RE Technologies Cost Analysis-HYDROPOWER

IRENA woRkINg pApER p
International Renewable Energy Agency
IRENA
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: COST ANALYSIS SERIES
Volume 1: Power Sector Issue 3/5
Hydropower
June 2012
Copyright IRENA 2012 Unless otherwise indicated, material in this publication may be used freely, shared or reprinted, but acknowledgement is requested.
About IRENA
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to renewable energy. In accordance with its Statute, IRENAs objective is to promote the widespread and increased adoption and the sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy. This concerns all forms of energy produced from renewable sources in a sustainable manner and includes bioenergy, geothermal energy, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy. As of May 2012, the membership of IRENA comprised 158 States and the European Union (EU), out of which 94 States and the EU have ratied the Statute.
Acknowledgement
This paper was prepared by the IRENA Secretariat. The paper benetted from an internal IRENA review, as well as valuable comments and guidance from Ken Adams (Hydro Manitoba), Emanuel Branche (EDF), Professor LIU Heng (International Center on Small Hydropower), Truls Holtedahl (Norconsult AS), Frederic Louis (World Bank), Margaret Mann (NREL), Judith Plummer (Cambridge University), Richard Taylor (IHA) and Manuel Welsch (KTH). For further information or to provide feedback, please contact Michael Taylor, IRENA Innovation and Technology Centre, Robert-Schuman-Platz 3, 53175 Bonn, Germany; [email protected]. This working paper is available for download from www.irena.org/Publications
Unless expressly stated otherwise, the ndings, interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the various IRENA staff members, contributors, consultants and advisers to the IRENA Secretariat who prepared the work and do not necessarily represent the views of the International Renewable Energy Agency or its Members. The designations employed and the presentation of materials herein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the International Renewable Energy Agency concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The term country as used in this material also refers, as appropriate, to territories or areas.
Preface
Renewable power generation can help countries meet their sustainable development goals through provision of access to clean, secure, reliable and affordable energy. Renewable energy has gone mainstream, accounting for the majority of capacity additions in power generation today.Tens of gigawatts of wind, hydropower and solar photovoltaic capacity are installed worldwide every year in a renewable energy market that is worth more than a hundred billion USD annually. Other renewable power technology markets are also emerging. Recent years have seen dramatic reductions in renewable energy technologies costs as a result of R&D and accelerated deployment. Yet policy-makers are often not aware of the latest cost data. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) Member Countries have asked for better, objective cost data for renewable energy technologies.This working paper aims to serve that need and is part of a set of ve reports on hydropower, wind, biomass, concentrating solar power and solar pholtovoltaics that address the current costs of these key renewable power technology options.The reports provide valuable insights into the current state of deployment, types of technologies available and their costs and performance.The analysis is based on a range of data sources with the objective of developing a uniform dataset that supports comparison across technologies of different cost indicators - equipment, project and levelised cost of electricity and allows for technology and cost trends, as well as their variability to be assessed. The papers are not a detailed nancial analysis of project economics. However, they do provide simple, clear metrics based on up-to-date and reliable information which can be used to evaluate the costs and performance of different renewable power generation technologies.These reports help to inform the current debate about renewable power generation and assist governments and key decision makers to make informed decisions on policy and investment. The dataset used in these papers will be augmented over time with new project cost data collected from IRENA Member Countries.The combined data will be the basis for forthcoming IRENA publications and toolkits to assist countries with renewable energy policy development and planning.Therefore, we welcome your feedback on the data and analysis presented in these papers, and we hope that they help you in your policy, planning and investment decisions.
Dolf Gielen Director, Innovation and Technology
Contents
KEY FINDINGS LISt oF tabLES aND FIGurES 1. INtroDuCtIoN 1.1 Different measures of cost 1.2 Levelised cost of electricity generation 2. HYDroPoWEr tECHNoLoGIES aND rESourCES 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Hydropower technologies 2.3 Hydropower classication by type 2.4 Large and small hydropower schemes 2.5 the hydropower resource 3. GLobaL HYDroPoWEr CaPaCItY aND GENEratIoN trENDS 3.1 Current hydropower capacity and generation 3.2 the outlook for hydropower 4. tHE CurrENt CoSt oF HYDroPoWEr 4.1 total installed capital costs of hydropower 4.2 breakdown of hydropower costs by source 4.3 operation and maintenance costs 5. CoSt rEDuCtIoN PotENtIaLS 6. tHE LEVELISED CoSt oF ELECtrICItY FroM HYDroPoWEr 6.1 results from studies of the LCoE of hydropower 6.2 Hydropower LCoE sensitivity to the discount rate rEFErENCES
i ii 1 1 3 4 4 5 8 10 12 14 14 15 17 17 21 24 26 27 27 31
32
Key ndings
1. Average investment costs for large hydropower plants with storage typically range from as low as
USD 1 050/kW to as high as USD 7 650/kW while the range for small hydropower projects is between USD 1 300/kW and USD 8 000/kW. Adding additional capacity at existing hydropower schemes or existing dams that dont have a hydropower plant can be significantly cheaper, and can cost as little as USD 500/kW.
