t/=

1.

2032. Greatest value 2

2

for

= =
t/

(in-

ternal maximum); smallest value 13 for x 2033. Greatest value 2

value

2 for x

y-~Q (boundary minimum). = 2, y = 1 (boundary maximum); smallest (boun(internal minimum) and for x = 0, y =
for
1

dary minimum).
triangle. 2037.

2034. Cube. 2035.

J/2V,

j/2V,

--

^2V*

2036.

Isosceles

Cube. 2038. a

\/a

\/a

>

\/a
.

>/a. 2039. Ai
2041. Jgaa

-|- J

2040. Sides of the triangle are fe

~p,~/>, and
a

44

2
s=s3i

ll m,

1a
-i-

m 2 -f m,

i>
*2a

2Q42
2b
,

2 Q43.

The dimensions
and
c

of

the

c
a,

parallelepiped are

-rp 3
Y

7^-* 3
j/

"T^' where V 3

2c

b,

are

the

semi-

axes

of

the

ellipsoid.

2044. *

= = 26+2V,

= -= 2.

2045.

x=

~T

2046

Major

axis,

2a

= 6,

minor

axis, 26

Hint.

The square

of

the distance of the point (x,y) of the ellipse from its centre (coordinate origin) 2 2 The problem reduces to finding the extremum of the function is equal to x -f-r/ 2 2 9. 2047. The radius of the base of the cylinder 5t/ x*-\-y* provided 5* Bxy
.

442

Answers

is

|/2 + -~=,

the altitude

|/2

--^=, where
of

is

the radius of the

sphere. 2048. The channel

must connect the point

/
1 1
,

the parabola (-o-

"T

with
2049.

5 \
;

the

point

of

the
sin

straight

line

its

^ 14
cos

1^2730.

2050.

EE^^!
p
Uj

-^-

length

is

7 V^L ft

Hint. Obviously, the point

into the other,

M,

at

which

the ray passes a

frm

one

medium
,

must

lie

between A, and B t ;

a
is

BM=^
1

of

the ray J

-- -a, cos

A,M =a tan a,
-5
.

B^M = b tan p. The duration of motion

to finding the *

y 2 cosp

of the function /(a,

|J)

The problem reduces r

1

minimum

-- -01

UjCOS
2051.

t/2
:

~ provided that a tan COS p

.

a + b tanp = c.
of

a=p.

2052.

/^/ji/^

function
2053.

f (/

7 2 , / 8)

= /J/?; + /*# +
2

AI

-5t\2

-5-

Hint.

Find

the

minimum
/!
2

the
8

Kl

/J/? t

2055. Tacnode (0, 0). 2056. Isolated point (0, 0). 2057. Node (0, 0). 2058. Cusp of first kind (0, 0). 2059. Node (0,0). 2060. Node (0, 0). 2061. Origin is isolated point it if a>6; is a cusp of the first kind if a and a node if a b. 6, 2062. If among the quantities a, b, and c, none are equal, then the curve does not have any singular points. If a b<c, then A (a, 0) is an isolated c, then B (b, 0) is a node; ifa^fc^c, then A (a, 0) is a cusp point; if
(0, 0).

The isolated point

2054.

Cusp

of

that provided second kind

+/ +/

-/.

(0, 0).

<

a<b =

of the
2

first

kind. 2063.
2067.
if

y=x.

2064.

y ^2px.

2065.

y^R.
are

2066. **/

+
the

-f-

/3

/ ''.

whose equations,

x#^=-^-S. the axes of symmetry

2068.

pair of conjugate equilateral hyperbolas,

of

the

ellipses

taken

as

coordinate axes, have the form

is

xy~

g
~

2069. a)

The discriminant curve

the locus of points of inflection and of the envelope of the given y of the envelope is the locus of cusps and family; b) the discriminant curve y Q is the locus of cusps and is not an enof the family ;c) the discriminant curve y velope; d) the discriminant curve decomposes into the straight lines: * (locus

of nodes)

and

x^ a (envelope).
1).

2070.

y=~ *8
5.

2071. 7

i
^

2072.

2v 2
2076.

2073.

1/~3V

2074.42.

2075.

XQ

+Z

Q.

2077.

11

2079. a) Straight line; b)

parabola;

c) ellipse;

d) hyperbola.

2080.

2082. 4/

(*

+l). 2083. ^ = 3 cos

#=4

sin

(ellipse); for

= Q, v--=4j, w=.
u=

3/; fo

= 4/ 2084. + 2ycos/-l-3Ar;
for

A;

= 2cos_^,
for

f/

= 2sin/,
any
/;

= 3/

0=1/^13

w=
for

(screw-line);
^

2/sinH
any
^

-2/cos

2ysin

t\

w2tor

f:=0,

z?=-2y+3ft,

w=

2i;

^^-

Answers
2085.

443

x=cosacoso);
a
sin

y
cos

sin acoscof; z
CD*

co/ sin

of
uy

cofc
2
.

a>

2086.

= u=K
;

co
i

|;

= sincof w +
i

(circle);
2

co /

cos

v= a cos CD/

cof

cos a sin

art

cousin a cos

a>/

2 2088. 0"|/ a

/i

2
,

where w = 2aa>u sin

(o*

is

the angular speed of rotation of the

screw

2089.

V aV + u
2091.

2
,

2090. T

(*

+ *);

=
k]\

/;

-y1

(*

fc).

T= --

[(cos

sin

(sin

cos t)J

v
/\

= --

[(sin

+ cosO /+(sin
;

^
t

cos

0./J*.

COS(T,

2)

1^3^

-;
2093.

cos(v,z)=0.

2092. t

^"
.,

/105
..

"; P^=. /5
^
,
.

acos/
.
.

a cost

\ *> (tangent); /

^ sin

^r r = &cos/
y

- zbt
asint

...

(binormal)
cosines b
of

x -acost
cos

ysmt
are cos

^-a

VI

normal) '
/

The
a cos

directi on

the

tangent

a =--===
sin

cos p

==
f

cos Y

=
cos|J 1

The direction cosines of the principal normal are cosa, 1 z 2094. 2* 0. cos YI (normal plane); y

= cos/;

= sin/;
plane);

(osculating

x + 2z

(rectifying plane). 2095.

*"T
12*

=^T
6r/-f-z

~T?T
8

(tangent);

+ 4r/-f-12z
2096.

114

=
j

(normal

plane);

=
/4

(oscu^ating

plane).

=
-_
:

=
j

(tangent);

= _
1

=_ 2 ^
I
\

(pri "~
t

cipal normal);

_
= __t>r
z

_
2

TT~

(binormal);

^ilx*
jc

"""3"'
i/

(4,
.

|,
,

2V
2

2097.

^.=^l = i^l
2
/
.
.

(tangent);

ing

plane);

=y+ =
2

^-~j-

(principal normal);

+ = (osculat= + 2 = z--2
i/

-g

=-=;

cosp 2 =

-,
1

cosv,

= 0.

2098. a)

(tangent); x

/2

z=

(normal plane); b)
__

(tangent); x
(tangent);

+ # + 4z-10 =
x

(normal plane);

c)

^|
Z
f

=^"' 2

==

2_>^3 2|/*2^=0.

+
2

r/

2/*3z =
a)

2101.

4*
2
2

c) b*x\x a*yly + (a ~ = ing plane);

6 2 )ejz

=a6

(normal plane); 2099. x 9x 0; # z 9 b)

2

(a

6 2 ).

+ y = 0. 2100. x = 18 = 0; 6y + 2z 2102. 6.r8/z + 3 = (osculat-

""J: ~~A f 3

-=

(P rinci P al normal);

444

Answers

(binormal). 2103.

bx

*=0
;

#
(osculating
;

plane);

* +6
J
3y

=o

binormal )

TSBS

|7^=i

M
.

= =u

'

>
}

(principal normal);

/+ *
>

J7*

v== /

2106

2jc

19z~27

= 0.

2107.

a)

V~i\ b)

2108. a)

=*
K=

2111.

fl>

\i
when

2112.

When
i

= 0,
99

2,

oy x

= 0,

w w =2;

/"To

/=!,

/C=4-1/T7 / r 14
Chapter VII

w,

= -^=.,
"^ j^

wn

=2

/~TQ

I/
'

~
*

9
2113.

44. O
-. O

2114.

ln~

9^
2115.
L**

~.
\JL

7t

9
2116.

TT/7*

44

2117. 50.4. 2118.

^^

2119.2.4.

2120.

2121. ^

= ^r
4

1;

x=2

y\

6;

= 2.

2122.

t/

=x

2
;

t/

= + 9;
A:

x=l;

= 3.

2125.

= 0; t/=y25
2127.

^2

*=-!;

= 2.

11
2128.

J*Jf(*.
f/

i/)rfx

ix = JdxJ/(*. 00
(

It 00
y)d(/.

x = 0;

= 3.

2126.

21
r/

2
JC
;

2129.

00
2
1

J dj/ J
2JC

/ (x,

+3

00 42

10
12

f(x,y)dy.

2130.
2Af

J/^

72

2131.

dy

f (x,

12
'

,/T y T

2I32

'

Answers

445

2133.

""

dx

j
x*

f (x,

i/)d</

+j
f
\

d*

J
r

/(*,*/)
"

d</

+J
~

dx

*,

Vl -

f(x,
i

y)dy =

-K 4 -*

J ~

dy
2

f(x,

y)dx +

r
\

-V*--tp

dy

*
2
1

c/

vr~^y~*
2

~yr^p
Kl+
JC

V* -X*

2134.

dx
-

/(Jt,

f(x,y)dy=

J
V* -n*

!/)

^+
-

*
2135.

f
a

U. y)d^+
!

dy

j
i

f(x,y)dy-

-vihT
a)

-^rn?
i-#
rfy
o
i

I-A:

dx

/ (*,
o

y) dy

/(AT,

t/)

r~;
- x?
a

Vci* - v*

_o^

Vx

_
-

o^
jc

1+ Kl
2

-4f/ a
1

/a

-V i^Kr~7^
2

Jf
*

(x,

y) dx\ d)

\
\)

dx
1

\
*j

f (x,

y)

dy=

\
i/

dy
1

\
%)

f (x t
1

*
20

w "

a + 2a

r
e) \

dy

ax oo

ao

48

K
dt/

22
f (x, y)

81
f (x,

2136.

dx. 2137.

dy
JL
1

y)

dx

d[/

(x t y) dx*

Ji
12

Vu

_
l

y*

Va?

_
-

y*

2138

'

l dlj

f(*>y)** +

]*y

f(x.y)dx.

444

(binormal). 2103.

__
Answers
bx

*=0

'

(osculating

plane);

__ Q

>

(principal normal);

v,y.
;

30

192-27

= 0.

2107.

a)

>^2; b)
.1 a)
fl

2108. a)

K=

7=

9100 2109.
2112.

- n -K-e When
/

M P-nb) R-QK

21

flfj*
-

i^i
when

= 0,

= 2,

^=2;

/=!,

^=
Chapter VII Q 2116. -~ 2117. 50.4. 2118.
.

O
2113.

OC
2114.

4~.
~,
x

Ing.

2115.

~
jf

TT/7.^

^y
/

2119.2.4.

2120.

2121.

jc

= ^4

1;

x=2
/=10
1^*25

y\

t/

=
</

6;

y = 2. y = 4.
x

2122.

2
;c
;

t/

= * + 9;
y

jc==l;
K~=1*

= 3.

2123.

= x\

r,

= 0; = 0*

2124.

y
u

= ~\
z'

= 2x;

#=3

2125

t/

= 0'

x*'

2127.

11
2128.
o
1
1

12 */(*' 00
jc

=3

2126

V)<te
1

21 = /U. 00
dr

=x

y) dy.

X
y)d</.

2-0

*/(*. </)dx = d*/(x,

y
*

oo
X
,

2129.

oo
2

ZX + 9

00 42
i

10
12
y

y)dy.

2130.

f
1

dx
2X

/ (x.

y_

72
f(x,y)dx.

r
2131.
\

dy

/(^,

i/)^+

f(x,y)dx=

dx

f(x

y)dy+

-i

-*

12
/.

2132.

dx
2JC

Ja

f (x,

y)dy=\dy

f (x t

y)dx.

