The Pricing of Earnings and Cash Flows and an Affirmation of Accrual Accounting

Stephen H. Penman* and Nir Yehuda Columbia University Graduate School of Business 612 Uris Hall 3022 Broadway New York, NY 10027

October, 2004

*Corresponding author: [email protected]. We are thankful for the comments of participants in workshops at Indiana University, University of Wisconsin (Madison), Duke University, Stanford University, Washington University St. Louis, University of Technology Sydney, University of British Columbia, INSEAD, George Washington University, the EIASM Workshop on Capital Markets Research (2003) at Goethe University in Frankfurt, and also Bjorn Jorgensen and Doron Nissim.

The Pricing of Earnings and Cash Flows and an Affirmation of Accrual Accounting
Abstract Under the rules of accrual accounting, free cash flow from operations reduces the book value of operations but does not affect the book value of shareholders equity. Earnings from operations, on the other hand, increase both the book value of operations and shareholders equity. In effect, accrual accounting rules prescribe that earnings add to shareholder value but free cash flow is irrelevant to the valuation of equity. This paper documents that the stock market prices equity shares according to this prescription, and thus provides a validation of accrual accounting. While earnings from operations are priced positively in the market, free cash flow is priced negatively; indeed, a dollar more of free cash flow is associated with approximately a dollar less in the market value of the firm. Controlling for the cash investment component of free cash flow, cash flow from operations also reduces the market value of the firm dollar-for-dollar. Further, annual equity returns are unrelated to the free cash flow that firms generate.

The Pricing of Earnings and Cash Flows and an Affirmation of Accrual Accounting

This paper assesses how earnings and cash flows are jointly priced in the stock market. Using financial statements prepared under U.S. GAAP, it finds that operating income is priced positively, on average. However, given operating income, net cash flow from operations free cash flow -- is priced negatively: Estimates show that a dollar more of free cash flow is, on average, associated with a dollar less in the market value of the firm. Further, annual equity returns are unrelated to the cash that firms generate. Since accruals are the difference between earnings and cash flows, these results pertain to the pricing of accruals. The distinction between earnings and cash flow is at the heart of accrual accounting. Accrual accounting takes exception to cash accounting for business reporting, applying accounting principles that effectively reassign cash flows to accounting periods. Those principles prescribe that (accrual) earnings increase both the value of the firm (the operations) and the value of equity, cash flows do not affect the value of equity, and cash flows reduce the value of the firm (as we show). The paper documents that the stock market prices GAAP earnings and cash flows according to this prescription. It thus provides a validation of accrual accounting for the firm and its equity investors. The result with respect to earnings is, of course, not new. Indeed, the finding of a positive correlation between earnings changes and stock returns in the seminal Ball and Brown (1968) paper has been replicated many times. The result with respect to cash flows may be surprising, for one typically thinks of cash flow as a good, and previous papers document a positive relationship between cash flows and stock returns. Indeed,

commentators who advance the idea that Cash is King (in valuation) view accruals less favorably than cash flows. Accrual accounting, on the other hand, accounts for cash flow, not as an addition to value, but as a payout from operations that reduces the value of operations; free cash flow is treated essentially as dividends. This accounting accords with the Miller and Modigliani notion of dividend displacement and the complementary notion of dividend irrelevance. Just as dividends, the distribution of cash to shareholders, reduce equity but do not affect the cum-dividend value of equity, free cash flow, the corresponding distribution from the operations (to all claimants), reduces the value of the operations but does not affect the cum-dividend value of operations. Nor does free cash flow affect equity claims on the value of the operations. The analogy to dividends is clear in the case of a pure equity firm (with no net debt), for then the value of operations is the same as the value of equity and free cash flow equals net payout to shareholders. Our empirical results show that free cash flows are, on average, priced in the market as if they reduce the value of operations and are irrelevant to the valuation of equity. Further, controlling for the cash investment component of free cash flow (as measured by GAAP), cash flow from operating activities reduces the value of operations dollar for dollar. The issue of whether cash flows or earnings should be the primary fundamental in equity valuation is an important one for the equity analyst. While accrual accounting carries the strong presumption that earnings are primary, some opinion, strengthened by the recent abuses of accrual accounting, points to cash flow as the fundamental on which the investor should focus. Indeed, recent research on cash flows and accruals, initiated by Sloan (1996), raises questions about the quality of accruals. This paper provides a corrective perspective. We show that, on average, the market prices GAAP accounting

numbers as if accruals are relevant for valuation and cash flows are not. This on-average result in no way abrogates the findings that accrual accounting may be deficient and cash flows relevant in particular contexts (in the case of extreme accruals investigated by Sloan, for example). Indeed, the specifications we develop to address the issue can be applied to examine questions about the quality of (accrual) earnings under alternative conditions. 1. Specification of Return Regressions Involving Earnings and Cash Flows The difference between the results here and those in previous research revolves around the issue of specification. This section develops a regression specification quite methodically so the differences are well understood. Most of the prior research, while usually involving estimates of regression equations, reports correlations rather than tests of specified models. DeChow (1994) compares R2 values from regressions estimated with earnings and cash flows alternatively specified as the regressors. As such, it is a correlation exercise. Rayburn (1986), Bowen, Burgstahler, and Daley (1987), Clubb (1995), and Francis, Schipper, and Vincent (2003) examine the incremental information content of earnings and cash flows (with varying results), a conditional correlation exercise. While broadly affirming the question of information content of particular accounting line items, these correlations have not served to validate the application of accrual rather than cash accounting that is at the heart of financial reporting. Holthausen and Watts (2001) make similar observations with respect to capital markets research and normative accounting issues more broadly. The econometrician recognizes that the understanding of phenomena is advanced, first by specification (of a regression model), and then by submitting the specification to

empirical testing. Correlations are then interpreted as supporting or dismissing the particular structure laid out in the specification, and the dangers of misspecification are avoided. Jennings (1990) addresses some specification issues in earnings and cash flow regressions, and Barth, Beaver, Hand, and Landsman (1999) refer to valuation models to develop regression equations involving earnings and cash flows. But none of these papers works from a specification that mirrors how earnings and cash flows are reported under accrual accounting principles. Accordingly, the research has not addressed the normative issue of cash flow irrelevance presumed by the accrual accounting system. To the contrary, these papers document positive (rather than zero) correlations between stock returns and cash flows. 1.1 Specification in Capital Markets Research The point -- that specification must reflect the accounting that governs the numbers -- can be illustrated by asking how the cost of goods sold (CGS) number is priced in the market: Is it a reduction of the value of shareholders equity as the accounting prescribes? To answer this question, one might naively run the following cross-sectional regression using a levels specification:

Pit = a + bCGS it + eit ,

where Pit is the market value of the shares of firm i at date t. Or, using a changes specification with stocks returns as the regressand:

Pit + d it Pit 1 = + CGSit + it .

The changes versus levels specification question aside, an accountant might well object: Cost of goods sold is an expense (loss of shareholder value), yet the estimated slope coefficients from these equations are probably positive. Indeed, using data from 1963 to

2001 described in Section 2, the estimate of b is 1.12 (with a t-statistic of 13.52 calculated from mean estimates from annual cross-sectional regressions) and the estimate of , after deflating each variable by beginning-of-period price, Pit-1, is 0.23 (with a tstatistic of 8.62). As a matter of statistical correlation, the estimates are appropriate, but they do not inform. Cost of goods sold is part of the calculation of earnings; by accounting principle, it is involved jointly with the sales with which it is matched to determine gross margin, so cost of goods sold cannot be considered without the matching sales. Specifying regressions under this dictate,

Pit = a + b1 Salesit + b2 CGSit + eit Pit + d it Pit 1 = + 1Sales it + 2 CGS it + it