Table 1: Typical insTalled cosTs and lcoe of hydropower projecTs Installed costs (USD/kW) Operations and maintenance costs (%/year of installed costs) 2 2.5 14 16 Capacity factor (%) Levelised cost of electricity (2010 USD/kWh)
Large hydro Small hydro Refurbishment/upgrade
1 050 7 650 1 300 8 000 500 1 000
25 to 90 20 to 95
0.02 0.19 0.02 0.27 0.01 0.05
Note: The levelised cost of electricity calculations assume a 10 % cost of capital
2. Annual operations and maintenance costs (O&M) are often quoted as a percentage of the investment cost per
kW. Typical values range from 1 % to 4 %. Large hydropower projects will typically average around 2 % to 2.5 %. Small hydropower projects dont have the same economies of scale and can have O&M costs of between 1 % and 6 %, or in some cases even higher.
3. The cost of electricity generated by hydropower is generally low although the costs are very site-specific.
The levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) for hydropower refurbishments and upgrades ranges from as low as USD 0.01/kWh for additional capacity at an existing hydropower project to around USD 0.05/kWh for a more expensive upgrade project assuming a 10 % cost of capital. The LCOE for large hydropower projects typically ranges from USD 0.02 to USD 0.19/kWh assuming a 10 % cost of capital, making the best hydropower power projects the most cost competitive generating option available today. The LCOE range for small hydropower projects for a number of real world projects in developing countries evaluated by IRENA was between USD 0.02 and USD 0.10/kWh, making small hydro a very cost competitive option to supply electricity to the grid, or to supply off-grid rural electrification schemes. Very small hydropower projects can have higher costs than this and can have an LCOE of USD 0.27/kWh or more for pico-hydro systems.
4. Significant hydropower potential remains unexploited. The technical potential is some 4.8 times greater
than todays electricity generation. The total worldwide technical potential for hydropower is estimated at 15 955 TWh/year.
5. Hydropower, when associated with storage in reservoirs, contributes to the stability of the electrical system
by providing flexibility and grid services. Hydropower can help with grid stability, as spinning turbines can be ramped up more rapidly than any other generation source. Additionally, with large reservoirs, hydropower can store energy over weeks, months, seasons or even years. Hydropower can therefore provide the full range of ancillary services required for the high penetration of variable renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar.
Cost Analysis of Hydropower
List of tables
Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 6.1 Denition of small hydropower by country (MW) Hydropower resource potentials in selected countries top ten countries by installed hydropower capacity and generation share, 2010 Sensitivity of the LCoE of hydropower projects to discount rates and economic lifetimes 11 13 14 31
List of gures
Figure 1.1 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 3.1 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 renewable power generation cost indicators and boundaries typical low head hydropower plant with storage Working areas of different turbine types Comparison of the lifecycle cost of electricity storage systems Capacity factors for hydropower projects in the Clean Development Mechanism World hydropower technical resource potential Hydropower generation by region, 1971 to 2009 Summary of the installed costs of large-scale hydropower plants from a range of studies total installed hydropower cost ranges by country Investment costs as a function of installed capacity and turbine head Installed capital costs for small hydro in developing countries by capacity Cost breakdown of an indicative 500 MW greeneld hydropower project in the united States Cost breakdown for small hydro projects in developing countries Electro-mechanical equipment for hydro as a function capacity by country (log-scale) operations and maintenance costs for small hydro in developing countries Levelised cost of electricity for hydropower plants by country and region the LCoE of hydropower in the united States the LCoE of small hydropower for a range of projects in developing countries 2 6 7 10 11 12 15 18 19 19 20 22 22 24 25 28 29 29 30
Figure 6.1: the minimum to average levelised cost of electricity for small hydropower in the European union
ii
1. Introduction
enewable energy technologies can help countries meet their policy goals for secure, reliable and affordable energy to expand electricity access and promote development. This paper is part of a series on the cost and performance of renewable energy technologies produced by IRENA. The goal of these papers is to assist government decision-making and ensure that governments have access to up-to-date and reliable information on the costs and performance of renewable energy technologies.