Answers

445

2133

J " ~~ *

dx

j
V&~^

/ (x, y)

dy

+J
dy

dx

/ (x,

y) dy

+J "
dy

dx

f(x,

4-

J<*x
i

/ j -vr^*>

(x.

y) dy

/ (x,

y)

dx

+J

rr

V9 -X*
dx
\

Vl + *

2134.

f (x,

y) dy

dx

f (x,

y)

f (dx
c/

C
i/

/(*,

y)dy =

f
t/

dy

C
j

f(x,

y)dx +

/(x, y)

dx+

r
\

dy

/(x,

\y
j
EHi
2

f (x,

y)dx.

2135.

a)

- x*
f (x>

Va*

_L.
-t/'

dx

f (x,

y)

dy
i

Jdy J

f (x.

y) dxt

Vx
d*

!L

- x*

b)

dx

y)

dy

=
~a

*
-

f (Xt

y) dx c)
'

f(x>

dy
'a

/ (x,

y) dx; d)

Ki~^
2

-1

*
2a

ta

[/

+ 2u

ax oo
S 2

a
*. ffMir.

2(j

2a

48

^
\

T
dy
\ f (x,

SI
y) dx

2136.

f dy

/ (x, y)

dx. 2137.

\ 2

dy

/ (x,

y) dXr

JL
12

Ji
<

JL
3

2138.

dy

f (x,

y)

dx

+j

dy

/ (x,

y) dx.

446

Answers

a
\

2139.

( J
o

dy(f(x,y)dx + J
a_
2

V8
2~~

dy
a

c/

f(x,y)dx.
2
i/

Va*
za 20

a
r

a fl

_ ]/ G 2 _ yl aa y*
p

V
j
o

2a 20,

2d
di/

2140

[dy
o

/(*, */)dx

+ jd*/
o

f(x,y)dx +

a+Vtf^H*
1

yf1
dx

11-*
f(x,y)* + jdxj

T
y)*.
2142.

^I*
dx
/ (x,

2141.

10J
i

00

f(x,

j 00J
2

VT
1

VT

VT^lfi
/(A:,

VR*-y*
dy
f(*,y)dx.

t/)efy.

2143.

2
jt

arc sin

y
/(A:,

2144.

fdf/
o

f
arc ^in

f/)dx. 2145.

2146.
-^

2147.

~ a.

-g-

2148.^2 1"

y
15jt

2149.

6.

2150.

1.
8
.

2151.

In 2

2152.

a)

-|

b)

16
;

c)

2153.

-p

2154.
i

dx
o 2JT/?
//

xr/dt/

2155.

2156.
|-Ji/?'.

Hint,

j
(S)

//

dx

== dr/

C dx
o o

*Jl

/?(1-COS/)
/?(!

cosO^
by

ydy> where

the

last integral

is

obtained from
D4

the preceding one

the

substitution

x=R

(*

sin t).

2157.

2158. --

2159.

flf

+i--

216

Jt

^
^T
cos
(p

T"
[(p

sin q>
\

no T

r/(rcos9, rsin(p)dr.

2161.

J
o

Answers
jn
4
i

447
sin

sin
\

<p

2162.

d<p

r/(rcosq>, rsinq>)dr.

2163.

n_ 4
*Ji

oo
t_
,

(f <p

cos 2
\

/(tanp)dcp

sin

T
4\

<p

sin (p

n
r dr

cs a
f

<p

/ (tan q>) dcp

(tan

<p)

dq>

r dr.

a /COS
d<p
\

2<p

5Jt

a /COS

2(J)

2164.

r/ (r cos

cp,

r sin q>)

dr

dq>\

r/ (r cos

<p,

r sin

q>)

dr.

""T"
2

T
a cos
<p

2165.

f J

dcp

f J

r2

-sin(pdr=-^.

2166.

4-*-

2167

2171.

~nab.
3

Hint.

The Jacobian
P
i

is

I
g

= abr.

The

limits of integration are

+p
\

icfu
\

1.

2172.

/(w

wy,

uv}udu.

Solution.

We
the

have
limits
(since

= u(\
u
as

v)

and

y--^uv\
of u:
c,

the

Jacobian
x=r-0,
.

is

= u. We
of

define

functions
0);

when

u(l~u)=0,
of

whence
v:

when x

=
^

Limits
1;

variation
for

since
find

wr^axjt
B

follows that

uv^au
2173.

(1

t;),

whence

= ^-^
1

+a

= ftx

we

u=r-r-5

fr
\

-TT

dw

2~y
dv
\

"1

4-

Of
\

(2
k2 J

'

"~9~)^

Hint '

ter

chan S e
w

variables, the equa-

tions of the sides of the square will be u

= v;

+ u = 2;

= 2;
of

u
the

w.

2174.

ablf? 2
L\/i

-r]arctan^-rbli

+ -Ahk

Solution.

The equation

curve

448

r4 **/*

__
Answers
2

rj-cos*(p-- rrsin

cp

whence

the

lower

limit

for

r will

be

and

J,

4ht upper

limit,

r= y
cos 2
q>

2 rr cos 2 cp

cp

T^
0;

sin 2

q>

Since

must

be

real,

it

follows that

p-

pDue

sin

^2

whence
of the

for the

first

quadrantal angle

we

ak have fan<p^7-raxes,

to

symmetry
of

region

of

integration relative

to the

we can compute

the

entire
ak
tan

integral,

confining
cos'
<p

ourselves

arc

^
dy

fa*

- b* -

sin'cp

fo

the

first

quadrant:
i

dxdy = 4
2

(S)

Vy
j
dx
~

Vy
j
-

_j>

aVa*~x*
dx\ b)

_
*

abrdr.

1175.

a)

4-g-;

^dy
b)

+ ^dy
2177

^-^-

^dx
2179

dy.

a)

-;

a *-

2l78

flZ -

Hlnt

2180.
1

T5.
6.

2181.

a-- + -.

2182.

2183.

jJia

2184.

2185.

lOjt.

Hint.
a).

Change the variables

2187.

x2y = u,
a )ln-.
d
2195. ~-

2188.

IX
1188.
,.96.

1(6 o

a)(p

I(R o
2194.

u=di/(l-^^=:C^r(l-x)dy.

2193.

^.

~.

*.

2197.

J.

2,98.

A.
(

.19..^. 2200.^. 220,.^.

2204.
-i O
5).
'
(

2202.

iia'(a

P).

2203.

~^
o
nafrc.

^"2"~ 1)2^'
(6

"2

1).

2205.

^.
Change

2206.
|-

2207.

yT
2
.

2208.

^a

3
.

2209.
Hint.

IB (!--). 2210.
the
1

3
.

2211.

L
xt/

J~
ft

2212.
L

(2

KT-1).
2 2 2 2

variables

= u, ~=f.

2213.

~-

2 2 /"a 6

+6 c +c a
4

2214.

4(m

ft)/?

2215.

-~ a

2
.

Hint. Integrate in 2219.

the j/z-plane. 2216.

2
.

2217. 8aarcstn
Q

2218.

-1^(3 /"T o
o

1).

8a 2

2220.

3na2

Hint.

Paas

to polar coordinates. 2221.

|-jw

\(

1+5LV

Hint. Pass to

__
Answers
polar
coordinates.

449

2222.

-5-

a1

and
a

8aa

Hint. Pass to polar coordinates.

fl

2223. 8a arc tan

V2 L

/.__

T T
r C

ady
,

C
=?
8fl

a
arc sin

-^5

Hint.a=\ dx\ J J
change

ya
the

9 2

x'

9 2

\r

Integrate by parts, and then

variable
a

^^
In

sin

t\

Iransform
Hint.

the answer. 2224

^-

2 Vb* + c*-a }/a + c

+c
^

^
!
.

'-=)

Pass to polar coordinates

-

2225. o

L.

"'

2226.

^J; lz

J*

2227. *==*?,"" o (4
2230.

JT)

2228

'

^=

^ ^=
2232.

2229 /t

*-;lr-o.
(D*-d4 );
a
b)

H=0.
2233.
A

2231.

/x

=4

a)

/^
Voj?

=
-3-

a4

2234.

|-

a*.

Hint.

/=- f

-K^I
2235.
x 16 In

29 ~
to

Hint.

The distance
is

of the point (x, y)

from the straight lint

(/

is

equal

d=
V

-JL and 2

found

by means
In

of the

normal equation

of the straight line.

2236. 7

^fca

[7

/~T+3

(}^"2~+l)],

where k

is

the

proportionality factor. Hint. Placing the coordinate origin at the vertex, the distance from which is proportional to the density of the lamina, we direct the coordinate axes alonjj the sides of the square. The moment of inertia is determined relative to the x-axis Passing to polar coordinates, we have
_jt_

jt_

a sec
d<p
\

(jp

a cosec
dq>
\

<p

/x =

oo
I

kr

(r sin q>)

dr

kr

(r sin q>)V

dr 2237. /

=
Jg

Jifl

4
.

T
2239.

n_

2238. /o

^--

jia

4
.

Hint. For the variables of integration take

i

and

y (see Problem 2156). 2240.

( dx
)

dy

/ (*,

0, x)di

R
2241.

VR*~^7*

-*
a

-1

2242.
a

450

Answers

VT=T*

^1 -*'-/,
dy

2243.

-i
2244.

-y

/(*,</,

1
1

2248 .lln22252. -jutfc.

|.

2249.

=f2254.

/?.

_^
2255.

2253..
-

-~a2

2256.

?c

|-r
3
.

|
v

2257.

4n# 15

2258.

2259.
10

??fl%. 9
2acos(p

2260.

~ Jia
4

Selut ion.

C dx
Q

40

f L

dz

= 2fdq>

L
2

20 COS

<p

r'dr

f(2acoscp)*
1

00
to spherical

"25"

-T^^T3
,

nnot

226h

2na 8
2266.

Hint.Pass

19

coordinates.
2264.

2262.
-^-jt.

Hint.
2265.

Pass

to cylindrical

coordinates.
2

2263.

~(3jt

4).

nabc.

_
2267.

_
=0;
4
t/

_
=0;
-

^(a + b +

c).

^(6c

a2

6 2 ).

2
a.

2=-^D
_

Hint.

Introduce
2

2268.

*=~, o

=0, 2=0.

2269.

~
iz to

spherical

coordinates.

(3a

4/i ).

Hint.

For

the axis of

the cylinder the jq/-plane

we t^ke the z-axis, for the plane of the base of the cylinder, The moment of inertia is computed about the x-axis. After
the

passing to cylindrical coordinates,

square of the distance of an element

r z sin 2
q>

rdydrdz

from

the

x-axis

is

equal

+z

2
.

2270.

(2/z

+ 3a

2 ).

Hint. The base of the cone is taken for the xr/-plane, the axis of the cone, for the 2-axis. The moment of inertia is computed about the x-axis. Passing to cylindrical coordinates, we have for points of the surface of the cone:
r

= j-

(/

2);

and the square

of

the distance of
.

the element
cos a),

rdydrdz from
where
k
is

2 2271. 2jtfcQ/i (1 the x-axis is equal to r 2 sin cp-f z 2 proportionality factor and Q is the density. Solution.

the

cone is taken for the coordinate origin and its axis is the z-axis. If we introduce spherical coordinates, the equation of the lateral surface of the cone will be
of the

The vertex

\|)r=-2t

a,

and

the

equation
it

of

the

plane

of the

base will be

r=sin

-.
ip

From
is

z-axis.

symmetry The mass of an element of volume dm = p/ 2 cos dcp dtydr, where Q the density. The component of attraction, along the z-axis, by this element
tj)

the

follows that the resulting

stress is directed along the

of unit

mass lying at the point

is

equal to

sin

ip

sin

i|?

cos

ty dtp dq>

dr.

Answers

451

L-a
27i
2

h cosec
d\|?

\f

The resulting attraction

is

equal to

2272. Solution. We introduce cylindrical coordinates (Q, cp, z) with origin at the centre of the sphere and with the z-axis passing through a material point whose mass we assume equal to m. We denote by % the distance of
2 be the disfrom the centre of the sphere. Let r= >^Q 2 -h(| z) tance from the element of volume dv to the mass m. The attractive force of the element of volume dv of the sphere and the material point m is directed

oo
\

dq>

Q sin

\f

cos

\|>

dr.

this point

along

and

is

numerically

equal to

kym
is

where

y=

la
-^

is

the

density of the sphere and dv qd^dQdz jection of this force on the z-axis is

the element of volume.

The

pro-

dF

._,

kmydv

/\
c s (rz)

kmy *^~

d<P

... dQ

dz.

Whence

R
4

But since -x-ynR'

*5

M,

it

follows that

F=

kMm
5

?.

P
2273.

y*e~*y

dye~ x
(p

2275. a)

p
2276.