Using our data, the estimate of b2 is reliably negative (-3.94 with a t-statistic of 17.74), as is the estimate of 2 (-0.74 with a t-statistic of 9.48); the estimates of b1 and 1 are reliably positive, at 3.66 and 0.82 respectively. The corrected specifications follow the form of an accounting relation, the income statement equation: Revenues minus expenses equal earnings. Ohlson and Penman (1992) invoke this relation to examine the pricing of depreciation, taxes, and operating expenses, as well as cost of goods sold. Aboody, Barth and Kaznik (2004) embed income statement relations in a regression model to examine whether the stock market prices grants of an employee stock options as an expense. Barth (1994), among others, employs the balance sheet equation in specifying regressions involving assets and liabilities. Income statement and balance sheet equations are only two of several accounting relations that govern accrual accounting, but the point is clear: A regression specification

involving accounting numbers should be determined by the structure that delivers the numbers, for that structure prescribes how they are to be interpreted. A further issue arises in interpreting estimated coefficients in regression equations like those above: Coefficients on included variables are affected by correlation with omitted information (in the regression disturbance). This requires an understanding of what defines omitted information when one in dealing with accounting numbers, and how accounting information correlates with that information. We now lay out the accounting relations that are pertinent to the specification of a regression model that relates earnings and cash flows to stock returns but which accommodates thee considerations. 1.2. Accounting Relations that Govern the Accrual Accounting Model The accrual accounting system, at least nominally, tracks the evolution of shareholders equity over discrete periods; in each period a set of accounting operations calculates a number, earnings, which, in the culmination of the process (in the final closing entry), updates shareholders equity. The presentation that follows shows how cash flows and accruals affect the calculation of shareholders equity. It states accounting principles that a student would encounter in a beginning accounting course, expressed as a set of governing accounting relations which, in turn, govern the specification of regression equations. These equations describe only the form of accrual accounting; missing, for the moment, is any prescription as to how accruals are measured. We are concerned with the pricing of common shareholders equity (as is most capital markets research), so adopt a strict shareholder (proprietorship) perspective. Further, we distinguish the firm (the operations) from the claims on the firm, a basic

distinction in corporate finance and one that is made with asset, debt and equity distinctions in financial reporting. Cash Flow Relations Net cash from operations is often referred to as free cash flow, usually defined as cash flow from operations (C) remaining after cash investment (I): Free cash flow = C I. Free cash flow is returned to claimants (who provide the initial cash to conduct operations) according to the cash conservation equation: Free Cash Flow = d + F (1)

Because the analysis focuses on the pricing of common shares, the payment of operating cash flows to common shareholders, d, is distinguished from payments to all other claimants (such as bondholders and preferred stock holders), F. Dividends, d, are net cash distributions to shareholders (dividends plus stock repurchases less stock issues). Negative operating cash flows require cash to be contributed by claimants. Accounting is done for discrete periods, so this equation, as with those that follow, applies to a given firm for a given accounting period (with subscripts understood). While it is common to define free cash flow as cash from operations (C) minus cash investment (I), the distinction between the two is an accrual accounting issue, involving the allocation of expenses to periods that does not bear on net cash generated. Under GAAP, for example, the classification of an expenditure as cash from operations or cash investment follows accrual rules for recognizing the expenditure as an expense of the current period or an asset to be expensed in future periods. So, while investment in plant (placed on the balance sheet) is classified as a cash investment, plant maintenance expenses (expensed in the income statement) are treated as cash from operations and,

indeed, investment in research and development is classified as cash from operations because it is expensed. Investment in plant is treated as cash investment, but investment in inventories is classified as cash from operations. Accordingly, cash flow from operating activities (C) as reported under GAAP is an accrual accounting concept. To clearly delineate cash and accrual accounting, our reference will be to the net cash from operations, that is, free cash flow. Restated to focus on the flows to common shareholders, the cash flow to shareholders is the residual cash flow after payments to other claimants: (C I) F = d Accrual Accounting Relations Equation (1a) provides the form of the income statement (from a shareholders perspective) under pure cash accounting. Under accrual accounting, the statement is presented as a cash flow statement.1Accrual accounting adjusts the cash flows on the left hand side of (1a) to yield earnings, with the adjustments booked to the balance sheet. To arrive at the earnings number, accrual accounting differentiates operating income (OI) from free cash flow (C I) and net interest expense from total cash payments to other claimants (F). The following display summarizes the set of accounting relations that governs the adjustments; the text elaborates. (1a)

____________________________________________________________________ Accrual Adjustments to Cash Flows to Calculate Earnings to Common Shareholders ____________________________________________________________________ The Income Statement Adjustments
Cash Flow to Accrual Income

Shareholders
C-I -F + +

Adjustments
I + operating accruals D - financing accruals = =

Statement___________
OI -NFE

Earnings d ___________________________________________ ______________________________

Balance Sheet Adjustments

Net Operating Assets
NOA = I + operating accruals

Net Financial Obligations and Equity

NFO = D + financing accruals B = NOA NFO __________________________________________________________________________

Operating income is determined by the following accounting principle: OI = (C I) + I + operating accruals (2)

That is, cash flows deemed to be investments are added back to free cash flow and, in addition, amounts that do not involve cash, the accruals, are recognized. The adjustments to free cash flow are added to net operating assets in the balance sheet, so that the change in net operating assets (NOA) in a period are determined by NOA = I + operating accruals (3)

So, whereas a cash income statement treats all cash expenditures in operations as a reduction of shareholders interest in the operations, accrual accounting treats payments for items deemed to be assets (like property, plant, and equipment), as affecting the balance sheet rather than the flow to shareholders. In addition, accruals (sales on credit,

for example) add to earnings and also add to the balance sheet (accounts receivable). Operating items on the balance sheet are net operating assets (operating assets minus operating liabilities) because some operating accruals (like unpaid wages) yield operating liabilities (wages payable and pension liabilities). The simultaneous determination of operating income, by (2), and the updating of the balance sheet, by (3), forces the debits and credits of journal entries. While equation (3) distinguishes between cash investment and operating accrual components of NOA, the classification of cash investment is really an accrual that allocates cash flows to periods, as noted earlier. Accordingly total accruals are NOA, comprised of cash outflows capitalized plus other non-cash flows recorded to the balance sheet. Accrual accounting also adjusts the flows to other claimants, F in (1a), to yield net financial expense (NFE): NFE = F D + financing accruals D is payments of principal (amount borrowed), net of receipts of principal. 2 This adjustment distinguishes receipts and payments of principal from cash receipts and payments for the cost of using the principal, and in addition accrues interest (under the effective interest method, for example) and gains or losses on marking financing items to market. The adjustments, as for operations, are booked to the balance sheet as net financial obligations (NFO):3 NFO = -D + financing accruals Combining the accrual accounting for operations and financing activities, Earnings (available to common) = OI - NFE (6) (5) (4)

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Tracking Shareholders Equity The balance sheet reports the common shareholders equity (B, for book value) as the residual claim on the net operating assets: B = NOA NFO Thus the updating of the shareholders equity obeys the relation, B = NOA - NFO. (8) (7)

The change in NOA can be stated in terms of accrual and cash flow components. As I + operating accruals = OI (C I), by (2), the change in net operating assets in (3) can be restated as NOA = OI (C I). Similarly, the change in net financial obligations in (5) can be restated as NFO = NFE F. But F = (C I) - d, by the cash conservation equation (1), so NFO = NFE (C I) + d. (10) (9)

By taking the difference between (9) and (10), the change in shareholders equity is accounted for: B = OI (C I) NFE + (C I) d = OI NFE d = Earnings d. (11)

Equation (11) is, of course, the clean-surplus equation for updating shareholders equity, forced by the balance sheet equation (7) and the accounting for net operating assets and net financial obligations in (3) and (5). In the U.S., GAAP permits earnings to be divided between net income in the income statement and other comprehensive income

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in the equity statement, but the accounting system effectively reports one comprehensive income number, reporting classifications aside.4 The Relevance of Cash Flow and Accruals for Tracking Shareholders Equity As fixed relations that must be honored in keeping the books, the accounting relations in equations (1) (11) are normative prescriptions. They imbed presumptions about the relevance of earnings and free cash flow for determining equity value. By equation (9), operating income increases net operating assets, but free cash flow reduces net operating assets; indeed free cash flow reduces net operating assets dollar for dollar. By equation (10), free cash flow also reduces net financial obligations; indeed free cash flow, net of dividends, reduces net indebtedness dollar for dollar. But, as shown in taking the difference between NOA and NFO in (11), free cash flow does not affect the calculation of shareholders equity. Accrual accounting deems free cash flow to be irrelevant to equity value. The irrelevance of cash flows is an extension of the notion of the irrelevance of dividends. The clean surplus relation in (11) rules that earnings are not affected by dividends, while the book value of equity is reduced by dividends, dollar for dollar. That is, dividends are the distribution of value, not part of the generation of value. Ohlson (1995) articulates how this accounting is in accordance with the dividend-irrelevance concept and complementary dividend displacement concept of Miller and Modigliani (1961): Dividends do not affect cum-dividend value but do reduce the value of shares, dollar for dollar. Penman and Sougiannis (1997) confirm empirically that the accounting for earnings and book values does exhibit the dividend irrelevance and displacement properties. The presentation above shows that free cash flows are really dividends from

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the operating activities. In equations (9) and (10), free cash flow is of a distribution of cash from the operating activities to the financing activities, used to pay net debtholders or to pay dividends to shareholders. (For a pure equity firm with no debt, free cash indeed equals dividends to shareholders.) This dividend from the operating activities reduces the book value (of net operating assets), dollar for dollar, but does not affect the cumdividend (cum-free cash flow) book value of the operations. And, in the derivation of equation (11), free cash flow is irrelevant for the value of the equity. These prescriptions are at the heart of accrual accounting; they articulate the exception which accrual accounting takes to cash accounting. They are, therefore, worthy of validation against the actual pricing of equity in the stock market. We ask whether stock returns are unrelated to free cash flows, and whether free cash flows do indeed reduce the value of operations dollar for dollar. We proceed now to build the regression specification to answer these questions. But first, recognize three points. First, it is understood that total operating income and free cash flows converge as the period over which they are measured increases; accruals only affect timing. Charitou and Clubb (1999) examine earnings and cash flows over long return windows. Our concern is with periodic (annual) reporting and the contemporaneous pricing of shares over annual periods. Second, as an empirical matter, free cash flows may be correlated with stock returns because they are correlated with other information that is. To this point, the information content of dividends hypothesis posits an informational role for dividends even though dividends, in the Miller and Modigliani sense, are irrelevant. The same point applies to free cash flows.

