T.Y. E.I. /2 / 1 MEMORIES N.Kapoor All the digital computers require memories.

A memory stores both the data relevant to the problem and the instructions necessary for its solutions. In addition, the memory stores the information. A single memory cell can hold or store a binary 1 or 0 ( single bit). A group of memory cells are then used to store a group of bits called a world (a group of 8 bits is a byte ) Memory size is described by either the total number of bits or the total number of bytes Classification Of Memory MEMORIES R.A.M. (PRIME MEMORIES) ROM Masked ROM PROM EPROM UV-EPROM EAROM RAM R / W Memories * RAM are volatile data is lost once power is turned off. * These type of memories allows data to be read or stored and hence they are also known as read / write memories. * RAM memory can be built as either static or dynamic. (a) Static Memory A static RAM memory is essentially an array of flip flops one per bit. Data written into a flip flop remain stored as long as dc power is maintained. VDD Din WE Q3 X Q1 Q2 CE DOUT Fig. shows a static RAM with input signals ADDRESS, WE, CE. The address bits select the memory location, control signals WE and CE select a write read or do nothing operation. WE is known as write- enable signal and CE as chip enable signal. The control inputs are active low. The operations of static RAM are summarised as CE WE Operation Output 0 0 Write Floating 0 1 Read Connected 1 X Hold Floating SRAMs are used for specific applications within the PC, where their strengths outweigh their weaknesses compared to DRAM: *Simplicity: SRAMs don't require external refresh circuitry or other work in order for them to keep their data intact. *Speed: SRAM is faster than DRAM. Q4 RAM X ADDRESS RAM Static Dynamic Non volatile i RAM S.A.M. (STORAGE MEMORIES) Magnetic core eg. Cassette tape, magnetic tape floppy disc,hard disc

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In contrast, SRAMs have the following weaknesses, compared to DRAMs: *Cost: SRAM is, byte for byte, several times more expensive than DRAM. *Size: SRAMs take up much more space than DRAMs (which is part of why the cost is higher). These advantages and disadvantages taken together obviously show that performance-wise, SRAM is superior to DRAM, and we would use it exclusively if only we could do so economically. Unfortunately, 32 MB of SRAM would be prohibitively large and costly, which is why DRAM is used for system memory. SRAMs are used instead for level 1 cache and level 2 cache memory, for which it is perfectly suited; cache memory needs to be very fast, and not very large. (b) Dynamic Dynamic memory is made up of MOS transistor & a single capacitor. Sense line Data are stored as charge on a very small capacitor which must be recharged or Storage refreshed (2 mSec) or else the stored capacitor charge will not be retained. Due to single transistor they can be densely packed control line (highest density for RAMS) All PCs use DRAM for their main system memory, instead of SRAM, even though DRAMs are slower than SRAMs and require the overhead of the refresh circuitry. It may seem weird to want to make the computer's memory out of something that can only hold a value for a fraction of a second. In fact, DRAMs are both more complicated and slower than SRAMs. The reason that DRAMs are used is simple: they are much cheaper and take up much less space, typically 1/4 the silicon area of SRAMs or less. To build a 64 MB core memory from SRAMs would be very expensive. The overhead of the refresh circuit is tolerated in order to allow the use of large amounts of inexpensive, compact memory. The refresh circuitry itself is almost never a problem; many years of using DRAM has caused the design of these circuits to be all but perfected. (c) Non - Volatile RAM Static RAM + EEPROM

Data is shifted from RAM EEPROM when power is off , by a single STORE EEPROM RAM by RECALL (4mSec) (d) i RAM It has design simplicity of static RAM & high capacity & other advantages of a dynamic RAM. No refreshing circuitry. ROM Read only memory This is read-only memory, memory that can only be read, but cannot be written to * It is random access memory. * Computer can only read these memories and cannot write into this memory. * It holds information that remains stored permanently i.e. It is a non volatile memory. ROM is used in situations where the data must be held permanently. It is used to store information which is fixed such as tables for various functions, fixed data and instructions . This means the data is hard-wired into the ROM chip. You can store the chip forever and the data will always be there. Besides, the data is very secure. The BIOS is stored on ROM because the user cannot disrupt the information. Two major semiconductor technologies used for the manufacturing of ROM integrated circuit are (1) bipolar & (2) M O S technology . The process of entering information into a ROM is referred to as programming the ROM. Depending on the programming process employed the ROMs are categorised as (1) Mask programmable ROM They are referred as ROMs. In these memories, the data pattern must be programmed as part of the fabrication process. Once programmed, the data pattern can never be changed. Due to the very high initial cost and inability to make revisions, the mask ROM is rarely, if ever, used in new designs.

T.Y. E.I. /2 / 1 MEMORIES N.Kapoor 3 (2) PROM i.e Programmable read only memories A PROM is electrically programmable i.e the data pattern is defined after final packaging. The programming is done with a device called PROM programmers. This memory has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix . The wires can be functionally viewed as diodes or fuses. PROM is programmed selectively burning the fuses according to the bit pattern required to store. This process is known as burning the process. Once programmed the information stored is permanent.