(p>

0);

b)

--P

for

>

a; c)

(p

> Q);
.

d)

P~1~P
00

-^-^ A !'?
7

> 0)
ln~.
a
'

n2

L. 2277.1. Hint. Differentiate 3

p

C-^f/=
J
o

twice.

2278.

P
2281.

2279. arc tan

-AW

arc

tan
AW
1.

2280.

2282. arc cot

4-p

2283.

2284. -1

polar coordinates.

2287.

-^

24
~
o
.

-^l n (l+a). 2,
2285. -5.-

n
.

a2

1).

2286.

-^ 4a-

Hint.

Pass to

2288.

2289. Converges. Solution. Eliminate

its

from S

the

coordinate

origin

together

with

e-neighbourhood,
is

that

is,

consider 7

=
1

In

x*

+ y*dxdy, where the eliminated region

the
origin.

a circle of

(S 6 )

radius e with centre

at
271

Passing to polar
1

coordinates,

we have
-T-). * /

JJ o6o
\d(p
\ r

Inr

dr=

JL^

-5-

In r

le^JJ rfcp~2jt(-j~-Q-lnen
\

rrfr

\ *

Whence

lim 7 8 e->o

--=.

-5L. 2290. Converges for 2

line
(/

a>

1.

2291. Converges. Hint. Sur-

round the straight

=*

with

narrow

strip

and

put

- =a

J.'
(S)

K(* K
v

2
I/) y/

452

Answers

i-

2292.

Converges

fot

2297.

t
)

|-[(I+4Ji
2301.

~ll

2298.

5m
.

2299.

1).

l-2-^! arc
flu

tan

^
d

a*V 2. 2300.^(56

/7~
Hint.

2302. 2jra

2
.

2303.

^(lOVTO
ftl

1).

M*

y)ds

may

be interpreted geometrically as the area of a cylindrical sur-

c
face with generatrix parallel to the z-axis, with base, the contour of integra tion, and with altitudes equal to the values "of the integrand. Therefore,
/

S=

xds, where

is

the

arc

OA

of the

e
points
(0, 0)

parabola t/=--x 8
/

that connects the

l/~a 2

a *b
b*-\

and
2

(4,6). 2304.

a V~3. 2305. 2
2

V
2306.

arc sin

h*\
)
.

a
2307.
fl

/
.o a

V^ + u
2ita
2

f ji

r
fl

+ 4jTu

"
4-|rln
,/

"*"

fl
.

J
.

(-q

V
2
.

2308.

^aTT^
10

2309.

(a

+&

2
)

2310.4030
all

2311.

2jta

4 2312.
a)
-5-;

b) 0;

c)

T o

d)

4;e)4. 2313. In
circle.

cases 4. 2314.
-r-a& o
2
.

2rc.

Hint.

Use the parametric

2317.

equations of a

2315.

2316.
xa

sin 2.

0.

2318.

a) 8;

b)

12;

c)

2;

d)

A
2

e)

\n(x

+ y);
2.

f)

f 9(jc)rfjc-f J

//a

+J {
y\

ty (y)

dy2

2319.

a) 62;

b)

1;

c) -L

+ ln2;
2

d)

Y
x8

2320.
z

c)

Vl-fft e*~ y (x +
.

2322.
y)

a)

x2

+ 3xy
C.
a>
-

2f/

+ C;
0^
233
-

b)

+ C\
2328.

d) ln|Jt
8
-

+ |/| +
-

2323.

2na(a +
1;

x y-{-x 2 2 n/? cos b). 2324.

2325.

fi-

+ j^"M
//,

2326

~ 20
^r-^

b>

c)5
4-d

2;

d) 0.
-

2327. /

JJ
(S) 2/iJi.

4o

2329

2331

2332

a ) Ol

Hint In Case (b), Green's formula is used in the region between the b) contour C and a circle of sufficiently small radius with centre at the coordinate origin 2333. Solution. If we consider that the direction of the tangent coincides with that of positive circulation of the contour, then cos(X,n)==

= cos(y, 0=/.
as

hence,

<cos J

(X, n)

ds= J
2
.

<P 4 ds = J dy = Q as
4.
2
.

2334. 2S, where

is

is

the area bounded by the contour C. 2335.

2337. -| Jia

Hint. Green's formula

2339.

not applicable. 2336. nab.

2338. 6jia

-|a *

2
.

Hint.

Put

for 2341. n(R + r) (/? + 2r); 6n y=tx where t is a parameter. 2340. ~. R r Hint. The equation of an epicycloid is of the form x = (R -f r) cos f r ~rcos^JL. *, y = (/?-f-r)sin/ rsin^J^/, where / is the angle of turn of
2
%

__
Answers
the

45$

radius

of

stationary
2r),

circle
2

drawn

to

the

point

of
of

tangency.
the hypo(see z 2 ).

2342. Ji(/?

r)(#

~ nR

for

'=-7of
r

Hint.

The equation

cycloid

is

Problem
2345.

obtained from the equation 2341) by replacing r by

2

the

corresponding
2343.

FR.

epicycloid 2344. mg(z,

a)
-

-^-(a

),

where k

is

proportionality
potential,
/

factor,

2346.

Potential,

V
c)

mgz,

work,
/

mg(z

2 2 );

b)

= -ii-,
2

work,
2
).

potential,

L(jc

+ + *)

work, 4r (#

2347.

-|jta*.

2348.
!

2353.
10 (5
.

/J*"

a.

2354.

^
^
4;i.

/i*.

51)

2355. a)

0;

b)

-{(
J
j

(cos

+ cos p =

2356. 0. 2357.

2358.

na\

2359.

a*.

2360.

(V)

2365. 3a4

2366.

-^ 2

2367.

~
O
*

Jia

5
.

2363.

2
2
,

2371. Spheres; cylinders.

2372. Cones.

2373. Circles, x 2

+/=c

= xy\

= c 2 2376. grad (/ (>1)=9/ x = y = z. 2377. a) ~; b) 2r

z
.

3y
c)

3Jfe;

d)

/'(/)
c.

2378. grad(rr)
2379.

= c;
7^,

the level surfaces are planes perpendicular to

the vector

5^

57

= lgrad(y|

when a = 6 = c.
2383.
rot (/r)

2380.

~=
/'

=---

COS

>r)
;

^=0
r ot

for

IJ_r.
b)

2382.-?-.

div

a=^
.

/ (r)

(r).

2385. a)

divr=3, rotr=0;
r) t

div(r^)-=~,

-^-;

c)

div

= LW( Ct
co=co/f

(/(r)<7)
,

= ^-^cxr.
/i

2386. div tf=-0;

rotv = 2co,

where

2387.

2a)/i

where

is

a
;

unit vector parallel to the axis oi rotation.

rot
2

2388. div grad

U=
2

^+^+^
2

grad
2
(

U = 0.
2
).

2391.

3;i/? //.

2392.

a)

j~Ji/?

//(3/?

+ 2//

2
);

b)

~ n/?

//

+ 2//

2393.

divF=Oat

all

points except the origin.

The

flux is equal to

4jtm. Hint.

When

calculating

454

the

__
Answers
flux,

use
r

the Ostrogradsky-Gauss

theorem.

2394.

2n*h*.

2395.

_ ~~TtD

2396.

/=f

rf(r) dr. 2397.

.

2398.

a)

No

potential;

b)

U=xyz + C',

2400. Yes.

Chapter
2401
.

VIII

-L.

2402.

1
-

2403.

2404.

2405. -

24 06.

24 8

2416. Diverges. 2417. Converges. 2418. Diverges. 2419. Diverges. 2420. Diverges. 2421. Diverges. 2422. Diverges. 2423. Diverges. 2424. Diverges. 2425. Converges. 2426. Converges. 2427. Converges. 2428. Converges. 2429. Converges. 2430. Converges. 2431. Converges. 2432. Converges. 2433. Converges. 2434. Diverges. 2435. Diverges. 2436. Converges. 2437. Diverges. 2438. Converges. 2439. Converges. 2440. Converges. 2441. Diverges. 2442. Converges. 2443. Converges. 2444. Converges. 2445. Converges. 2446. Converges. 2447. Converges. 2448. Converges. 2449. Converges. 2450. Diverges. 2451. Converges. 2452/Di2455. Diverges. 2453. Converges. 2454. Diverges. 2456. Converges. verges. 2457. Diverges. 2458. Converges. 2459. Diverges. 2460. Converges. 2461. Di2462. Converges. 2463. Diverges. 2464. Converges. 2465. Converges. verges. 2466. Converges. 2467. Diverges.

2468. Diverges. Hint,

k- >
!

2470. Con-

verges conditionally. 2471. Converges conditionally. 2472. Converges absolutely 2473. Diverges. 2474. Converges conditionally. 2475. Converges absolutely. 2477. Converges absolutely. 2478. Converges 2476. Converges conditionally. absolutely. 2479. Diverges. 2480. Converges absolutely. 2481. Converges conditionally. 2482. Converges absolutely. 2484. a) Diverges; b) converges absolutely; c) diverges; d) converges conditionally. Hint. In examples (a) and (d)
CO

consider the series

fe=i
00
00

( a 2k-i

+ a zk)

anc

in

examples

(b)

and

(c)

investigate

separately the series

2a k=i

2k-\ and

2 a^' k=i

2485<

Diver ^ es

2486

Converges

absolutely. 2487. Converges absolutely. 2488. Converges conditionally. 2489. Diverges. 2490. Converges absolutely. 2491. Converges absolutely. 2492. ConCD

verges absolutely. 2493. Yes. 2494. No. 2495.

^T
n=l

3/2

converges. 2496.

7.9*1
fi=i

f9n_iv

converges.

2497. Diverges.

2499.

Converges. 2500. Converges.

Hint. The remainder of the series

may

be evaluated
this

by means

of the

sum
,

of

geometric

progression

exceeding

remainder:

Rn

'

an

"9*

Answers

__
--

455

-'' 2504.

<.<.

Solution.

-f

m + "-=~

2505

For tne

iven series

it

is

easy

to find the

exact value of the remainder:

Solution.

We

multiply

by

-:
*"+ 2
/
1

M+
"

Whence we obtain
is

nv nv
.

v n+

*
.

m
A

"**,
I

. '

=n
From
this

\ zn

VTj

+\

4 /
}_

= / + 16 T5

16

we

find the

above value

of

Rn

Putting /i=0, we find the sum of

3;

the series

S-=(pY-

2506. 99; 999.

2507. 2;
1

5.

2508.5=1.

Hint.

an

^~ x = Q. 2510.
-

when x < 0; S-=0 when > 0, S= 2511. Converges diverges for x< Converges absolutely for x> for for x>l, converges conditionally for 0<x<l, diverges absolutely ^" for 2512 absolutely forx>*, converges conditionally Converges or *c, diverges for^ X <\. 2513. - <x < oo..2514. - oo <*<. verges 2515. Converges absolutely for x > 0, diverges for x<0. Solution. 1) <~; and when x > the series with general term ^.converges; 2)^5^1

2509.5-1 when

1,

1.

x.

.
,

oo, since from cosn*->0 xs^O, and cos n.x does not tend to zero as n thus, the necessary condition for converwould follow that cos 2n.v -* when 2/m < x < gence is violated when x<0. 2516. Converges absolutely

for
it

it diverges. 1, 2, ...); at the remaining points <(2fc + l)ji(fc=sO 1 2518. Converges absolutely for x ^ 0. 2519. x Diverges everywhere.
f ,

2517.
1.

2520.

x>3, x<l.

2521.
2524.
00

x^l,

x<l.
i-,

2522.

x^5j,
Hint.
1

> x< 2523. x < 4.

x>l,x<-l.
of x,

-Kx<
x k and

y<x<l.
*

For these values

both the series

the series

converge>

When '^l^

456

__
when
|

Answers

and
2525.
2528. 2532.

=-

the

general

term of the series does not tend to zero

2526.

Kx<0,
1<X<1. < x < 4. 3<x<3.

0<x<l.
2533.

_
l<x<K
2527.

2<x<2.

\<x<\ 2529. -- <x<-~ 2

4
2537.

K V oo<x<oo.
o
-5.

2530. !<*<!. 2531. !<*<! 2 2535. oo<*<oo. 2534. x^=0.

.

2536.
2540.

~ <*<
|

2538.
1

2541.
|

x 1 of the series for is obvious (it is interesting, however, to note that the divergence of the series at the end-points of the interval of converthe aid of the necessary condition is detected not only with 1 gence

gence

\<x<{

2542.

<x<2. 2539. < x < Solution.

2
1

<x<e.