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Third, the equations that govern the accounting model pertain to structure; as purely a matter of algebra, they say nothing about how the accruals and thus earnings and book values -- are measured. That is a matter of principles of measurement (of historical cost accounting or fair value accounting as a broad measurement issue, for example, or the estimation of allowances for bad debts as a specific issue). Indeed, one can conjecture financial reports where the quality of the accrual measurement is so poor as to make earnings meaningless and cash flow the only quality information. With respect to the third point, we now develop a regression model that connects the pricing of equity in the market to the contemporaneous accounting for equity value, but in such a way that incorporates measurement. With respect to the second point, we show how the measurement of earnings not only determines the pricing of those earnings, but also determines whether dividends or cash flows provide additional information content. 1.3 Specification of Contemporaneous Return Regression Models Involving Earnings and Cash Flows Book value of equity is the final calculation in the accounting system, by (11), so is the natural starting point for the modeling. Indeed, if accounting measurement were such as to produce a book value number equal to market value, the analysis would stop there, and neither earnings and cash flows would add information. We begin the development with the admission that, due to accounting measurement, book value can differ from the (market) value of equity. This admits an informational role for earnings and/or cash flows. Introducing the time and firm subscripts that were understood above, the market value of equity can be represented by the book value plus a premium: Pit = Bit + (Pit - Bit),

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and Pit Pit-1 = Bit + (Pit Bit) (Pit-1 Bit-1) This expression describes the updating of book value, Bit, as occurring contemporaneously with the change in the share price, so incorporates the ultimate step in the periodic accounting process in equation (11). By (11), the expression is expanded to: Pit Pit-1 = Earningsit dit + (Pit Bit) (Pit-1 Bit-1). (12)

This tautology states that the change in market value is always equal to earnings, net of dividends, plus the change in the market premium over book value, as recognized in Easton, Harris and Ohlson (1992), for example. If there is no change in premium, then the change in market price plus dividend (that is, the stock return) must equal earnings: Earnings is sufficient for explaining returns. Further, any information or other factor that induces a change in price but is not captured in earnings must yield a change in the premium. Accounting is presumably designed for general applications in the cross section. Dividing through by equity price at the beginning of the period yields an expression that is the basis for a cross-sectional regression with ex-dividend stock rates of return as the dependant variable:

Pit Pit 1 Earningsit d B P Bit = it + it 1 + it 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1

The following regression specifies coefficients (multipliers on the accounting numbers) such that the disturbance, it, is white noise:

Pit Pit 1 Earningsit d B = a + b1 + b2 it + b3 it 1 + it , Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1

(13)

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The premium at the end of the period,

Pit Bit , is in the disturbance and the intercept. Pit 1

This regression model has the following features that bear on the interpretation on the empirical results: First, the division by Pit-1 initializes all variables on the market price at the beginning of the period, so all time t variables pertain to the updating of that valuation, and are assessed relative to the forecasts of those variables contained in the beginning-ofperiod price (see Ohlson and Shroff 1992). Second, the specification recognizes earnings as the primary accounting variable that explains price changes, for earnings update equity, by equation (11). (This point has been emphasized in the discussion of levels versus changes specifications, in Easton and Harris 1991 for example.) Further, cash flow is excluded from the specification, for cash flow does not affect owners equity under accrual accounting. Third, the tautology (12) that is the starting point for returns modeling here contrasts with the Campbell (1991) tautology: Stock returns are composed of cash flow news, expected returns, and changes in expected returns. The variable,

Earningsit is the Pit 1

accrual accounting rendition of cash flow news. However, both included variables and the disturbance can incorporate expected returns as well as information about cash-flow payoffs and changes in expected returns. If particular, the earnings yield variable,

Earningsit may reflect risk and thus the required return, as well as news about payoffs. Pit 1
Further, cash flow could serve this role if it were to be added to the regression. While many papers in capital market research specify risk-adjusted returns, the specification

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here recognizes that risk can be built into accounting measurement and thus the specification calls for raw returns (unadjusted for risk).5 Fourth, the formulation provides a characterization of omitted information and how included information is correlated with that omitted information in the regression. The tautology in (12) conveys the idea that the measurement of earnings creates other information. If earnings were calculated such that they measure the change in price precisely, there can be no other information and no change in premium. If earnings differ from the change in price, a change in premium must be induced; the change in premium is explained by information other than earnings, but other information only arises because of an imperfect measure of earnings. This formulation helps to identify information (such as cash flows) to be added to the regression and characterizes information excluded or omitted from the specification but included in the disturbance, it. Additional variables explain returns only if they explain changes in premiums.6 Excluded information must be that which explains changes in premiums. Further, included information will be correlated with omitted information if it is correlated with changes in premiums, and coefficients on the included information will reflect that correlation, as developed in Shroff (1995). There is no omitted variable issue, for these are informational models rather than models that attempt to identify causation. The regression equations are representations of returns in terms of a specified information set, but with a recognition that correlated omitted information may affect the multipliers (coefficients) to be applied to the specified information. The multipliers must

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be determined by the measurement of the numbers and that measurement creates the other information with which the measured numbers may be correlated. The interpretation is further facilitated by recognizing what a change in premium is. By the residual income valuation model that reconciles to the dividend discount valuation model through the same clean-surplus accounting in equation (11), a change in premium is determined by a change in growth in expected residual earnings, and growth in residual earnings is equivalent to growth in (cum-dividend) earnings.7 Accordingly, a variable added to the regression such as cash flow has information content only if it indicates earnings growth, with a higher coefficient the more growth is implied; this, of course, accords with the notion that a multiplier incorporates growth. Fifth, the discussion emphasizes the standard point in regression analysis that coefficients in any representation of returns in terms of a particular information set apply only to that set (of included variables). There is no universal multiplier to apply to earnings (say). If all information that explains changes in premiums were identified, the b1 coefficient on earnings must be 1, the b2 coefficient on dividends must be 1 (given market efficiency). These multipliers supply benchmarks. They may change as other information (such as cash flow) is added to the specification and, in general, depend on what other information is included or excluded in the model. Sixth, equation (12) holds irrespective of whether the market is efficient in incorporating the implications of information. If, for example, earnings measure a change in equity value perfectly but the market misprices the earnings (the market deviates from fundamentals), there must be a change in the premium. Accordingly, a change in the premium can be due to earnings being an imperfect summary of all factors

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that affect returns or to the markets mispricing of earnings. Accordingly, the disturbance in (13) includes not only the factors mentioned in the third point above, but also mispricing of the included variables. Seventh, the beginning-of-period price-to-book,

Bit 1 has an initializing role in Pit 1

the regression, with alternative interpretations. (a)

Bit 1 initializes on net assets on the Pit 1 Bit 1 may be Pit 1

balance sheet that presumably forecast subsequent earnings. Thus

correlated with

Earningsit in the regression, and so have explanatory power even though Pit 1 Bit 1 is determined by how both book Pit 1

it is not correlated with returns (see Ohlson 2001).

values and earnings are measured, and this measurement can introduce a correlation between book values and earnings. For example, low book-to-price ratios are indicative of conservative accounting which, given growth in investment, depresses earnings (included in the regression), creates earnings growth, and increases in premiums.8 The initialization controls for this measurement. (b)

Bit 1 may indeed predict returns. Pit 1

Following the third point above, the book-to-price ratio may proxy for risk and expected returns, as conjectured by Fama and French (1992). If so, the specification controls for these expected returns in the cross section. (c) Pertinent to the sixth point above regarding market inefficiency, book-to-price at t-1 predicts abnormal returns during period t -- the

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alternative conjecture to that of Fama and French -- so of book values at the beginning of the return period.