R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7

(3) EPROM ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORIES In these memories data can be written any number of times i.e. they are programmable. The data is stored in the EPROM even if power is turned off. For erasing the contents of the memory following methods are employed (a) UV - EPROM *Exposing the chip to ultraviolet radiation for about 30 minutes, ( =2537AO & intensity 60 mW / cm2 )wipes the data out, allowing it to be rewritten. *Not suitable for in-circuit programming & erasing. *All the locations in the chip are erased at a time. Used for applications where alteration of the program is less frequent. (b) E2 PROM or EAROM This ROM can be rewritten through the use of a special software program. * Erasing electrically by applying voltage of proper polarity & amplitude. * Single byte or all locations can be erased ( 10 msec ) * In-ciruit programming is possible Used where programes are frequently changed. Also called flash BIOS. Flash BIOS operates this way, allowing users to upgrade their BIOS. Reprogrammable ROMs are possible only in MOS technology. Flash memory The flash memory chip is a close relative to the EEPROM; it differs in that it can only be erased one block or "page" at a time. It is a solid-state chip that maintains stored data without any external power source.[1] Capacity is substantially larger than that of an EEPROM, making these chips a popular choice for digital cameras and desktop PC BIOS chips. Flash memory devices use two different logical technologiesNOR and NANDto map data. NOR flash provides high-speed random access, reading and writing data in specific memory locations; it can retrieve as little as a single byte. NAND flash reads and writes sequentially at high speed, handling data in small blocks called pages, however its slower on read when compared to NOR.

T.Y. E.I. /2 / 1 MEMORIES N.Kapoor 4 NAND flash reads faster than it writes, quickly transferring whole pages of data. Less expensive than NOR flash at high densities, NAND technology offers higher capacity for the same-size silicon. Charge-Coupled Device CCDs were invented in the late 1960's by research scientists at Bell Laboratories, who initially conceived the idea as a new type of memory circuit for computers. Later studies indicated that the device, because of its ability to transfer charge and the photoelectric interaction with light, would also be useful for other applications such as signal processing and imaging. A Charge-Coupled Device, or CCD, is basically an array of closely-spaced metal-oxidesemiconductor (MOS) diodes that can store and transfer information using packets of electric charge, or charge packets. Applying the proper sequence of voltage pulses (clock signals) to a CCD biases the array of MOS diodes into the deep depletion region where the charge packets may be moved in a controlled manner across the semiconductor substrate. Some people also refer to a CCD's MOS diodes as 'MOS capacitors. Thus it is an arry of MOS capacitors operating as a dynamic shift register. The semiconductor substrate of a CCD may be n or p-type. Over this semiconductor substrate, silicon dioxide is grown as a dielectric or insulating layer. An array of very closely-spaced metal electrodes is then formed over this dielectric layer. This is why the CCD is considered a MOS device, i.e., its top to bottom layers are metal, oxide, and semiconductor.

In an p-type CCD, grounding the substrate and applying a positive voltage +V1 to all the closely-spaced metal electrodes will create a depletion region in the substrate right beneath the oxide layer. This depletion region is devoid of majority carriers (holes), since these have been repelled by the positive voltage applied at the electrodes. On the other hand, some of the minority carriers (electrons) present in the substrate will be attracted towards this depletion region. V1 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t1 t2 1 V1 0 1 V2 0 1 V3 0 1 V4 0 V 2 V 3 V4 V 5 V1

T.Y. E.I. /2 / 1 MEMORIES 5 N.Kapoor Applying a significantly more positive voltage +V2 at one of the electrodes while maintaining the other electrodes at +V1 will cause the depletion region beneath the more positive electrode (let's call it 'Ek') to extend more deeply (see Fig. 1). This deeper depletion region beneath Ek creates a 'potential well' that extends from the edge of the electrode to its left to the edge of the electrode to its right. This 'potential well' is the only region within the depletion region wherein a positive charge may move about. Thus, placing a positive charge into this potential well traps it there, since it can not move outside the well. This, in essence, is how a CCD stores a charge, and how it can be used as a memory device. Operation The 4 clock wave forms V1, V2, V3 & V4 used to drive the cicuit.An array of four adjacent electrodes driven by the 4-phase clock constitutes a single dynamic Flip-Flop. The FF is Master-Slave to asure that the data moves only in one direction. The whole device is a long array of MOS devices in which all V1 are connected together. Similarly all V2, V3 & V4 are connected together. During the interval-- t1 only V1 is +ve , so the depletion regions are formed under V1.The charge under the V1 is either injected from outside source or from the preciding V4 gate. t2 - depletion regions under V1 persist while new depletion regions are formed under V3 since clock V3 becomes +ve. t3 - clock V2 also becomes +ve depletion regions extends from V1 to V3 gate, so the charge spreads throughout. t4 - clock V1 becomes 0 eliminating the depletion regions under the V1 gates. t5 - clock V2 also becomes 0 eliminating the depletion regions under the V2 gates. Thus the charge originally under the V1 gates is shifted to regions under the V3 gates. Similarlly in the succeding intervals t6 through t8 & finally back to t1 charge under V3 will be moved to the region under next V1 gate. Hence after eight intervals charge (logic 1) (or no charge (logic 0)) under V1 will be shifted to the region under next V1 gate. Some arrangement has to be done to inject charge into the first depletion region & to detect the presence or absence of charge at the last depletion region. And it should be done in synchronism with the clock. Although the CCD was invented as a memory device, its extreme sensitivity to light soon made it a popular choice as an image sensor. In an image-sensing CCD chip, each MOS diode or 'capacitor' represents one pixel. The charge packets are generated when light excites electrons in the valence band into the conduction band. The light-generated charge packets that carry the image information are stored and transferred from one potential well to another until they are eventually shifted out of an output register. Most video cameras today use a CCD for its image sensing requirements.