The diver-

x=

of convergence, but also

by means
lim

of the

d'Alembert

test).

When|x|
lim n-* oo
,

<

we

have
lim
n\

=
x
n
is

nIn
|(rt+l);t

|<lim(Ai+l)|jcr==
rc-- co

oo

readily obtained by means of 1'Hospital's rule). 2543. l<;x^l Hint. Using the d'Alembert test, it is possible not only to find the interval of convergence, but also to investigate the convergence of the given series at the extremities of the interval of convergence. 2544. Hint. Using the Cauchy test, it is possible not only to find the interval of convergence, but also to investigate the convergence of the given series at the extremities of the interval of convergence. 2C45. 2 x 4. 2548. 2. 2547. 2549. 2546.
(this equality

l<x<l.

2<x<8.
3

< <

l<x<3

4<x<

2<x^8.
.

2550. x

=
e

2551.

7<x<
3.

2554.
2558.

3<x<e

2555.
1

3<x<
diverges,

2559.

0<x<4. 2553. - ~ < x < ^ 2<x<0. 2556. 2 < x < 4 2557. 1<* < x < +-I Hint. For x= the G 6
3

2552.

series

since

2561.
2566.
2576.

ye 1<*<3 2562. l<jc<5. 2563. 2<x<4. 2564. |z| < z 2/ < 3 2567. \z\< V^ 2568. 2 = 2569. z \< ao
oo

lim n -+

-j^^
~
\

2560.

2
2563.
I

<x<
|

2570.

< <i
|

-ln(l-A:)

(~-l< x <l)
2579.
.

2577.

In(l-f-x)
. 1).

(-

2578.

ll n

lf(|xl)
In

arc

tan x

(|

|<

2580.
.

2582>

(|xl<1)

2583
Hint. Consider the
\

2384.

^ farctanx-of

sum
2586.

x
the series

\^}
x*

(\x\<
...

1).

2585.

^---^

^-+-=

(see

Problem

2579)

for

jc=~^=:
x

'

3.

2587.

ax

=l+

_ 00<x<00

2688. sin

Answers
**

457
x*

2589.

cos (jc-|-a)=cos a

xsm

^ cos a + %r sma+'-rr cos a

,

-j-

...

o.

2591

-o^ + TTi-" +(^Z 3Z

gating
the

)""
use

7*

^5S + --A

~2<x<2.
on

Hint.
a

When
power

investiseries

remainder,

the

theorem

integrating

2592

_ l\"-

on-i

vn

n=o
oo

< *<
<x<

oo

2595.

e**=

+V
n=i

oo< x <

oo

2596.

(_-oo

oo)

oo

<x<

oo

2599.

2600.

(-!)"

rn-

(-3<x<3).

2601.

-|.._ +

2608.

T (-0" H

04/1-S y2n

(-OO<AC<CO).
(2rz) |
1 -4-

2609.

2610. 8

+3
-

"*"

2W

-4-

3"
""
l

^ (=

I)""

W
JC

(~oo<x<oo).

*
2611. 2-f

**

22^11

2s 32
-

2!

458

Answers

<-<

<X <oo).

2612.

Ti

+ o7rFT

*"
'

~ 2 < * < 2)

'

).

2614.

2615. ln2

+V

f|

l)

(l+2- n )

(-.i<jc<l).

2616.

V(-.l) x
=o

2018.

(-D n+I

(I*KD.

219.

c+

'"

2622.

T+S-;2624.

e(

1-^4-...).
-

2623.

!+

+...

-(^+75+^+---)

262S

ing from the parametric equations of i/ pute the length of the ellipse and expand the expression obtained in a series 2 of 2628. *' e. 2x* 5x 2= 78 59 (x-H) 14(x of powers 2629. / (je 5x 8 4* 2 4) ( oo<At<oo). * (x A) z oo h oo).

+ x* + jx>+... 2626. Hint. Proceed= &sin<p, comthe ellipse x = aco$<f, + + =

1)" (*
00

+ +

< <

2630.

V(
n=i

n -1
l)

Ar

^"^
(x

(0<JC<2).

2631.

V
AI=O

1)"

(Q

< x < 2).

2632.

00

(n

1)

+ \) n

< x < 0).

2633.

6<x<

2).

2634.
/l=0

(,<.
1.3(^-4)' r 4-6 2

2636.2+^-1^
1.3.5...(2n-3)(x-4)
4.6-8...2n

L3.5(*-4)
4.6-8
2"

"T---TI
X

""^

*""

2637.

n=i

2J(-D"

(2 ttll)!

O^K

00 )-

2638.

~+

4-i
n=i

JL

(0<x<oo).

Answers

45J>

Hint.

Make

the substitution

and

expand

\nx

in

powers

of

t.

2641.

\RI<<1.
-

2642.

R \<

2643.

p r ve that

exceed 0.001, it is necessary to evaluate the remainder by means of a geometric progression that exceeds this remainder. 2644. Two terms, that is,
7

X2
1

TT.
Z

2645.

Two

x*
terms,
1.92
i.e.,

~-

o
|

2646. Eight terms, i.e.,

1-f

V-L
jL*
n\

2647. 99; 999. 2648.

2649. 4.8
|

R \<

0.005. 2650. 2.087. 2651.

*J<
2fi54.

0.39;

U|< 0.22. 2652.

2655.

x |<0 39; \x\

2656.

<0

18 2653.

~~ 03
Z
Z

\ o o

\x"< 0.69; -^ 0.4931.

!

0.7^68.
1

0.608

0621

2657.

0.2505

2658.

0.026.

2659.

+ V (-l)JfZ^L.

(-00
i

<x<oo; ~oo <t/<oo).

2660.
00

-"

/y

\2
.

(2/0'

2661.

V
n=
i

2662.

1-1-2

JO

(//

x)";

lJC

i/1

<

Hint.

|T^^=- +
!

geometric progression

2663.

x^

yW

Hinl.

l-^-y +

ry

= (l-.^)(l-y).
~~
-j

2664.

(_
tan (/(for
/i

K//<1).
2665.
/ (Jt
2

Hint, arc tan

i

~^-=arc tan x + arc

A^y

+
.

/i,

#+

A;)

= ax* + 2bxy + cy* + 2 (a* + fy) + 2 (bx + cy)

2-\-k)

\-2bh-\-ck

2666.

f(\+h,

f(\

2)

=9/i

21/r -f3/i

-2^.2667.

2669.

l+x+-

-+...

2670.

460

Answers

%-l
n=o

(n)=^=%.
X
[^-

2873.

^ + 4^(-l)";S(
n=i

n)

= n. 2674.
2 Sln
2675.

L2a

V tr^! + <*a* +
rt

(fl

cos n*

sin

n*) 1
J

S (+

Ji)

= cosh an.
a
is

gn

x ^4
n=i
2676.

l>fl
(

|tlyl

l)

a*

m nf

is

nonintegral; sin ax

if

an integer;

5(n) = 0.
if

Ji

2a

+ jL* _i )B y
(

if

is

or

nonintegral; cosa*

is

an

t\r

L
integer;

n=i

J
2677.

S(

Jl )

= cosan.

2678.

=
:

2680.

CO

tin

sin

"-

Answers

461

2689

slnn/t
.

2691

i_

4n-l

2694.

Solution.

1)

2a

= -~

f /(*) cos 2/i* dx

-jjJi

(*

W
x

cos 2/ix d

2 -- P
\

/ (x)

cos 2nx dx.

If

we make

the

substitution t**-=

in

the

first

Jl
integral and
t

=x
z

in the

second, then, taking advantage of the assumed

<

identity
(n = 0,

/(-^+<
1,^2,
...);

= -/

(^

will

)
t

readily

be seen

that

o 2n =0

n
2)
&,

n
sin

/ (^) sin

2nx dx =
-|-

~. T

Sin

The same substitution

Identity
f

as in

Case
t

(1),

with

account taken

of

the assumed
2, ...).

(y +

=/

(\^

^ leads to the equalities 6 2II

'

(/i=l,

/cos
2697.
sinh
/

[t
/IJTJC

2698.

> (-1)"
sin-

n
cos
(2'?

where

_8_

1
^

_-!?
,(2'H-l)Jix o

1^1

nx

-16\\-1)"-'
n=i

-~,
!)

2702.
1)2

b)

-il

_ A V ^ J 2 1+
1

n*

2'mx

rs

mx

n=o

462

Answers

Chapter IX
2704. Yes. 2705. No. 2706. Yes. 2707. Yes. 2708. Yes. 2709.
2710.
a) b) = 0. 2716. = 0. 2715. 2xy' = Q. 2717. = 2xyy'. 2720. xyy (xy*+ 1)= = x y' = y. 2719. 3y = 0. 2724. / 2721. w=-xr/'ln~. 2722. 2xy" + y'=Q. 2723. 2725. #" + = 0. 2726. = 0. 2727. ^"'^O. 2728.=(1 +y' )y"' 3f/V -^0. 2X cos*. 2732. 2730. 2731. x = 25. 2729. r/== y = xe 2X 2739. 4.780 [exact 2738. 2.593 (exact value y = ^^.r^Sg-^ + g^ 4g o = 3(e 1)]. 2740. 0.946 (exact value y=\). 2741. 1.826 (exact value value 2742. cot //-tan x + C. 2743. ^= y = 0. 2744.

Yes;

no.

Yes.
/

2714. / 0. 2718.

;u/'

xi/'
2

2{/

r/

1.

(/"

i/'

2r/

I/

2//'

t/

f/"

//

).

e).

i/

..

+ if
e

= lnCx

2
.

2745.

= a + -^-. 2746. tan y^=C (1 -~

9
).

x
)

8
;

= 0. 2747. = C sin
i/

jc.

2748. 2e

=1^6 (l+e x
7|

2749.

i+^srrf-j.
|

2750.

y=l.
.

2751.

= C.

2752. 2754.

8x 5x

+ 2y+l=2tan(4x + C). 2753. + 10y + C = 31n lOx 5y + 6| 2755.

or
2
J/

= C.
ment

2757. Straight line

is

f/^Cx

hyperbola #

=
2
-

Hint.
^2

The

seg-

of the tangent

equal to

+^
By

2758

I/

= C. 2759. =
r/

= Ce a

2760.

2
t/

*=2px. 2761.

t/

= ax

2
.

Hint.

hypothesis

Differentiating
2762. if

twice

with

respect

to

x,

we

get

differential

equation.

-*.

2763.

y=V 4
Family
X

^2

+ 21n2

mily of similar ellipses 2x*

2767.
of circles x

+ y = C 2766. Family of hyperbolas x y = C. + (y b) = b 2768. = xln~. 2769. = ~ ~ x x &

z
2 2 2
.

2764.

Pencil of lines y^=kx. 2765. Fa-

f/

r/

= Ce y

2771.

(x

C)

2
t/

=C

2
;

2
//

(x

2)

= 4;
(x*

i/

jc.

2772.

+ ln|(/|=C.
2775. y

2773. y=5

^-;
(x

= 0.

2774.

+ y*)* (x + y)*C.
x 2 =l-2[/.

xl
C,

x.

2776.

+y
8t/

2778.

ln|4jc +

= (xy + 3). + 5| + 8j/-4;t = C.

!)
(;

2777.
2779.

2780. Paraboloid of revolution. Solution. By virtue of symmetry tUe soughtfor mirror is a surface of revolution. The coordinate origin is located in the source of light; the x-axis is the direction of the pencil of rays. If a tangent at any point (x, y) of the curve, generated by the desired surface being cut by the xi/-plane, forms with the x-axis an angle q>, and the segment connecttan 2q> (x, y) forms an angle a, then tan a ing the origin with the point

__
Answers

463

=
y

*/*/'

bola. 2782.

= y The desired differential equation is 2= = 2Cx-\-C*. The plane section is a para2jq/' and its solution is y* The desired surface is a paraboloid of revolution. 2781. (x y) 2 C*/ = 0. Hint. Use the fact that the area x 2 )-=Cx x = C(2# + C). 2783.
.

tan 2 q>

But tana

tancp ^

j/'.

(2(/

X
is

equal

to

y dx.

2784. y

~--* 4 +
respect

2787. x

_
1 !/

= Cx
2

In

|x

|.

2785.

f/

= Cx + x

2
.

2786.

t/

+ + cos y = C. = Q/
2
.

Hint,

The equation
ab

is

linear

with
#

t>x and ~.
2

*
.

2788. x

2789.

y=^+

2790.

+ arc sin x)
2 2794. x ^=

2793.