Bit 1 initializes for the mispricing Pit 1

If earnings are not correlated with the information or risk factors in the disturbance, it, nor with the mispricing in it, the specification implies that b1 = 1: However, the fourth point above recognizes that earnings measurement creates other information (in the disturbance), introducing a correlation between earnings and the disturbance. For example, conservative accounting with growth in investment depresses earnings and increases premiums, and correspondingly creates expected furture earnings growth. Depressed earnings that produce expected growth should have a higher multiplier, and the higher multiplier must indicate a correlation between earnings and the disturbance, by construction of the specification. Dividends also affect book value, dollar for dollar. Under the Miller and Modigliani dividend displacement property, dividends also affect price, dollar for dollar, so do not effect the change in premium. If so, b2 = -1. However an informational role for dividends is accommodated in the specification: If dividends contain information, they explain changes in premiums (that is, they imply earnings growth) and, if so, b2 differs for 1, by the fourth point above. The specification does not include free cash flow, because accrual accounting so prescribes. Adding free cash flow to the regression facilitates a test of whether, given accrual earnings, free cash flow is indeed irrelevant to the pricing of equity:

Pit Pit 1 d B (C I ) it Earnings = a + b1 + b2 it + b3 it 1 + b4 + it Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit

(14)

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If free cash flows are irrelevant for value, b4 = 0. Free cash flow can, of course, be correlated with other information (but only because of imperfections in the measurement of accrual earnings). If free cash flow does have information content it must explain changes in premiums (and the earnings growth implied) that is induced by the measurement of earnings, again by the fourth point above. Turning to specifications involving operations, we assume that market values of net financial obligations are equal to their book values. This is a reasonable assumption in times of stable interest rates (and, indeed, many financial assets are now marked to market). Denoting the market value of the net operating assets as PitNOA (and Pit, as before, as the market value of the equity), the balance sheet equation (7), applied to market values rather than book values, states

PitNOA = Pit + NFO it

Recognizing that the market value of operations can differ from their book value,

PitNOA = NOAit + ( PitNOA NOAit )

and

PitNOA = NOAit + ( PitNOA NOAit ) .

But, by (9), NOAit = OIit (C I)it. Deflating by the beginning market value of the operations, PitNOA PitNOA OI it (C I ) it NOAit 1 PitNOA NOAit 1 = NOA + + 1, PitNOA Pit 1 PitNOA PitNOA PitNOA 1 1 1 1 (15)

and the regression equation that explains the change in the market value of the operations takes the form,

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PitNOA PitNOA OI it (C I ) it NOAit 1 1 = + 1 NOA + 2 + 3 + it NOA NOA Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 PitNOA 1

(16)

This regression has the same structure as (13), with operating income instead of earnings and the dividend from operations (free cash flow) instead of the dividend to shareholders. The incoming price-to-book ratio is now that for operations, the enterprise (or unlevered) price-to-book ratio. Other information, it, that explains changes in the value must explain price premiums over the book value of net operating assets in (15). The modeling predicts that 1 = 1 and 2 = -1 unless earnings or free cash flows are correlated with the other information. If free cash flows have information content such that 2 -1, they must explain a change in premium induced by the measurement of operating income, that is, if accrual accounting introduces biased earnings measurement (relative to price changes) and cash flows provide commentary on that bias. Thus the issue of the quality of earnings, and a role for cash flows as an indicator of the quality of earnings, is accommodated within the specification.9 The regression equations (13) and (16) are basic specifications that include only the aggregates of the accounting system, (operating) earnings and (operating) book value. However, they also open the door to including other accounting information in a directed way: That information must explain changes in premiums, that is, (residual) earnings growth. Theory that adds more structure to the skeletal accounting system in Section 1.1 will, of course, guide the specifications. Indeed, in response to Feltham and Ohlson (1995), Easton and Pae (2003) add investment and lagged changes in net operating assets to regressions with earnings and earnings changes, effectively explaining the change in premiums induced by conservative accounting measurement.

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2. Empirical Analysis: Contemporaneous Associations Regression equations (13), (14), and (16), were estimated from the cross section for each year, 1963-2001. All NYSE and AMEX listed firms on the COMPUSTAT annual database with the requisite financial statement data were included, both survivors and non-survivors, with the exception of financial firms. Firms for which COMPUSTAT indicates an acquisition in any given year were also excluded, to avoid pooling accounting that violates clean-surplus accounting. Firms with negative book values and negative net operating assets were retained. The sample consists of 54,759 firm years, or 97.4% of the eligible non-financial firms listed on COMPUSTAT. In estimating regression equations, however, we rejected firms with the top and bottom one percent (in the data pooled over all years) of each variable included in the regressions. Accordingly, 51,673 firm years were involved in the estimations (with a slight variation over the alternative regression specifications), with the number of firms per year ranging from 338 in 1963 to 1,798 in 1974. Results were not particularly sensitive to alternative outlier treatments. Annual accounting variables included in the specifications were calculated as in the appendix to Nissim and Penman (2001). For the contemporaneous regression results reported below, annual changes in share prices were calculated over the fiscal year so as to align dividends (going ex) with the prices and book values they affect. As the final accounting report for a year is published with some delay, this does not precisely align the pricing period with the reporting period, though much of the accounting information is available through quarterly reports and analysts forecasts prior to the end of the fiscal year. The analysis was repeated with price changes calculated over a year beginning three

23

months after fiscal-year end, with annual earnings reported and dividends paid over that period as dependant variables. This procedure aligns price changes with earnings reported but does not align earnings, book values and dividends in time. Results were similar to those reported here, but with lower coefficients estimated on earnings and lower R 2 values. Table 1 summarizes cross-sectional Pearson and Spearman rank correlations between the variables of interest. The reported numbers are means of correlations estimated for each year of the sample period. Price-deflated free cash flows and operating income are not highly correlated, indicating their information content (if any) is quite different. While price-deflated earnings and operating income are positively correlated with contemporaneous stock price changes and changes in the price of operations, respectively, free cash flows have very low correlation with these price changes. The incoming book-to-price ratios (levered and unlevered) have some positive correlation with subsequent price changes, consistent with the book-to-market effect, but are also positively correlated with subsequent earnings, consistent with accounting measurement affecting both book-to-price ratios and earnings yields in the same direction. Dividends are positively correlated with earnings and with free cash flows, as one expects, but have little correlation with contemporaneous price changes. Our interest, however, is not in these unconditional correlations, but in how the variables are evaluated jointly in the specifications dictated by accounting prescriptions. 2.1 Testing the Specified Regression Models Table 2 presents results from estimating regression models (13) and (14) for each of the 39 years, 1963-2001, with all variables on a per-share basis. The table gives the mean

24

coefficients estimated for each year in the sample period, along with t-statistics assessed relative to zero and calculated with standard errors estimated from the time series of coefficients.10 Average adjusted R2 values are also given. Under each t-statistic is the percentage of the 39 estimated coefficients that are positive. Given the number of crosssections, the proportion of positive coefficients is approximately normal with mean of 50% and standard deviation of 8%, under the null hypothesis that the median coefficient is zero. Thus, proportions above (below) 66% (34%) are significantly different from zero at the 5% level. The table also reports mean coefficients and mean R2 for subperiods indicated, to assess the robustness of the estimates overtime. The mean estimated intercept in Panel A is not significantly different from zero, indicting that other information outside the included variables have mean zero implications for price changes. The b1 estimates indicate that earnings are positively priced. As with regressions estimated with earnings levels in prior research (in Easton and Harris 1991, and Easton, Harris, and Ohlson 1992, for example), the mean coefficient of 1.67 is well over one; a t-statistic comparing the mean estimate to 1.0 rather than zero is 3.35. Estimates range from 1.03 to 3.47 over subperiods, with the lowest coefficients and R2 in more recent periods. The accounting model predicts a coefficient of one, given all other information that explains changes in premiums. However, by the fourth interpretive point in Section 1.3, a multiplier greater than one implies that earnings is correlated with omitted information about growth, a correlation that is the product of the measurement of earnings. While the unconditional correlations between dividends and price changes in Table 1 are positive (but low), the mean coefficient on dividends here is negative, and

25

significantly so, with consistent results for subperiods. This observation is similar to that in Penman and Sougiannis (1997) and confirms that accounting according to the clean surplus calculation in (11) -- that treats earnings as an increase in equity value but dividends as a reduction of value -- is in accordance with the markets pricing. The predicted size of the coefficient is 1. The mean coefficient of 2.98 is inconsistent with a tax effect that implies prices drop by less than a dollar for each dollar of dividends. One might ascribe the coefficient to dividend signaling, as conjectured by the information content of dividends hypotheses, although the result suggests a negative signal rather than the positive signal suggested by most dividend signaling stories.11 The informational interpretation (dividends are negatively correlated with changes in premiums and so imply lower earnings growth) suggests that high payout (low retention) firms do not have investment opportunities that yield growth. Pursuant to the third point above, payout increases leverage, of course, leading investors to require a higher equity return, with a consequent drop on price to yield that higher return; however the magnitude on the estimated coefficient suggests that this is not the sole explanation. These issues aside, the result resolves rather unambiguously the issue of the relevance of accrual accounting versus cash flows to equity: The market prices earnings, not cash flows to shareholders (dividends), as additions to equity value. Panel B of Table 2 adds free cash flow the net cash flow from operations rather than the cash flow to shareholders -- to the regression, for a test of the hypothesis that b4 in regression model (14) is zero. Following equation (9), free cash flow is calculated as C I = OI - NOA. The results support the hypothesis: Given earnings and dividends, price changes are not, on average, related to the amount of cash flow that firms generate from