2
r/

= xln-.

= 0.

2799. x

= 01n
2803.

2800.

+-=

1.

2801.

= C.

2 arc tan-

= C.

2806.

x*' =

?807.

//

=2

2808.

lnU|

2809.
v

~ + ~==C.
2812.
2813.
2

2810.
2

c.

2811.
2C|/)

(xsiii[/-j-f/cost/~ sin^)c =tC.

(A

C2 +

x
(y

+C
2

= 0;
is

singular

integral

.v

1/

= 0.

General

integral

+ C)
x
2

=x

8
;

there

HO singular integral. 2814. General integral

there
is

"o"""^~ r"^

x(

~+C J=0;
^2Cx;

no

singular
2
/

integral.
1

2815.

General

integral

ry2.|-C

2 singular integral x

= 0.

2816.

f/^-^cosxi

-~-

1/^3
sin x. 2817.

- + C,

Singular
2821.
In

solution:

t/

= 0.

2820.

4y = x
y

+p
p
.

1
,

In |p

x|

= C+
y=e

V p

+ + arctan~ = C,
2
i/

x^\n

Singular

solution:

464

Answers

2822.

g-C*+;
l* =

y=2*.

2824.

2823

nlPL-zIlsin P + C '2825.< '

L=4
,

Hint.

The

differential

equation

from which x

is

defined as a function of p
j/

is

homogeneous. 2826.
2828.

=
*

2827.

= Cx + C;
*/

no singular solution
2
;

+ y*=\.
its

2829.

= Cx +

-g

= 4*.

2830.

JO/-C

2831.

circle

and the family of

geneous, equation;

y = uv\_e) to y^xy' V^y^l g) Lagrange's equation; differentiate with respect to x\ h) Bernoulli's equation; y = uv\ i) leads to equation with variable? separable; u--x-}-y\ j) Lagrange's equation; differentiate with respect to x\ k) Bernoulli's equation in r, x=uv\ 1) exact differential equation; m) linear; y = uv\
n) Bernoulli's equation;
2 2835. x

y=xu\

tangents. 2832. b) linear in x\ x

astroid x*" a z i>. 2833. a) Homoy*i> uv\ c) linear in y\ y uv, d) Bernoulli's with variables separable; f) Clairaut's equation; reduce

The

= uv.

2834. a)

=
sin-^

In

jc|

+ C;
1.

b)

x^y2838.

+ = Q/
4
(/

1
.

2836.

/=i~.
i/

2837.

xi/(C-~
.

In

x)=

lnC; singular solution,

solution,

f- (x+l)

2839.

y = ~.

2840.

3//

+ L~1J = C.
ln

y=-Cx+ VaC\ singular 2841. ***-^ -arc tan y~

1

2842. y

= x(l+Ce*).

2843.

Ar=</*(C-e-> ).

2844.

y=

X -f2847.
1

x = Ce

sIn

^-2a(l+sini/).

2848.

i + Sx + y + ln [(x-3)
2

10
1

y-

8
1
|

= C.
2

2849. 2 arc tan

-= In Cx.
ln|x|
xy

2850.

**=! ---\-Ce

y
.

2851. x 3

=-Ce^

y
sin

2852.

l- +
r

= C.

2853.

(/

= * arc sin (Cx).

^

2854. y i ^Ce" ix

jc+

+ 4- cos*. o
-l.

2855.

= C(y

1).

2856. x

= C^-- (sin y + cos

2859.

/).

2857.

py-

2858. x

= CeV-</-f,'-,/-

2860.

2863. y

-0.
y x
2
9
ij

2873.
2

y^Cx + -~,
3
.

i/

= ~^/2?.
1.

2874.

x'-f-x
/

2
*/

^C.

2879. f/-0.
---=e-*

2x is arbitrary; the point (0,0) t/ 2 singular point of the differential equation. 2884. a) y 2 x\ h) # 2px; 2 2 2 2 2 (0,0) is a singular point. 2885. a) (x C) 4-(/ -=C b) no solution; c) x -=x; t/
is

+ 4# ^Q/ 2876. 0=-=* 2880. 2881. y = (sin x + cos x). i/^-^= x; b) = Cx, where C 2. 2883. a) y
2875.

2877. r/-=x. 2878.

f

= 2.
y

-i-

(2x

+ 2x + l).

2882.

(0,0)

is

--1
2891.
8
i/

e~ x
f
.v

a singular point. 2886. // --e". 2887. y^(V~2a Kx) 2 2888. f/ 2 2889. r-=Ce^. Hint. Pass to polar coordinates. 2890. 3y 2 2 2 2892. x 2 -|- (// 2893. // 2 [- 16x^0. 2894. 6) -_6 Hyperbola r-^/fq) 2 2 2 --C or circle x i-j/ 2895. t/--i- (e-v e- x ). Hint. Use tha fact
.

2-=0

-C
A:

:c

that

the

area

is

equal

to

J
<>

y dx

and

the

arc

length,

to

f
/

H^l/ 2

-^^

2896.

x=^^--f

Cf/.

2897.

2
//

- 4C (C

-j-

x).

2898. Hint. Use the fact that tha

resultant of the force of s>ravit\ and the centrifugal force is normal to the surface. 'lakmg the r/-axih as the nxis of rotation and denoting by co the angular velocity "of rotation, \\ e get for the plane axial cross-section of the desired surface

the differential equation g-'-'==o) 2 x.

2899. p_^ e --*<wi7*.

Hint,

The

prts-

sure at each level of a vertical column of air may be considered as due solely to the pressure of the upper-lying layers Use the law of Boyle-Mar otte, according to \\hich the density is proportional to the pressure. The sought-for
differential

equation
2901.

is

dp

kpdh. 2900.

s^klw.

Hint.

Equation
a)e~
ki
.

ds

.-.kw-dx.
one hour.
2904.

s=/>-j--a; ~
/

2902.

T^a + (T Q
of

2903.

In

(o^lOO(-g-J

rpm.

2905.

4 2?6

the initial quantity

Q
t

will decay in 100 years. Hint.

Equation

^ =kQ.
=n

Q-=Q (4-)

n^-

2906.

=^=

=^35.2

sec.

Hint. Equation n(/i f

2fc)d/i

~V udf.

2907.

Hint,

dQ==

kQ

dfi.

Qo

2908< u "~^

(y)"*
t

K
:

T
;v=

as

'

"^

is

tionality factor). Hint. Equation

m^ = mgkv

2909. 18.1 kg. Hint. Equation

~=

*f~V

y
/

g~tanh ft I/

2910.

__

~)
wf

[(/? sin

16-1900

466

Answers

1
].

Hint. Equation Ri

+ L~ = E sinco*.
.

2911.

2912.

2913.
2916.
C,)

/=
r/

+C

z.

2914.

#=<:,

+ {;, In

2915.

= C ed?
l

2918.

(x

= aln
: 2 ;y

= C.
2

2021.

i/

in~|

+C

2923.

</-

(singular solu-

tion).

2925. y

= C x(x
l

= ~- + C
y=
/

(singular solution).

2926.

//

2927.

sin(C,
l.

2028. y

2929.

r/-^=

1).

2930.

=x+
4x z

2931. y

= Cx

2
.

2932.

//-C,
//

=C
2935.

2933.
.

x^^
2936.

2934.

Jt^C,

~
2939
-

In

x=C

2y

=\.

2937.

//=-*-]-!.

2938.

=
1
-

ln|

^8

"--*
-

2940.

y=^x

2
.

2941.

t/-

2942.

x=

(i/-|

-2)

2943.

e*

2944.

-'e-r
.

1-e'
2

2945.

2946

/y

-"

2947.
2950.

t/^sec
2951.
2

x.

2948.
2952. y

2949.

x=

--e"^ 2

No

solution.

= ex

2953.

//-2

In

A'
|

--

2954. w

= + Cj + D

o-Cj^+l)*
.

+C

2.

Singular solution,

r/

= C.

2955.

x2

n-

(^i

C 2 )A: + C 2

Singular solution,
2957.

y^
2959.

(x.

4-

^
;

+C.

2956.

-singular solution, t/=-

2958.

Circles.

(x
z

C,)

C^-\-kC\
.

-0.

2960. Catenary,

r/

=a
.

cosh

Circle,

(x
sin /).

= a2

2961.
/).

Parabola,

2
)

= 2at/~ a

Cycloid, x

=a

(t

y = a (1
<7

cos

2962.
</

O. 2963. Parabola. 2964.

^-e""* +

"^

x.

4- C*

Xcosh
The

|-C 2t

__
Answers

467

where

is

constant horizontal tension, and

l

= a.

Hint*

differential

equation

2 ^2

= 77

^' ^\T)'

2965

'

E(l uation of
2966. s

=g(sina
Xlncoshf/
\
r

jiicosa).

Law

of

motion,

s^^- (sin a
m-r^ at*

u,

cos a)

I/

).

Hint. Equation of motion,

tn/

mg

\"*/

-}

2967. In

6.45 seconds.
c)
c)

Hint. Equation of motion,

f)

300 d~x ~A~Z~

^
=

y< 2968. a)

No, b) yes>

yes,
2
A-

d) yes, e) no,

no, g) no, h) yes

y'"

2x//'4-2f/-0, d)

3y"+4i/~ 2//-0
Use

2969. a) t/'-{-y Q\ b) y" 2y' -f f/-=0; 3jt 5x f 2x 8 2971. //-= 2970. j/

(C,sm x-}-C 2 cosx).

2973. y
the

Hint.
2

the substitution

//

= */,.
.

2972.

f/

= C,x-f

-fC 2 lnx.

= A + Bx

-{-x\

2974.

= --!- 4 * + ^L
O
AT
/2

Hint. Particular sothe

homogeneous equation r/j.v,

---

By
x3
-\-B

method
2975.

of

the

variation of parameters
-|

we

find:

C ^~-\-A, C z
l
|

= A-\2X

Ccos x-Hn|sec x-f-tan ^I-f-sinx In cos v| xcosx. 2976. f/ C,e -h C 2 sin x. 2977. //^-C,e" 3 * {-C 2 e 3V 2978. // -=C t -|- C 2 e x 2979. */ C, cos x v 2980. //--e' (CicosA'-l-C 2 Sin A-) 2981. y=~ e~** (C t cos 3v-|-C 2 sin 3x) 2982. y
sin x-\
8

H-C'jC

= +

(C^i-Cx)^-*
*

2983. i/-.--e- (C,e r

A
;

+ C^~* rl
6

).

2984.

If

ft

>

0,

f/-

- CV*
2985.

-r

C,e"

if

<
)

0,

j/-=C, cos

J^^fex
i/"TT
J-

-[-

C2

sin

(/=*
x

(C t e

---x 2
-|-C 2 e

/
I

2986. //=.g

C, cos

+ C, sin
//

.//-4tf
2992.
s

+ e lv
c)

2988. f/-=e~*. 2989.

//=-

r/

= sin 2x. 2990.

a)
A;
;

i/=l. 2991.

= a cosh
e)
e

/y-0

2993.

sin
/J

nx
2v
);

2994.
f)

-|-/Jsin2x;

^4cos2v
4- xe

y(A\ -\-B\i-C}

av

sin

(/;

+
e

+ CvV
(2x

xe** (Ax* Bx C); b) fl sin x), d) g* (^ cos x xc* [(Av -j- fiv C) cos 2x+ (>x*-f
2

+ +

4 cos 2* h
x
;<

x \-F)x

X sin

2xJ

2995. [/^(C.-j

C a x)
2
.

ax

+1
/

+ 4x
a x)

-f-

3).

2996. y

= ^ (C

'

ic

^-i-3A
2998.
//

2997.

= (C, -f C

P~ X -[-{-

<>**.

--.

C,c*
-{-

I-

C2

7 'v
t>

+2

2999. y

- C,<?* H- C^"*
2

~ xex

3000. y

= C, cos x-fi/

-I

C 2 sin

--

sin x.

3001. y

= C,e* + C e~ 2X
x
.

2
-p-

(3 sin 2x-|-cos 2.v). 3002.

3003.

!,

== (C 1

3004.
cos 2x 4-

= C,+C e- x + ~x + ^r.(2cos2x
s

sm2x).
1

3005.

(/=

C 2 sin

2x)

x e

sin 2x.

3006.

//

cos 2x -f

-^-

(sin

+ sin 2x).

16*

468

$007.

__
Answers
A
1)

=C

cosco/

+ C 1 sinci)f + -j

-^slnp/;

2)

= Cj cos w/ + C, sin
2

-f.cosorf. 3008.
3010.
$/

y^CfV + CStx**. 3009. ^ = 2X = **(<:! + C x + x 3011. = C + C e + -|x. yA-e = ^ + 4-( 3cos2x + sin2x 3013. y o
1

CD/

2Jf

).

t/

3012.

)-

~
X*~* + |-e*.
3017. y

= (C

= (CjCos3jc + C sln3A;)gx + ~ + C x + *V w + ^4-^. 3018. = C, + C e * ~ (cos* + 3 sin*) 1U o

3016.

*/

_^_*.
xslnx
= C, cos 2x

3019. y

ie(4x + l)-^-^ + j.

3020.

cosx.

3021. y
sin

= C 6" * + C
1
1

IJC

^. (sin
.

2x

+ 2cos2x).
3023.
|/

3022.
ex

*/

+C

2x
-|-

(3 sin 2*

+ 2 cos2x) + -j
2

(5, cos x

2xcosx). 3024.

i/

= C e x H-C e- x + ~ (%
J

x)e*. 3025.

t/^C, cos 3x-

+ X
(2

8;f

j(3x

I)e
IJC
1

3026. t/^

3x)+~(2x

x)e

8X
.

3027. y
3029.

= C, + C c
y
1

2jce*-~ x
1

-x

3028. y

= C e-* + C ^sin

(2x

+ x)^^ +
x
-^<

8030.
Hint.
*

y = Cj cos x + C 2
the

x -f
of

cos x

-j-

sin

-f r^sinSx.
3031. y
l

Transform
2

product

cosines to the

sum

of cosines.

+ C ex +xe*sin x + e* cos x. 3032. = C, cos x + C = tan ~ + --- 3033 + cos;cln cot x x x 3035. 3034. y = (C + C x)ex + xe \n\x\. x t/=^(C + C x)e-~ + xe^ -= 3036. 3037. y = Cj cos x C sin ^ + x sin x + cos x In cos x C, cos x + = C e* + Cf-* + (e* + e~*)x + C sinx *cos* + sinxlnjsin*|. 3038. a) y V 1/t Xarctan^; b) = C,^ +e*'. +Cf-* 3040._EquatIon of motion,
t/

= C e~~ x
l

\Ti

|.

-f-

(/

2# -= -5

sin30/

t/

60

g^sin

900

-~^

|
.
'

sec.
.

3041.

x-

"^7 cm

ff

rec koned

from the position of

rest of the load,

4 k (x g is the distance of l), where x -jjt"=*4 the point of rest of the load from the initial point of suspension of the spring,

then

+ xy

is

the length of

the spring at rest;

therefore, k (*
1
.

/)

= 4,

hence, -i^L*

dt*

k(x

y),

where *-4, ^ = 981 cm/sec

3042.

d*x.

= k(bx)k(b + x)

Answers

469

and x = ccos

) J

3043. 6
ll)t

6~ -gs;=: j/ -In (6+ ^35). 3044.2a)r= In 1^35). 3044. ~=r=gs; y

2
t
)

=
2
is

(e'tf

^
or

e~ wi Hint. The differential equation of motion + e-"*); b) r = (e = o)V. 3045. y = C, + C,e* + C e 12X 3046. y = C, + C <T * + C e*.
2,(H
3
.

C 4 e" x 2 3049. 3048. i/ -= C, C 2 x C,e* 2 C 2 sin x) +e~ x (C 3 cos x -\3050. // c_e* (C, cos x C 4 x) sin 2x 3051 y (C, (C, -j- C 2 x) cos 2x ^ / i/T

-^* C 4 sin x)
I/"Q-

3065. w--_C e" x

1

+C
-

c(;sx-l

c,sinjcH-g
sin

~
\ 4

8 /
|

3066.

//

= Cj

4-

C 2 cos x-\-C 3
/
2
(

-1

sec x
j

+ cos x In
i/-j

cos v

tan x sin x
|

+ x sin x.

3067.

y=-e~

x
-\-e

|/-j

\
)

cos

xH3069.

3068. y -- (C,

-I-

C2

In x)

~
+C

2 / /3 - C,x + -% y
3

p^sin ^r- x

-|-x

2.

3070. y

C, cos (2 In x)

2
.

sin (2 In x).

3071.

j/

= C,JC-hC

x 2 |-C 3 x 3
.

3072.

/=- C,-|-C 2 (3jcH-2)(In x)-f

/3

3073.

r/^Qx-H3
i/
1

3074.
2

f/^Q cos
-

C 2 sin

(In x).
3

3075. 3077.

3079.

= (^+l)MC + C ln(jc-H)] f (x-}-l) = C x + C x +-o * 3076 2 = x(lnx + ln x). 3078. y = C, cos x + C sin x, z = C cos x C sinr x y = e~ (C cosx + C
2
!/
1

f/

3080. y

(C,

Cj

Qx) e

470

Answers

3081. x

=C

L
2
l

f
2

I/-,8

(^C

cos^* + C sin-^

I/"Q~

tj,

3082.

3083. y 3084.
/

3085.

x^CV' = = C + C + 2sinx, z= 2C, 2C x)<r* 6jt+14, y = (C 2C,

1

A;

C 2 (2A:+ 1) 3 sin x 2 cos *. z^Q-fCj,*) e-* + 5x 9;

9
(1

0=14(1
3086. x

e~ x 2x(3 + 4e-*), = 10^~8e ~^ + 6/-l; y=

)

*"*)

8t

%&* + &** +
^2
the

&+ 12/+

f x (5 + 4^10.

b) In

]^x

+ = arc
2
f/

geneous equation

-x

tan

+C
,

Z
|f

Vx +y
2

Hint. Integrating the

In
2

homo-f

we

find

first

integral

]/

jc

= arcxtan
dz

= -; xdx r=
y%
..

+ C,.
/

Then, using the properties

.

of derivative proportions,
,

we have
,

y dy

v=
;

xdx -\-udy
.

....

Whence lnz^=
2

In v (*

9 2

+
,

w -ry

9v 2
) /

+ ln C, and,
,

hence,

2
r

+i/
,

==C 2
..

c)

+ (/-|-z
..
>

0,

A;

+ +z
2
//

properties of derivative proportions, r r

t

whence dx + dy+d*

x dx -\- if dy ~\- z dz n z(x y) 2 C 2 Thus, the integral curves are the circles x + // + z C ,;t 2 -f// 2 -}-z 2 Co 4-z From the initial conditions, Jt=l (/=!, z 2, we will have C l = 0, C 2 = 6.

y(zx)
.

-- Q and,
f

y_ 2 z _ x consequently, x + + z = C
:

we have

-=
dx
J/

6.

Hint.

cf/y

x __y
1
.

dz
1

Applying

the

= dx+dt/-\-dz
x dx
-

Similarly,

3089.

/==

C
1

*2

~^
+
f-

z=
3090. y

2C.A;

+ -| (3 In * + In x2

1).

= C^ V

Solution.

mjj-kv x m~-^kvy
\

mg

for the initial conditions:

when

Answers
0,

471

I/Q

0,
^

Xo

i;

cosa,

UV

i>

sina.
ft

Integrating,
.

we obtain
k
^=-,1,

vx

=
=

*
'"

f
,

kv v
^

+ mg = (kv
a-\

s\na

+ mg)e m
The

/
.

3092. x

= acos

= -~
*

sinTr

Vm

t,

1.

Hint.

differential

mu 2

equations of motion:

3093. [/-

2-2*

x2

3094.

3095.

yl + lx +
,

3096. /t
3097.

^ ^^ 1^ .-.I^++ +
-j

y=(y +
Q

.\ e 2

u~

1)

JfH-~

,'+...

r/

+ *%
x

X2 ^ z
'

+ pr-r + o4 + Z*3
77
r

X3

X4

3098. f/-^x

^~
x
*

...' the series converges

for

"-"

the

serics

conver ^ es for

<x< -j-oo.
3099. //--I

Hint.

Use the method

x
8
-}-

of
'

undetermined
9
-

coefficients.

3100. r/--'
3101. //m

--qi~~ x
v

'

^ ie

series converges for

oo<x<-}-oo.

Hint. Use the

method

of

undetermined coefficients.
the

x'

+ r

^""
of

2ig+ '"'
.}
J
.

SCneS

Conver 6 es
3102.

for
l

'l<2

Hint. Use the

2
_|
t

method
-]-~t
o
!

undetermined coefficients.
3103.

x-

l~oT*

~r-

4
!

~~t o
!

..

M-^cos^sin^.
I I

Hint. Use the condi-

lions:

u(0,

0----0. "

(/.

0- -0,

M (x, 0) -=

sin

3104.

//

JT

-. 2

tt<"/l 2

(1

cos /m) sin

^/

sin

-^/

Hint.

Use

the

conditions:

w(0,

= 0.

"(^.

O-o,
sin

u(x,

3105. u

= -4-

n-\

^~

~y

cos

~T"

sin

~T~

"

Hint

'

^ se

llie

conf^ tlons:

du

~
^~ r
^
}

forO<x<~,

(x,

0)

3106. u

=--t A n cos
n=o

""
sin

n **

^"^

where

the

coefficients

/!=

472

Answers

,*. f

(2

"+ 1)JtJf dx.

to,

Hint. Use the conditions

^-sin .

0=0.
1
-

-o.
nnx
e
j-rrr-

<,.a)*
ioo a

400
7 >u===

_2^

\^

,,
3

(1

cos rui) sin

(0,

Hint. Use the" conditions: u

/)-=0,

u (100,

= 0,

(x, 0)

= 0.01

x(100

x).

Chapter
;

X
;

3108. a) <1"; <0.0023/ mm; <0.26/ gm; <0.0016/ . c) b) 3109. 0.0005; <1.45/ 0.005; <0.16/ c) b) a) <0.05; <0.021/ ; 8 since the number lies between 47,877 3110. a) two decimals; 48-10* or 49- 10 and 48,845; b) two decimals; 15; c) one decimal; 6*10 2 For practice1 -purposes 2 3111. a) 29.5; there is sense in writing the result in the form (5.90.1)- 10 2 1.6- 10 43.2. 3112. a) 84.2; b) 18.5 or 18470.01; c) the result of c) b) subtraction does not have any correct decimals, since the difference is equal with a possible absolute error of one hundredth. to one hundredth 2 Hint. Use the formula for increase in area of a square. 3113*. 1.80.3 cm 2 19.90.1 3115. 3114. 0.30.1. 30.00.2; 43.70.1; c) b) a) 3116. a) 1.12950.0002; b) 0.1200.006; c) the quotient may vary between 48 and 62. Hence, not a single decimal place in the quotient may be considered certain. 3117. 0.480. The last digit may vary by unity. 3118. a) 0.1729; 2 3 s 3120. a) 1.648; b) 4. 025 0.001; b) 277- 10 ; c) 2. 3119. (2.050.01)- 10 cm s cm 2 Absolute error, 65 cm 2 Relative error, c) 9.0060.003. 3121. 4.01- 10 0.2 cm; sina 0.440.01, a-2615' 0.16/ 3122. The side is equal to 13.8 3125. The length of the pendulum 35'. 3123. 270.1. 3124. 0.27 ampere should be measured to within 0.3 cm; take the numbers ;t and q to three decimals (on the principle of equal effects). 3126. Measure the radii and the generatrix with relative error 1/300. Take the number n to three decimal places (on the principle of equal effects). 3127. Measure the quantity / to within and s to within 0.7/ (on the principle of equal effects). 0.2/ 3128.

<1

<

<1

<

Answers
J129.

473

3130.

the

4 Hint. Compute the first live values of y and, after obtaining A {/o^24, repeat number 24 throughout the column of fourth diilerences. After this the

remaining part of the table from right to left).

is

tilled

in

by the operation

of

addition (moving

474
3131. a) 0.211; 0.389; 0.490; 0.660;

Answers
b) 0. 229; 0.399; 0.491; 0.664. 3132.

1822;

x* x*. 3134. y x4 0.1993; 0.2165; 0.2334; 0.2503. 3133. \+x oe QC JC x2 20 for x^5.2. Hint. When computing 8; J/^ 22 fr x 5.5; ^T T2 x2 20 take 11. 3135. The interpolating polynomial is y A; for 10x4- 1; 0=1 when x 0. 3136. 158 kg! (approximately). 3137. a) 0(0.5)-= 1,

+ +

=~

0(2)=11;

b) 0(0.5)

= -,

J/t 2

)^

3138

I-

325

3139.

1.01.