26

operations. The mean estimated coefficient on free cash flow is 0.03, not significantly different from zero, and varies around zero for the subperiods. The presumption of the irrelevance of free cash flows underlying the accrual accounting models is consistent with how the market prices firms. Further, following the fourth interpretative point in the last section, free cash flows do not inform about earnings growth, on average; more free cash flow does not imply an ability to grow earnings. Nor does free cash flow inform about expected returns or changes in expected returns discussed in the third point. And, with respect to the sixth point, free cash flow is not correlated with any mispricing of earnings (in the disturbance); on average, free cash flow does not indicate a mispricing of accruals by the market, for example). Accordingly, following the fifth interpretative point, the multiplier on earnings does not change (between the two panels of Table 2) when one adds free cash flow to earnings information. Table 3 gives the results from estimating regression model (16) involving the pricing of the operations. The numbers here are on a total dollar basis, not per-share, to ensure they are free on leverage effects. Just as total earnings explain changes in the market value of equity, so does the operating income component of earnings explain changes in the market value of operations. Free cash flow, however, reduces the market value operations (almost) dollar-for-dollar. The mean estimated coefficient on free cash flow is 1.10, significantly different from zero. Assessed relative to 1.0, the t-statistic is 2.17 (the reason will become apparent shortly). The mean coefficient is negative and close to 1.0 in all subperiods, including those where interest rates varied significantly (1976-85) and thus the assumption that net debt on the balance sheet is a market value may be questioned. Although the mean coefficent is a little less than the 1.0 benchmark,

27

we conclude that the market prices free cash flow as a distribution from the operations, not as an attribute that adds value to the operations. There is a complementary interpretation of the estimated coefficients. As, by accounting operations (2) and (3), OI = C I + NOA, then 1OI + 2(C I) = 1NOA + (1 + 2)(C I), with subscripts and the price deflation understood. Accordingly, the coefficients can be interpreted as the pricing of the NOA (total accruals) and free cash flow components of operating income. The mean estimate of 1 + 2 in Table 3 is 1.11, a little over a dollar. So the estimates in Table 3 can also be interpreted as an additional dollar of net operating assets adding $2.21 of value, on average, but net cash from operations adding $1.11. The NOA component of earnings amounts to growth in operations on the balance sheet that begets earnings growth in the future, so is priced at a multiplier greater than one. In summary, Tables 2 and 3 show that free cash flow is not, on average, relevant to the market pricing of equity and reduces the price of operations a little more than one dollar for each dollar of cash flow. Dividends displace equity value and free cash flow displaces the value of operations. These observations are in accordance with the prescriptions of accrual accounting. Earnings are positively priced but with a multiplier greater than 1.0, indicating that earnings are typically measured in a way that creates earnings growth. 2.2 Partitioning on Free Cash Flow Accrual accounting is presumably designed to have broad application. The results thus far document average or typical relationships between prices and accounting numbers, so are appropriate for an affirmation of GAAP accrual accounting for general

28

application. One might, however, conjecture cases where cash flow is weighted differently from the average, either as a diagnostic for the quality of the accrual earnings for indicating growth or an indication of the markets mispricing of accruals. The work on the differential persistence of cash flows and accruals in Ali (1994), Sloan (1996) and Cheng, Liu and Schafer (1996), for example, suggest the former, and the ability of the cash flows and accrual composition of earnings to predict stock returns (in Sloan 1996) suggests the latter. We investigate just one partitioning of the data that is generic to the issue at hand. A proponent of Cash in King might insist that the ability to generate cash is particularly valued. It is not uncommon, for example, for analysts to recommend firms that can generate good cash flow and, indeed, with the argument that they imply more growth. Table 4 gives the opposite impression. This table presents results from estimating the Table 3 regression each year, but for ten groups formed by ranking firms on free cash flow generated, (C I)it/Pit-1. Group 1 consists of firms with the lowest (C I)it/Pit-1 and group 10 firms with the highest. The means of the dependent and independent variables in the regression that are reported in the table are quite instructive. Mean free cash flow increases, by construction, from a (negative) -37.6 cents per dollar of price in portfolio 1 to 26.1 cents in portfolio 10. However, price deflated operating income varies little over the portfolios. As the difference between mean operating income and mean free cash flow is NOAit (the total accruals), the growth in net operating assets and free cash flow composition of income thus differs considerably across portfolios, and growth in net operating assets is negatively correlated with free cash flow. That is, firms with negative free cash flow tend

29

to have high growth in net operating assets, and conversely so for firms with high (positive) free cash flow. Mean price changes, however, are negatively correlated with free cash flow, but positively correlated with growth in NOA. Considerable growth in net operating assets (in portfolios 1 3) is associated with relatively large price appreciation even though mean free cash flow is negative. Despite the differing accrual and cash flow components of operating income, the coefficients on operating income are similar over all portfolios (though lower for portfolio 1) and similar to the mean of 2.21for the pooled estimation in Table 3; over a wide range of free cash flow realizations, accrual income is priced similarly. The variance inflation factors (VIF) which take of a value of 1.0 if an independent variable is orthogonal to the other regressor variables indicate that, within portfolios, operating income and free cash flows are not highly correlated, similar to the correlation in the pooled data in Table 1. Potentially, then, free cash flow adds additional explanatory information. However, the mean coefficients on free cash flow are typically negative. The exceptions are in portfolios 7 9 where the mean coefficients on free cash flow are not significantly different from zero. Portfolio 8 is a benchmark case where mean operating income is approximately equal to mean free cash flow (and the mean change in net operating assets is, consequentially, almost zero). In the portfolios where the accrual accounting induces differences between operating income and free cash flow, the coefficient of free cash flow is negative and, in most cases, reliably different from zero. Indeed, for portfolios 1 - 3 with relative low (and negative) free cash flow, the coefficients on free cash flow are lower (more negative) than those in portfolios 8 10 for high (and positive) free cash flow: Lower free cash flow implies higher price changes.

30

2.3 Distinguishing Cash from Operations from Cash Investment Free cash flow is the net cash generated by operations. We have represented this net cash flow as C I, cash flow from operations minus cash investment, similar to the headings in the GAAP cash flow statement. Pure cash accounting makes no such a distinction; indeed, as explained in Section 1.2, the distinction is an accrual concept, involving interperiod allocation rules, for it requires an assessment of which cash expenditures apply to the current period (and thus are expensed in the income statement) and which expenditures are assets that benefit future periods (and booked to the balance sheet). Under the GAAP classification of the cash flows, for example, cash flow from operations is really not the cash that operations generate but rather the residual after a determination of investment cash flows to be booked to the balance sheet rather than the income statement. Nevertheless, free cash flow is net of cash investment, and investment in non-zero net present projects creates a change in premium: Investments are booked to book value at historical cost but price adds value that is different from cost. One might, then, expect free cash flows to explain changes in premiums, and thus the coefficient on free cash flow in Table 3 to be different from 1.0. The mean estimated coefficient on free cash flow in Table 3 of 1.10 is indeed significantly less than 1.0, indicating free cash flows are negatively correlated with changes in premium; this would be the case with positive net present value investing, for investment reduces free cash flow. Table 5 estimates the Table 3 regressions, but with the separation made as follows: PitNOA PitNOA OI it I it NOAit 1 1 C C it = a + 1 NOA + 2 NOA + 2I NOA + 3 + it PitNOA Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 PitNOA 1 1

31

Having no determination of cash investment (I), we use cash investment reported in the GAAP cash flow statement, but adjusted for net investment (presumably of excess cash) in short-term investments and marketable securities.12 Cash from operations (C) is free cash flow plus this number. The regression is estimated each year from 1987 onwards, the year in which cash flow statement statements were first required in place of working capital statements. The regression in Table 3 effectively constrains the coefficients on cash from operations and cash investment to be the same. The mean coefficient estimated on cash from operations in Table 5 is 0.98, not significantly different from 1.0, and the coefficients are close to 1.0 in the three subperiods. This cash flow reduces the value of operations dollar-for-dollar. The mean coefficient on cash investment is, however 1.30. For zero-net-present value investing, one expects the coefficient to be 1.0 (a dollar in investment adds a dollar of value). A t-statistic assessed relative to 1.0 is 2.98, indicating that investment is, on average, priced as positive net present value investment (and explains changes in premiums). The more negative coefficients on the negative free cash flow portfolios 1 and 2 in Table 4 are also explained: Investment reduces free cash flow but positive net-present-value investment creates earnings growth and increases premiums. The mean coefficient on cash flow from operations of 0.98 contrasts strikingly with the positive coefficient observed in previous research, but validates the notion that cash flow, after controlling for cash investment, reduces the value of operations dollarfor-dollar. It also affirms the accrual accounting principle of distinguishing investment cash from operating cash flow. When free cash flow is broken down into C and I in the

32

equity return regressions in Panel B of Table 2, the mean coefficient on C is 0.05 (with a t-statistic of 1.55) and that on I is 0.14 (with a t-statistic of 2.45): On average, equity value is unrelated to cash flow from operations but increases with investment. A rearrangement of the regression equation yields further insights. As OI = C + operating accruals, by (2), then
C 1OI + 2C C + 2I I = 1(operating accruals) + 1 + 2 C + 2I I.

The formulation identifies accruals and cash flows from operations variables that are similar to those used in prior studies, albeit with an explicit control for cash investment (and the inclusion of the incoming enterprise book-to-price ratio). Thus it serves to reconcile the results here to the earlier ones.13 The implied coefficient on the operating accruals component of operating income in Table 5 is 1.68 and that on the cash from operations component is 0.70. The implied coefficient on operating accruals is higher than that for the cash from operations component. This makes sense since cash is often net receipts with respect to past periods sales and expenses while accruals pertain to current sales and expenses that forecast future earnings growth. Further, the implied coefficient on the accrual component of NOA (1.68) is greater than that for the investment component (1.30). The implication is that accruals imply a greater change in premium and more earnings growth -- than investments.

3. Conclusion The question of focusing on earnings or cash flows is a continuing issue in equity valuation. Accrual accounting principles are very explicit on the matter. Under accrual accounting, free cash flows the net cash generated by operations -- do not affect equity

33

value, but reduce the value of operations, dollar for dollar. Free cash flows are cash distributions, like dividends, and, just as dividends reduce the value of equity, free cash flows reduce the value of operations. Further, just as dividends do not affect the cumdividend value of equity, free cash flows do not affect the cum-dividend value of operations, nor the value of equity. Rather, (accrual) earnings add value to equity. This paper has developed regression specifications with these features in order to assess whether the stock market prices earnings according to the prescription of the accrual accounting model. The pricing of accrual earnings and cash flows depends on how accruals are measured. Free cash flows are potentially relevant if earnings measure value changes poorly, and the appeal to cash flows often arises from a mistrust of the accrual components of earnings. Our empirical analysis uses earnings as measured by GAAP, warts and all. The results confirm the standard result in capital markets research that stock returns are positively related to stock earnings, but with a multiplier greater than 1.0, indicating that earnings, as measured, increase premiums over book value and induce earnings growth (Table 2, Panel A). However, stock returns are not related to free cash flow (Table 2, Panel B): Given GAAP earnings, the amount of cash flow that firms deliver does not affect their stock price. Further, free cash flows reduce the value of firms operations, at slightly more than a dollar for each dollar of free cash flow (Table 3). The results vary little for cases of positive and negative cash flows, nor over firms with different composition of cash flow and accruals in their reported earnings (Table 4). Accordingly the paper validates the accrual accounting model as implemented by GAAP.

34

Making the GAAP distinction between the cash flow from operating activities and cash investment components of free cash flow, we also find that a dollar of cash flow from operating activities reduces the price of operations by a dollar, but a dollar of investment increases the price by 1.3 dollars, consistent with positive net present value investing, on average. Accordingly, free cash flow has information content that is incremental to earnings, but that information arises from a distinction between cash investment and cash from operations, an exercise in accrual accounting. The results of the paper are averages for cross sections of firms over an extended period, 1963-2001 and thus affirm the general application of GAAP to the cross section. However, they do not deal with cases where the measurement of accrual earnings differs from the average where the imperfections in accrual accounting show up. This, surely, is an avenue for future research. In what circumstance would one apply a coefficient other 1.0 to cash flows when valuing shares? This question pertains to the quality of (accrual) earnings for particular companies. But our results indicate that the stock market, on average, prices GAAP earnings as adding to equity value, but cash flows being as irrelevant for valuation. Indeed, the stock market effectively prices free cash flows as distributions of value rather than value added. Our analysis examines how accounting numbers are contemporaneously priced in the stock market, as does much of capital markets research. It is well recognized, however, that contemporaneous stock prices provide a benchmark for evaluating accounting numbers only if those prices are efficient. Considerable research indicates that a variety of accounting numbers are correlated with future stock returns as well as current prices. Indeed, Sloan (1996) shows that cash flows relative to accruals predict

35

future stock returns. While the interpretation of these predictive correlations is open to debate, one conjecture is that stock markets do not price accounting information efficiently. If so, estimates of coefficients here are open to question; indeed, to be extreme, one could attribute the results here to the market being fixated on earnings rather than cash flows.

36

The GAAP statement of cash flows in the United States obeys the cash conservation equation, of course, but the format of the statement is different from equation (1a) and the classifications within the statement do not honor the distinction between cash from operations and cash paid to claimants; for example, cash interest (paid to creditors) is classified as cash from operations rather than cash paid to debtholders (see Nurnberg 1993). The GAAP statement also aggregates payments to shareholders and debtholders in the financing section.
2

The term, net financing expense is used (rather than net interest) as the expense (to the common shareholders) includes preferred dividends. The expense is the net of financing expense (on debt owed) and financing income (on debt owned). Corresponding to the financing flows (in footnote 2), net financial obligations include all claims other than common equity as debt, and is financial obligations (debt owed) minus financial assets (debt owned), the latter being market securities (excess cash) in which cash from operations can be invested. The system characterized by the eleven equations here corresponds to the GAAP accounting system, but with a strict proprietorship perspective and a clean distinction between accruals and cash flows that pertain to operating and financing activities. We adopt the proprietorship perspective because our empirical validation (and much of capital market research) refers to common equity prices. The separation of operating and financing activities also serves the proprietors, for they need to distinguish the generation of shareholder value from its dispersal to claimants as well as distinguishing their claims from those of others. The distinction corresponds to that in finance where the firm (the operations) is distinguished from its claimants, with the value of the firm equal to the total value of the claims on the firm (equation (7) is the accounting analog). As with the reporting of some components of comprehensive income outside the income statement, the differences between GAAP and the system here is one of classification of particular items. GAAP does not invoke a strict proprietorship view (classifying preferred stock and warrants as equity, for example) and makes only an approximate distinction between cash flows and earnings generated by operating activities (transactions with customers and suppliers in product and input markets) and those involved in financing activities (transactions in capital markets to raise cash for operations and to pay out cash from operations). GAAP financial statements can be reformulated on a comprehensive income (to common) basis with items classified as either operating or financial activities, so the lay out here adds no additional content to GAAP accounting; it is merely a repackaging. See Penman (2004), Chapters 7 and 9. Our empirical analysis uses GAAP accounting, but with this repackaging.
5 3

Ball (1978) nominates the earnings yield as an indicator of expected returns, and standard formulations show that the P/E ratio (and E/P ratio) is, in part, determined by the expected return. Ohlson (1999) models conservative accounting as a measurement principle that incorporates risk in the accounting numbers.
6

In the regression equation (13), the disturbance is the end-of-period premium, not the change in premium in (12). However, as the beginning premium is specified in the regression (by the beginning-of-period book-to-price ratio), the disturbance is effectively the ending premium relative to the beginning premium.
7

The equivalence is recognized in Ohlson and Juettner-Nauroth (2001) who develop a valuation model based on expected earnings growth rather than expected residual earnings.
8

The effect of conservative accounting on price-to-book premiums, earnings growth, and changes in premiums is analyzed in Feltham and Ohlson (1995) and Zhang (2000). Penman (1996) documents a positive correlation between book-to-price ratios and earnings-to-price ratios, consistent with conservative accounting (with investment growth) depressing both the earnings yield and book-to-price variables in the regression.
9

To the issue, Clubb (1996) shows that, in the context of relating unexpected returns to unexpected accounting numbers, the Feltham and Ohlson (1995) model of linear information dynamics implies free

37

cash flows do not convey incremental information to operating income if the accounting is unbiased, but do so when the accounting is conservative.
10