3140. 019. 3143. 0.31 and 4 0.25; 2.11. 3141. 2.09. 3142. 2 45 and 1.86; 3144. 2.506. 3145. 0.02. 3146. 024. 3147. 1 27 3148. 35; 1 53 1.88; 3149. 1.84. 3150. 1.31 and 0.67. 3151. 7.13. 3152. 0.165. 3153. 1.73 and 0. 3154. 1.72. 3155. 138 3156. x 0.56 0.83; 0.83; i/= 056; 1 1997 3160. By the trapezoi3157. *=1.67; 22. 3158. 4 493. 3159. dal formula, 11.625; by Simpson's formula, 11 417. 3161. 995; 1; 0.005; 3164. 0.79. 3163. 069 1.3-10- s A^O.005. 3162. 0.3068; A 0.5/ 3166. 0.28. 3167. 0.10. 3168. 1 61. 3170. 0.09. 3169. 1.85 3165. 0.84. 3171. 0.67. 3172. 0.75. 3173. 0.79. 3174. 4.93. 3175. 1 29. Hint. Make use of the parametric equation of the ellipse x cost, 0-= 0.6222 sin/<:nd trans-

x-

0=1

_JT

foim

the

formula

of the arc length to the

form

}/~l

e 2 cos 2 /-d/,
3

where
x3

is

the eccentricity of the ellipse. 3176. y l (x)

=x

3
,

x7
63
v3

xn o?9
Qy2

y2
xs

(x)

=x +x T ^
o

uo

y3

(x)

T+ o
J X3

x 15
-

3177
z

'

59535-

W=~ T~
3x
'

x2

X
22

'

*T T
yl

3x 2

~
Zl

T+T""*
-2.
3179. 3182. 3186.

+1:
3178.

iW^ - 2
1

W-|
|,

2x 2

+ 3x-2,
=

(*)=-i

= x, (x)
=

f/ 2

=x (x)

3180. 3181. z (1)==2. 72 0.80. 3.72; 0(2) 0(1) 3 15. 0-1.80. 31S3. 3.15. 3184. 0.14. 3185. 0(0.5) -3 15; z (0 5)0.18. 3187. 1.16. 3188.0 87. 3189. x (n) -3.58; 0(0.5)^0.55; z (0 5) 3190. x' (ji) -=0.79. 429+ 1739 cos x 1037 sin x 6321 cos 2x -f- 1263 sin 2x 3191. 96cos x-j-2. 14 sin x 1242cos3x 33sm3x. 1.68 cos 2x 0. 53 sin 2x 1.13 cos 3x 0.04 sin 3x. 3192. 0.960 0.851 cos x 0.915 sin x -|608 sin x [-f-0. 542cos2x 4-0. 620sin2x -[-0.271 cos 3x -|-0. 100 sin 3x. 3193. a) 0.414 cos x 4- 0.1 11 cos 2x |-0.056cos 3x. 4- 0.076 sin 2x4- 0.022 sin 3x; b) 0. 338

0(1)

= 3.36.

^(x)-x~ + ^.

6491
+

APPENDIX

I.

Greek Alphabet

II.

Some Constants

476

Appendix
Inverse Quantities, Powers, Roots, Logarithms

III.

Appendix

477

Continued

478

Appendix
IV.

Trigonometric

Functions

Appendix
V.

479

Exponential, Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions

480

Appendix

VI.

Some Curves

(for

Reference)

-f

1.

Parabola,

2.

Cubic parabola,

3.

Rectangular hyperbola,

-/
4.

1
of a fractional
5.

-/
The witch
of Agnesi,

Graph

function,

6.

Parabola (upper
branch),

7.

Cubic parabola,

Appendix

481

8/7

Semicubical
parabola,

=x

^ *

or

8a.

Neile's p arabola,
2
(

x^t*
_

y-^-c'

or

9.

Sine curve and cosine curve,

--sin

.v

and

//

10.

Tangent curve and cotangent curve, and / cot#.

482

Appendix

11.

Graphs

of the functions
f/

//-=secx and

y=arc

sin x-

y^arc cos

Ji

'

A
*

arc cos

\
>

y arcsinx

Graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions # = arc sin x and y~ arc cos x.

Appendix

483

arc cot

cot

"V \^^ arccot

13.

Graphs

of the

inverse trigonometric functions

//

//=-arc tan x and

= arccot#.

14.

Graphs
f/

= g*

of the exponential

functions

and y

= e~*.

486

Appendix

25.

Bernoulli's lemniscate,

24. Strophoid,

u2 y

s^-M = AT
!

ax

27.

Hypocycloid
i

(astroid),
/,

a cos 3

\ y
or
A

=
2
S

fl

sin 8
2
8

26. Cycloid,

-f/y

=a v

= a(f
a

sin*),

(1

cos

/)

= a(l+coscp).

28. Cardioid,

29.

Evolvent (involute)

of

the circle

sin*)*

{;::

Appendix

487

^30. Spiral of Archimedes,

31.

Hyperbolic spiral, a

32.

Logarithmic
r

= *'?.

spiral,

33.

Three-leafed rose, r a sinSip.

34. Four-leafed rose, r asiti2(p.

INDEX

B
Absolute error 367 Absolute value
of a real

Bending point 84
11

number

Absolutely convergent series 296, 297 Acceleration vector 236 Adams' formula 390 Adams' method 389, 390, 392 Agnesi

Bernoulli's equation 333 Bernoulli's lemniscate Beta-function 146, 150

155,

486

Binormal 238

Boundary conditions 363 Branch of a hyperbola 20, 480 Broken-line method

Euler's 326

Witch

of 18,

156,480

Algebraic functions 48

Angle between two surfaces, 219 Angle of contingence 102, 243 Angle of contingence of second kind 243
Antiderivative 140, 141 generalized 143 Approximate numbers 367 addition of 368 division of 368 multiplication of 368 powers of 368 4 roots of 368 subtraction of 368

Cardioid 20, 105, 486 Catenary 104, 105, 484 Catenoid 168 Cauchy's integral test 295 Cauchy's test 293, 295 Cauchy's theorem 75, 326 Cavalieri's "lemon" 165 Centre of curvature 103 Change of variable 211-217
in a definite integral 146 in a double integral 252-254 in an indefinite integral 113

Approximation
successive 377, 385

Arc length Arc length Archimedes

of a curve of a space

158-161

curve 234

Characteristic equation 356 Characteristic points 96 Chebyshev's conditions 127

spiral of 20, 65, 66, 105, 487 Area in polar coordinates 155, 256 Area in rectangular coordinates 153, 256 Area of a plane region 256 Area of a surface 166-168, 259

Chord method 376

Circle 20,
of of

104

convergence 306 curvature 103

Argument
left
left

11

osculating 103 Circulation of a vector 289 Cissoid 232

of

Astroid 20, 63,

105,

486

Diodes

18,

485

Asymptote 93
horizontal 94 inclined 94 right horizontal 93 right inclined 93
vertical

93

Clairaut's equation 339 Closed interval 11 Coefficients Fourier 318, 393, 394 Comparison test 143, 293, 294 Composite function 12, 49

Index

489
probability 19, 484 sine 481 tangent 481

Concave down 91 Concave up 91

Concavity
direction of 91

Conchoid 232 Condition

Lipschitz

Cusp 230 Cycloid 105, 106, 486

385

Conditions

boundary 363 Chebyshev's 127 Dirichlet 318, 319 initial 323, 363
Conditional extremum 223-225 Conditionally (not absolutely) convergent series 296 Contingence angle of 102, 243 Continuity of functions 36 Continuous function 36 proper lies of 38

D'Alembert's test 295 Decreasing function 83 Definite integral 138 Del 288

Dependent variable
Derivative 43 left-hand 44

11

Convergence
circle of 306

interval of 305 radius of 305

region of 304

uniform 306 Convergent improper 270 Convergent series 293 Coordinates

integral

143,

of centre of gravity 170 generalized polar 255 Correct decimal places in sense 367 Correct decimal places in a narrow sense 367 Cosine curve 481 Cotangent curve 481

logarithmic 55 nth 67 right-hand 44 second 66 Derivative of a function in a given direction 193 Derivative of functions represented parametrically 57 Derivative of an implicit function 57 Derivative of an inverse function 57 Derivative of the second order 66 Derivatives of higher orders 66-69 one-sided 43 table of 47 Descartes folium of 20, 21, 232, 485

broad

Determinant
functional 264

Determining coefficients
first method of 122 second method of 122 Diagonal table 389 Difference of two convergent

Coupling equation 223 Critical point of the second kind 92

points 84 Cubic parabola 17, 105, 234, 480 Curl of a vector field 288
Critical

series

298

Differential of an arc 101, 234 first-order 71

Curvature
centre of 103 circle of 103
of a

curve 102, 242

higher-order 198 principal properties of 72 second 198 second-order 72

total,

radius of 102

integration

of

202-204

second 243

Curve
cosine 481

cotangent 481 discriminant 232, 234 Gaussian 92 integral 322 logarithmic 484

Differential equation 322 homogeneous linear 349 inhomogeneous linear 349 Differential equations
first-order 324 forming 329 higher-order 345

linear 349, 351

490

Index

Differential equations of higher powers

first-order

337

Differentials

343 and higher orders 72 Differentiating a composite function 47 Differentiation 43 of implicit functions 205-208
of of third

method

coupling 223 differential 322 Euler's 357 exact differential 335

first-order

differential

324

homogeneous 330, 351, 356 homogeneous linear differential 332,

349

inhomogeneous 349, 351, 356

Lagrange's 339 Laplace's 289, 291 linear 332 of a normal 60, 218 of a tangent 60 of a tangent plane 218 with variables separable Equivalent functions 33 Error absolute 367 limiting absolute 367 limiting relative 367 relative 367 Euler integral 146 Euler-Poisson integral 272 Euler's broken-line method Euler's equation 357 Even function 13 Evolute of a curve 103 Evolvent of a circle 486 Evolvent of a curve 104 Exact differential equation Exponential functions 49,

tabular 46 Diocles
cissoid of 18, 485

Direction of concavity 91 Direction field 325 Dirichlet conditions 318, 319 function 40 series 295, 296

327,

328

theorem 318 Discontinuity 37 of the first kind 37 infinite 38 removable 37 of the second kind 38 Discontinuous function 270 Discriminant 222 Dicriminant curve 232, 234 Divergence of a vector field 288
Divergent improper integral 143, 270 Divergent series 293, 294

326

Domain Domain
Double
in

11

335
55,

of definition 11

483

integral 246 curvilinear coordinates

253
246

Exkemal point Extremum

84

in polar coordinates 252 in rectangular coordinates

conditional 223-225 of a function 83, 83, 222

Double point 230

Factor

Elimination

method
Energy

of

359

Ellipse 18, 20, 104, 485

kinetic 174

Envelope
equations of 232 of a family of plane curves 232 Epicycloid 283

Equal

effects

principle of 369

Equation
Bernoulli's 333 characteristic 356 Clairaut's 339

integrating 335 Field direction field 325 nonstationary scalar potential vector 289 scalar 288 solenoidal vector 289 Field (cont) stationary scalar or vector 288 Field theory 288-292 First-order differential First-order differential

or vector

288

vector 288

71

equations 324

Flow

lines
of

288 288
Descartes 20, 21, 232, 485

Flux of Folium

a vector field

Index

491

Force lines 288

Form
Lagrange's 311

Formula Adams' 390

Green's 276, 281, 282 Lagrange's 145 Lagrange's interpolation 374 Leibniz 67 Maclaurin's77, 220 Newton-Leibniz 140, 141, 275 Newton's interpolation 372 Ostrogradsky-Gauss 286-288 parabolic 382 Simpson's 382-384 Stokes' 285, 286, 289 Taylor's 77, 220 trapezoidal 382

logarithmic 49 transcendental, integration of 135 trigonometric 48 trigonometric, integrating 128, 129 Fundamental system of solutions 349

Gamma-function

146,

150

Formulas
reduction 130, 135 Fourier- coefficients 318, Fourier series 318, 319 Four -leafed rose 487
Fraction
proper rational 121
393,

Gaussian curve 92 General integral 322 General solution 359 General solution (of an equation) 323 General term 294 Generalized antiderivative 143 Generalized 255 polar coordinates Geometric progression 293, 294 Gradient of a field 288 Gradient of a function 194, 195
394
of a function 12 Greatest value 85, 225, 227 Green's formula 276, 281, Guldin's theorems 171