Results are similar when annual coefficient estimates are weighted, in the averaging, by the square root of the number of observations for that year. Results were also similar with variables on a total dollar (rather than a per-share) basis, such that net dividends are measured as dividends plus share repurchases minus share issues. Adding the change in dividends, ? dit//Pit-1, to the regression suggests a positive signal. The mean coefficient on the dividend change was 4.60, with a t-statistic of 9.61, with little change in the other coefficient estimates, including that on the dividend. The dividend change variable effectively adds d it-1/Pit-1 to the regression. Given that a time t-1 variable should not predict time t price changes in an efficient market, this result suggests that dit-1/Pit-1 adds to the regression as a predictor of dit/Pit-1, so isolating the signal component of d it. Of course, the result could be due to dividend yield (at t -1) forecasting price changes, as suggested by Fama and French (1988), among others. Note that the specification assumes that dividends are paid at the end of the year (at time t). So, with dividends paid throughout the year, the measured dividends understate their end-of-period value through compounding. This amount is small for most firms so, while one would expect the error to result in a coefficient less than 1.0, the measurement error cannot explain the size of the negative coefficient. Cash investment in the GAAP cash flow statement includes investment in these financial assets (which is not an investment in operating assets but rather a disposition of net cash from operations). The GAAP number also includes investments in long-term financial assets, but these cannot be isolated using COMPUSTAT data.
13 12 11

Cash from operations is not precisely the number from the cash flow statement that is used in a number of prior studies. Cash flow from operating activities in the cash flow statement includes net interest which is excluded here. Previous studies specify equity returns on the right-hand-side, not firm returns.

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References Ali, A. 1994. The incremental information content of earnings, working capital from operations and cash flows. Journal of Accounting Research 32 (Spring): 61-74. Ball, R. 1978. Anomalies in relationships between securities yields and yield-surrogates. Journal of Financial Economics 6 (June/September): 103-126. Ball, R., and P. Brown. 1968. An empirical evaluation of accounting income numbers. Journal of Accounting Research 6 (Autumn): 159-177. Barth, M.1994. Fair value accounting: Evidence from investment securities and the market valuation of banks. The Accounting Review 69 (January), 125. Barth, M., W. Beaver, J. Hand, and W. Landsman. 1999. Accruals, cash flows, and equity values. Review of Accounting Studies 3 (December), 205-229. Bowen, R., D. Burgstahler, and L. Daley. 1987. The incremental information content of accrual versus cash flows. The Accounting Review 62 (October): 723-747. Campbell, J. Y. 1991. A variance decomposition for stock returns. Economic Journal 101 (March): 157-179. Charitou, A., and C. Clubb. 1999. Earnings, cash flows and security returns over long return intervals: Analysis and UK evidence. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting 26 (April/May): 283-312. Cheng, C, C. Liu, and T. Schaefer. 1996. Earnings permanence and the incremental information content of cash flows from operations. Journal of Accounting Research 34 (Spring): 173-181. Clubb, C. 1995. An empirical study of the information content of accounting earnings, funds flows and cash flows in the UK. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting 22 (January): 35-52. Clubb, C. 1996. Valuation and clean surplus accounting: Some implications of the Feltham and Ohlson model for the relative information content of earnings and cash flows. Contemporary Accounting Research 13 (Spring): 329-337. Easton, P., and T. Harris. 1991. Earnings as an explanatory variable for returns. Journal of Accounting Research 29 (Spring): 9-36. Easton, P, T. Harris, and J. Ohlson. 1992. Accounting earnings can explain most of security returns: The case of long event windows. Journal of Accounting and Economics 15: 119-142.

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Easton, P., and J. Pae. 2004. Accounting conservatism and the relation between returns and accounting data. Review of Accounting Studies 9 (December): forthcoming. Fama, E., and K. French. 1992. The cross-section of expected stock returns. Journal of Finance 47 (June): 427-465. Fairfield, P., J. Whisenant, and T. Yohn. 2003. Accrued earnings and growth: Implications for future profitability and market mispricing. The Accounting Review 78 (January): 353-371. Feltham, J., and J. Ohlson. 1995. Valuation and clean surplus accounting for operating and financial activities. Contemporary Accounting Research 12: 689-731. Francis, J., K. Schipper, and L. Vincent. 2003. The relative incremental explanatory power of earnings and alternative (to earnings) performance measures for returns. Contemporary Accounting Research 20 (Spring): 121-164. Holthausen. R., and R. Watts. 2001. The relevance of the value-relevance literature for financial accounting standard setting. Journal of Accounting and Economics 31 (September): 3-75. Jennings, R. 1990. A note on interpreting incremental information content. Accounting Review 65 (October): 925-932. Nissim, D., and S. Penman. 2001. Ratio analysis and equity valuation: From research to practice. Review of Accounting Studies 6 (March): 109-154. Nurnberg, H. 1993. Inconsistencies and ambiguities in cash flow statements under FASB Statement No. 95. Accounting Horizons 7 (June): 60-75. Ohlson, J. 1995. Earnings, book values, and dividends in equity valuation. Contemporary Accounting Research 12 (Spring): 661-687. Ohlson, J. 1999. Conservative accounting and risk. Unpublished paper, New York University. Ohlson, J. 2001. The basic concepts related to returns on earnings regressions. Unpublished paper, New York University. Ohlson, J., and B. Juettner-Nauroth. 2001. Expected EPS and EPS growth as determinants of value. Unpublished paper, New York University and Johannes Gutenberg University.

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Ohlson, J., and S. Penman. 1992. Disaggregated accounting data as explanatory variables for returns. Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance (Spring): 553-573. Ohlson, J., and P. Shroff. 1992. Changes versus levels in earnings as explanatory variables for returns: Some theoretical considerations. Journal of Accounting Research 30 (Autumn): 210-226. Penman, S. 1996. The articulation of price-earnings ratios and market-to-book ratios and the evaluation of growth. Journal of Accounting Research 34 (Autumn): 235259. Penman, S., and T. Sougiannis. 1997. The dividend displacement property and the substitution of anticipated earnings for dividends in equity valuation. The Accounting Review 72 (January): 1-21. Penman, S. 2004. Financial Statement Analysis and Security Valuation, 2nd ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies. Rayburn, J. 1986. The association of operating cash flow and accruals with security returns. Journal of Accounting Research 24 (Supplement): 112-133. Shroff, P. 1995. Determinants of the returns-earnings correlation. Contemporary Accounting Research 12 (Fall), 41-55. Sloan, R. 1996. Do stock prices fully reflect information in accruals and cash flows about future earnings? The Accounting Review 71 (July): 289-315. Zhang, X. 2000. Conservative accounting and equity valuation. Journal of Accounting and Economics 29 (February): 125-149.

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Table 1 Mean correlations between variables under investigation. Pearson correlations above and Spearman correlations below the main diagonal; 1963-2001 ________________________________________________________________________
( Pt Pt 1 )/ Pt 1
(Pt NOA PtNOA ) / PtNOA 1 1

Earnings / Pt 1

dt / Pt 1

O I t / P tN1 O A

(C I )t / PtNOA 1

Bt1 / Pt1

NOA NOAt 1 / Pt 1

( Pt Pt 1 ) / Pt 1
( Pt NOA PtNOA ) / PtNOA 1 1

0.928 0.574 0.279 -0.026 0.323 0.006 0.081 0.059 0.165 0.004 0.321 -0.014 0.037 0.043

0.431 0.410

0.054 0.097 0.332

0.416 0.437 0.883 0.256

0.082 0.091 0.197 0.164 0.146

0.079 0.082 0.284 0.235 0.213 0.156

0.064 0.072 0.259 0.222 0.170 0.153 0.934

Earnings / Pt 1

dt / Pt1
OIt / Pt NOA 1
(C I )t / PtNOA 1

0.249 0.812 0.119 0.043 0.062 0.216 0.126 0.164 0.220

0.082 0.082 0.104 0.093 0.092

Bt 1 / Pt 1
NOA NOAt 1 / Pt 1

0.892

____________________________________________________________________________
Notes: The table reports the mean of 39 estimates from cross-sectional regressions for each year of the sample period. Variables (denominated by beginning-of-period equity price per share, Pt-1, or the price of operations, defined as follows:
NOA Pt 1 ) are

( Pt Pt 1 ) / Pt 1
( Pt NOA PtNOA ) / PtNOA 1 1

Change in equity price per share for period t Change in the value of operations for period t Earnings per share for period t Dividends per share for period t Operating income for period t Free cash flow for period t Book-to-price ratio for equity at t-1 Book-to-price ratio for operations at t-1

Earnings / Pt 1
dt / Pt1
OIt / Pt NOA 1
(C I )t / PtNOA 1

Bt 1 / Pt 1
NOA NOAt 1 / Pt 1

42

Table 2 Mean estimates of regressions relating annual equity price changes to contemporaneous earnings, dividends and free cash flows; 1963-2001

Panel A: Regression without free cash flows

Pit Pit 1 Earningsit d B = a + b1 + b2 it + b3 it 1 + it Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1

Adj. R 2 0.13

a 1963-2001 t-statistics Percent + 0.05 (1.46)

b1 1.67 (8.35) 97%

b2 -2.98 (-5.64) 13%

b3 0.08 (5.10) 85%

1996-2001 1991-1995 1986-1990 1981-1985 1976-1980 1971-1975 1963-1970

0.06 0.14 0.00 0.03 0.18 -0.09 0.03

1.03 1.12 1.17 1.38 1.32 1.26 3.47

-2.04 -3.64 -1.40 -2.39 -3.34 -1.00 -5.62

0.09 0.14 0.08 0.15 0.01 0.03 0.06

0.07 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.19 0.14 0.18

43

________________________________________________________________________ Panel B: Adding free cash flows to the regression

Pit Pit 1 d B (C I ) it Earnings = a + b1 + b2 it + b3 it 1 + b4 + it Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1

Adj. R 2 0.14

a 1963-2001 t-statistics Percent + 0.04 (1.37)

b1 1.69 (8.38) 97%

b2 -2.88 (-5.62) 82%

b3 0.08 (4.96) 13%

b4 -0.03 (-1.12) 46%

1996-2001 1991-1995 1986-1990 1981-1985 1976-1980 1971-1975 1963-1970

0.06 0.13 -0.01 0.03 0.17 -0.08

1.05 1.11 1.18 1.40 1.38 1.27

-2.00 -3.41 -1.38 -2.38 -3.26 -0.98

0.08 0.15 0.09 0.15 0.00 0.02

-0.01 -0.06 -0.05 0.03 -0.01 0.11

0.07 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.20 0.15

0.02 3.49 -5.42 0.06 -0.16 0.20 ________________________________________________________________________

Notes: The table summarizes 39 cross-sectional regressions for the years, 1963 2001. Reported coefficients are means of the 39 estimates. The t-statistics are the ratio of the mean cross-sectional coefficients relative their standard errors estimated from the time series of coefficients. Percent + is the percentage of the 39 crosssectional coefficient estimates that are positive. The adjusted R-squares are the mean of the 39 estimates. Panel A involves 52,135 firm-year observations, Panel B 51,673 observations. Variables are defined in the notes to Table 1.

44

Table 3 Mean estimates of regressions relating changes in the market value of operations to contemporaneous operating income and free cash flow; 1963-2001 PitNOA PitNOA OI it (C I ) it NOAit 1 1 = + 1 NOA + 2 + 3 + it PitNOA Pit 1 PitNOA PitNOA 1 1 1 ________________________________________________________________________ 1 2 3 Adj. R 2

1963-2001 t-statistics Percent +

0.01 (0.37)

2.21 (12.63) 100%

-1.10 (-24.77) 0% -1.12 -1.22 -1.05 -0.99 -1.03 -0.83 -1.31

-0.01 (-0.62) 49% 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.04 -0.10 0.01 -0.10

0.22

1996-2001 1991-1995 1986-1990 1981-1985 1976-1980 1971-1975 1963-1970

0.02 0.10 -0.03 0.01 0.11 -0.09 -0.03

1.87 1.91 1.59 1.88 1.80 1.68 3.82

0.12 0.15 0.23 0.19 0.33 0.25 0.28

See notes to Table 2. Variables are defined in the notes to Table 1. The estimates are made from 52,419 firm-year observations.

45

Table 4 Results of regressions relating changes in the market value of operations to contemporaneous operating income and free cash flow for firms grouped on free cash flows; 1963-2001 P NOA PitNOA OIit (C I )it NOAit 1 it 1 = + 1 NOA + 2 + 3 + it NOA NOA Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 PitNOA 1
________________________________________________________________________________________________

Mean Portfolio 1 (low) t-statistics Percent + VIF 2 t-statistics Percent + VIF 3 t-statistics Percent + VIF 4 t-statistics Percent + VIF 5 t-statistics Percent + VIF 6 t-statistics Percent + VIF 7 t-statistics Percent + VIF 8 t-statistics Percent + VIF 9 t-statistics Percent. + VIF 10 (high) t-statistics Percent + VIF Grand Mean
P NOA it 1 PitNOA 1

Mean
OI it PitNOA 1

Mean
(C I )it PitNOA 1

Mean
NOAit PitNOA 1

Mean
NOAit 1 PitNOA 1

0.126 (2.26) 0.0% -0.021 (-0.40) 0.0% -0.040 (-1.00) 0.0% -0.023 (-0.55) 0.0% -0.044 (-1.24) 0.0% -0.007 (-0.17) 0.0% 0.009 (0.18) 0.0% -0.037 (-0.61) 0.0% -0.044 (-1.02) 0.0% 0.014 (0.37) 0.0%

1 1.571 (7.55) 84.6% 1.13 2.185 (6.95) 97.4% 1.06 2.434 (13.59) 97.4% 1.09 2.231 (9.16) 97.4% 1.05 2.344 (7.17) 100.0% 1.05 2.567 (8.63) 100.0% 1.06 1.845 (11.81) 97.4% 1.05 2.490 (11.00) 100.0% 1.07 2.125 (11.53) 100.0% 1.04 2.244 (11.78) 100.0% 1.06

2 -1.437 (-10.80) 0.0% 1.10 -1.523 (-6.34) 12.8% 1.02 -1.250 (-2.67) 30.8% 1.02 -0.996 (-1.59) 33.3% 1.02 -0.646 (-0.80) 46.2% 1.02 -1.593 (-1.71) 33.3% 1.02 0.594 (0.77) 56.4% 1.02 0.246 (0.26) 43.6% 1.02 -0.136 (-0.50) 35.9% 1.02 -0.879 (-8.63) 7.7% 1.08

3 -0.148 (-3.02) 28.2% 1.08 -0.034 (-0.88) 56.4% 1.06 -0.024 (-0.62) 59.0% 1.09 -0.010 (-0.26) 64.1% 1.05 -0.017 (-0.50) 51.3% 1.05 -0.053 (-2.13) 30.8% 1.06 -0.075 (-3.11) 28.2% 1.05 -0.072 (-3.38) 25.6% 1.07 -0.061 (-2.64) 30.8% 1.05 -0.004 (-0.12) 59.0% 1.05

Adj. R2 0.217

0.646

0.074

-0.376

0.450

0.822

0.278

0.061

-0.127

0.188

0.752

0.159

0.162

0.061

-0.058

0.120

0.717

0.167

0.114

0.062

-0.021

0.083

0.686

0.155

0.089

0.065

0.006

0.059

0.683

0.161

0.097

0.068

0.029

0.039

0.689

0.134

0.088

0.074

0.052

0.022

0.734

0.129

0.076

0.078

0.080

-0.002

0.803

0.168

0.065

0.087

0.124

-0.037

0.891

0.170

0.007

0.104

0.261

-0.156

1.027

0.236

0.162

0.073

-0.003

0.077

0.780

46

Notes: Portfolios are formed by ranking firms on (C I ) it P NOA each year, 1963-2001. Reported coefficients are it 1 means of the 39 estimates from each year. The t-statistics are the ratio of the mean cross-sectional coefficients relative their standard errors estimated from the time series of coefficients. Percent + is the percentage of the 39 cross-sectional coefficient estimates that are positive. The adjusted R-squares are the mean of the 39 estimates. Variance inflation factors (VIF) for each variable, j are calculated as

VIFj =

1 2 where R j is the R2 from regressing variable, j on the other regressor variables. The 1 R2 j

means of variables are averages of means for each year. Variables are defined in the notes to Table 1

47

Table 5 Mean estimates of regression relating changes in the market value of operations to contemporaneous operating income, cash flow from operations and cash investment; 1987-2001 PitNOA PitNOA OI it I it NOAit 1 1 C C it = a + 1 NOA + 2 NOA + 2I NOA + 3 + it NOA Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 PitNOA 1

________________________________________________________________________ 1

2C

2I

Adj. R 2

1987-2001 t-statistics Percent +

0.02 (0.53)

1.68 (12.42) 100%

-0.98 (-15.53) 0%

1.30 (12.88) 100%

0.02 (0.60) 50%

0.15

1996-2001 1991-1995 1987-1990

0.01 0.09 -0.08

1.70 1.79 1.48

-0.95 -1.04 -0.92

1.30 1.38 1.18

0.01 -0.01 0.08

0.12 0.13 0.22

See notes to Table 2. Cash investment (I) is calculated as cash in investing activities (as reported in the cash flow statement) plus net investment in short-term securities. Cash flow from operations (C) is calculated as free cash flow + cash investment. Other variables are defined in the notes to Table 1. Estimates are made from 19,435 firm-year observations.

48