Graph

282

H
Hamiltonian operator 288

Function 11 composite 12, 49 continuous 36

continuous, properties decreasing 83 Dinchlet 40 discontinuous 270
of

Harmonic
38

even 13
of a

series 294, 296, 297 Higher-order differential 198 Higher-order differential equations 345 Higher-order partial derivative 197 Holograph of a vector 235 Homogeneous equations 330, 351, 356

function 12

Homogeneous
Hyperbola

linear

differential

implicit 12 increasing 83 Lagrange 223, 224

equation 332, 349

17, 18, 20,

485

multiple-valued
periodic 14 single-valued vector 235
11

11

rectangular 480 Hyperbolic functions 49, 484 integration of 133

Functional determinant 264 Functional series 304 Functions algebraic 48 equivalent 33 exponential 49, 55, 483 hyperbolic 49, 484 hyperbolic, integration of 133
inverse
12

Hyperbolic spiral 20, 105, 487 Hyperbolic substitutions 114, 116, 133 Hypocycloid 283, 486
I

Implicit function 12

Improper integral
convergent 270 divergent 270 Improper multiple integrals 269, 270 Incomplete Fourier series 318, 319 Increasing function 83 Increment of an argument 42 Increment of a function 42 Independent variable 11 Indeterminate forms evaluating 78 79
t

Functions (cont)
inverse circular 48 inverse hyperbolic 49 inverse trigonometric 482, 483 linearly dependent 349 linearly independent 349

492
Infinite discontinuities 38 Infinitely large quantities 33 Infinitely small quantities 33 Infinites 33

Index
Interpolation formula Lagrange's 374 Newton's 372 Interval of calculations 382 closed 11
of of

Infinitesimals 33 of higher order 33 of order n 33 of the same order 33 Inflection

convergence 305 monotonicity 83

1 1

Interval (cont)

points of 91

open
table Inverse Inverse Inverse Inverse Inverse

Inhomogeneous equation 349, 351, 356 Inhomogeneous linear differential

equation 349
Initial conditions 323,

interval 372 circular functions 48 functions 12

Integral

363 322 convergent improper 143 definite 138 divergent improper 143 double 246 Euler 146 Euler-Poisson 272 general 322 improper multiple 269, 270 line 273-278 particular 322 probability 144 singular 337 surface 284-286 triple 262 Integral curve 322 Integral sum 138 Integrating factor 335
Integration basic rules of 107 under the differential sign direct 107 by parts 116, 117, 149 path of 273, 274, 280
region of 246-248 by substitution 1 13

hyperbolic functions 49 interpolation 373 trigonometric functions 482,

483
Involute of a circle 20, 106, 486 Involute of a curve 104 Isoclines 325 Isolated point 230 , Iterative method 377, 378, 380

Jacobian 253, 264

Kinetic energy 174

109

Integration

of differential equation of power series 361, 362 Integration of functions

Lagrange's equation 339 Lagrange's form 311 Lagrange's formula 145 Lagrange's function 223, 224 Lagrange's interpolation formula 374 Lagrange's theorem 75 Laplace equation 289, 291 Laplace transformation 271 Laplacian operator 289

by means

Lamina
coordinates of the centre of gravity of a, 261 mass and static moments of a 260 moments of inertia of a 261 Least value 85 Left-hand derivative 44 Left horizontal asymptote 94 Left inclined asymptote 94 Leibniz rule 67, 269 Leibniz test 296, 297

numerical 382, 383 Integration of ordinary equation numerical 384-393

differential

Integration of total differentials 202-

204
Integration of transcendental functions 135

Interpolation of functions 372-374 inverse 373

linear 13, 372

Lemniscate 20, 105, 232 Bernoulli's 155, 486 Level surfaces 288
L'Hospital-Bernoulli
rule

quadratic 372

78-82

Index
of

493
successive

Pascal's 158 Limit of a function 22 Limit on the left 22 Limit on the right 22

Limit of a sequence 22 Limiting absolute error 367 Limiting relative error 367 Limits
one-sided 22

approximation 381, 389 of tangents 377 of undetermined coefficients 121, 351 of variation of parameters 332, 349, 352 Minimum of a function 84, 222
385,

Minimum
Mixed

point 84

partial derivative 197

Moment
of inertia 169 static 168

Line
straight 17, 20 Line integral

Monotonicity
intervals of 83 Multiple-valued function
11

application of 276, 283 of the first type 273, 274, 277, 278 Line integral of the second type 274, 275, 278-281 Linear differential equations 349, 351 Linear equation 332 Linear interpolation 372 of a fa nation 13 Linearly dependent functions 349 Linearly independent functions 349 Lines flow 288
force 288

Multiplicities root 121

N
nth derivative 67

Nnbla 288
Napier's number 28 Natural trihedron 238 Necessary condition for

convergence
an extremum

vector 288 Lipschitz condition 385

293 Necessary condition 222

for

Logarithmic Logarithmic Logarithmic Logarithmic 487

curve 484
derivative 55 functions 49
spiral 20,
21,
105,

Newton
trident of 18

106,

M
Maclaurin's formula 77, 220 Maclaurin's series 31 1, 313 Maximum of a function 84, 222

Newton-Leibniz formula 140, 141, 275 Newton's interpolation formula 372 Newton's method 377, 379 Newton's serpentine 18
Niele's parabola 18, 234, 481

Node 230
Nonstationary scalar or vector Normal 217 to a curve 60 equations of 218 principal 238 Normal plane 238
field

288

Maximum
Mean value

point
of a function 151

Mean-value theorems 75, Mean rate of change 42 Method

150

Number
Napier's 28
real
11

Adams

389, 390, 392

chord method 376 of differentials 343 of elimination 359

Method

(cont)

Euler's broken-line 326 iterative 377, 378, 380 Milne's 386, 387, 390 Newton's 377, 379 Ostrogradsky 123, 125 Picard's 384, 385 reduction 123

series 293 Numerical integration of functions 382, 383 Numerical integration of ordinary

Number

differential

equations 384-393

One-sided derivatives 43 One-sided limits 22

Runge-Kutta 385-387, 390

Open

interval 11

494
Operator

Index
critical 84 stationary 222, 225 Polar subnormal 61 Polar subtangent 61 Potential (of a field) 289 Potential vector field 289

Hamiltonian 288
Laplacian 289 Order of smallness 35 Orthagonal surfaces 219 Orthagonal trajectories 328 Osculating circle 103 Osculating plane 238 Ostrogradsky-Gauss formula 286-288 Ostrogradsky-Gauss theorem 291 Ostrogradsky method 123, 125

Power

series

305

Principal normal 238 Principle of equal effects 369 Runge 383, 386 of superposition of solutions Probability curve 19, 484 Probability integral 144

353

Parabola 17, 20, 104, cubic 17, 105, 234

105,

480, 485

Niele's 18, 234, 481 safety 234 semicubical 18, 20, 234,

481

Parabolic formula 382

Product of two convergent series 298 Progression geometric 293, 294 Proper rational fraction 121 Proportionate parts rule of 376

Parameters
variation of 332, 349, 352 Parametric representation of a function 207
Partial derivative

hirheg-order 197 "mixed" 197 second 197

Partial sum 293 Particular integral 322 Particular solution 339 Pascal's lima^on 158 Path of integration 273, 274, 280

Quadratic interpolation 372 Quadratic trinomial 118, 119, Quantity

infinitely large 33 infinitely small 33

123

Period of a function 14 Periodic function 14 Picard's method 384, 385

Plane normal 238 osculating 238 rectifying 238 tangent 217 Point bending 84
critical
of

the second (of discontinuity 37 double 230 extremal 84

of inflection 91

kind)

92

Radius of convergence 305 Radius of curvature 102, 243 Radius of second curvature 243 Radius of torsion 243 Rate of change of a function 43 mean 42 Ratio (of a geometric progression) 294 Real numbers 11 Rectangular hyperbola 480 Rectifying plane 238 Reduction formulas 130, 135, 150 Reduction method 123 Region of convergence 304 Region of integration 246-248
Relative error 367

isolated 230

84 84 singular 230 stationary 196

of

maximum minimum

Remainder 31 Remainder of a series 293, 304 Remainder term 311 Removable discontinuity 37
1

tangency 217

Points
characteristic 96

Right-hand derivative 44 Right horizontal asymptote 93 Right inclined asymptote 93 Rolle's theorem 75 Root multiplicities 121

Index

495

Rose
four-leafed 487 three-leafed 20, 487 Rotation (of a vector field) 288

Solenoidal vector field 289 Solution (of an equation) 322 general 323, 359 particular 339
Spiral
of

Rule
Leibniz 67, 269 1'Hospital-Bernoulli 78-82 of proportionate parts 376

Archimedes 20, 65, 66,

105,

487

Runge-Kutta

Runge

method 385-387, principle 383, 386

390

Safety parabola 234 Scalar field 288

hyperbolic 20, 105, 487 logarithmic 20, 21, 105, 106, 487 Static moment 168 Stationary point 196, 222, 225 Stationary scalar or vector field 288 Stokes' formula 285, 286, 289 Straight line 17, 20 Strophoid 157, 232, 234, 486

Subnormal

61

Scheme
twelve-ordinate 393-395

polar 61 Substitutions

Second curvature 243 Second derivative 66 Second deferential 198 Second-ordeP differential 72 Second partial derivative 197 Segment of the normal 61 Segment of the polar normal 61 Segment of the polar tangent 61 Segment of a straight line 20 Segment of the tangent 61
Semicircle 20 Semicubical parabola
Series
18, 20, 1M4, -181

hyperbolic 114, 116, 133 trigonometric 114, 115, 133

Subtangent 61
polar 61

Successive

method
222

of

approximation 377, 384, 385, 389

385

Sufficient conditions (for an

extremum)

Sum
integral 138 partial 293 of a series 293, 304
of two convergent series 298 Superposition of solutions principle of 353 Surface integral of the first type 284 Surface integral of the second type 284 Surface integrals 284-286 Surfaces

convergent 296, 297 with complex terms 297 conditionally (not absolutely) convergent 296 convergent 293
absolutely
Scries (cont) Dirichlet 295, 296 divergent 293, 294 Fourier 318, 319 functional 304

level

288

orthogonal 219

harmonic 294, 296, 297 incomplete Fourier 318, 319

Maclaurin's 311, 313 number series 293 operations on 297 power 305 Taylor's 311, 313 Serpentine

Table
diagonal table 389 of standard integrals 107 Table interval 372 Tabular differentiation 46 Tacnode 230

Tangency
point "of 217 Tangent 238 Tangent curve 481 Tangent plane 217 equation of 218 Tangents method of 377 Taylor's formula 77, 220

Newton's 18 Simpson's formula 382-384

Sine curve 481 Single-valued function 11 Singular integral 337 Singular point 230 Slope (of a tangent) 43 Smallest value 225, 227

496
Taylor's series 311, 313

Index

Term
general 294 remainder 311 Test
d' Alembert's 295 Cauchy's 293, 295 Cauchy's integral 295 comparison 143, 293, 294 Leibniz 296, 297

computing volumes by means evaluating a 265

of

268

in rectangular coordinates 262 Trochoid 157 Twelve-ordinate scheme 393-395

U
Undetermined coefficients method of 121, 351 Uniform convergence 306

Weierstrass' 306

Theorem
Cauchy's
75, 326

Dirichlet's 318

Theorem

Value
greatest 85, 225, 227
least

(cont)

Lagrange's 75 Ostrogradsky-Gauss 291 Rolle's 75

85

mean

Theorems
Guldin's 171

(of a function) 151, 252 smallest 225, 227

Variable

mean-value Theory
field

75, 150

dependent 11 independent 11
Variables separable an equation with 327, 328 Variation of parameters 332, 349, 352 Vector acceleration 236 of binomial 238

288-292 Three-leafed rose 20, 487 Torsion 243

Tractrix 161
Trajectories

orthogonal 328 Transcendental functions integration of 135 Transformation Laplace 271 Trapezoidal formula 382 Trident of Newton 18 Trigonometric functions 48 integrating 128, 129 Trigonometric substitutions 114, 115, 133 Trihedron natural 238 Trinomial quadratic 118, 119, 123 Triple integral 262 applications of 265, 268 change of variables in 263

normal 238 tangent line 238 velocity 236 Vector field 288 Vector function 235 Vector lines 288 Velocity vector 236 Vertex of a curve 104 Vertical asymptote 93 Vertices of a curve 104
of principal of

Volume Volume

of a cylindroid 258 of solids 161-166

W
Weierstrass test 306 Witch of Agnesi 18, 156, 480
1

Work

of a force

174, 276,

277