Without access to reliable information on the relative costs and benets of renewable energy technologies it is difficult, if not impossible, for governments to arrive at an accurate assessment of which renewable energy technologies are the most appropriate for their particular circumstances. These papers ll a signicant gap in publically available information because there is a lack of accurate, comparable, reliable and up-to-date data on the costs and performance of renewable energy technologies. The rapid growth in installed capacity of renewable energy technologies and the associated cost reductions mean that even data one or two years old can signicantly overestimate the cost of electricity from renewable energy technologies although this is not generally the case for hydropower, which is a mature technology. There is also a signicant amount of perceived knowledge about the cost and performance of renewable power generation that is not accurate, or indeed even misleading. Conventions on how to calculate cost can inuence the outcome signicantly, and it is imperative that these are well-documented. The absence of accurate and reliable data on the cost and performance of renewable power generation technologies is therefore a signicant barrier to the uptake of these technologies. Providing this information will help governments, policy-makers, investors and utilities make informed decisions about the role renewables can play in their power generation mix. This paper examines the xed and variable cost components of hydropower by country and region and provides the levelised cost of electricity from hydropower, given a number of key assumptions. This up-to-date analysis of the costs of generating electricity from hydropower
will allow a fair comparison of hydropower with other generating technologies.1
1.1 DIFFErENt MEaSurES oF CoSt

Cost can be measured in a number of different ways, and each way of accounting for the cost of power generation brings its own insights. The costs that can be examined include equipment costs (e.g. wind and hydropower turbines, PV modules, solar reectors), replacement costs, nancing costs, total installed cost, xed and variable operating and maintenance costs (O&M), fuel costs and the levelised cost of energy (LCOE). The analysis of costs can be very detailed, but for purposes of comparison and transparency, the approach used here is a simplied one. This allows greater scrutiny of the underlying data and assumptions, improved transparency and condence in the analysis, as well as facilitating the comparison of costs by country or region for the same technologies in order to identify what are the key drivers in any differences. The three indicators that have been selected are: Equipment cost (factory gate free on board and delivered at site cost, insurance and freight); Total installed project cost, including xed nancing costs2; and The levelised cost of electricity LCOE.
1 IRENA, through its other work programmes, is also looking at the costs and benets, as well as the macro-econmic impacts, of renewable power generation technologies. See WWW.IRENA.ORG for further details. 2 Banks or other nancial institutions will often charge a fee, usually a percentage of the total funds sought, to arrange the debt nancing of a project. These costs are often reported separately under project development costs.
The analysis in this paper focuses on estimating the cost of hydropower energy from the perspective of an individual investor, whether it is a state-owned electricity generation utility, an independent power producer, an individual or a community looking to invest in renewables (Figure 1.1). The analysis excludes the impact of government incentives or subsidies, system balancing costs associated with variable renewables and any system-wide cost-savings from the merit order effect3. Further, the analysis does not take into account any CO2 pricing, nor the benets of renewables in reducing other externalities (e.g. reduced local air pollution, contamination of natural environments). Similarly, the benets of renewables being insulated from volatile fossil fuel prices have not been quantied. These issues are important but are covered by other programmes of work at IRENA. It is important to include clear denitions of the technology categories, where this is relevant, to ensure that cost comparisons are robust and provide useful insights (e.g. small hydro vs. large hydro, run-of-river vs. pumped hydro). It is also useful to identify any additional functionality and/or qualities of the renewable power generation technologies being investigated (e.g. the ability to store water for later generation and provide ancillary grid services). It is vital to ensure that system
boundaries for costs are clearly set and that the available data are directly comparable. The data used for the comparisons in this paper come from a variety of sources, such as business journals, industry associations, consultancies, governments, auctions and tenders. Every effort has been made to ensure that these data are directly comparable and are for the same system boundaries. Where this is not the case, the data have been corrected to a common basis using the best available data or assumptions. It is planned that these data will be complemented by detailed surveys of real world project data in forthcoming work by the Agency. An important point is that, although this paper tries to examine costs, strictly speaking, the data available are actually prices, and not even true market average prices, but price indicators. The difference between costs and prices is determined by the amount above, or below, the normal prot that would be seen in a competitive market. The cost of equipment at the factory gate is often available from market surveys or from other sources. A key difficulty is often reconciling different sources of data to identify why data for the same period differs. The balance of capital costs in total project costs
Transport cost Import levies
Project development Site preparation Grid connection Working capital Auxiliary equipment Non-commercial cost
Operation & Maintenance Cost of finance Resource quality Capacity factor Life span
Factory gate Equipment
On site Equipment
Project cost
LCOE :Levelized cost of electricity
(Discounted lifetime costs divided by discounted lifetime generation)
figure 1.1: renewable power generaTion cosT indicaTors and boundaries
3 See EWEA, Wind Energy and Electricity Prices, April 2010 for a discussion
tends to vary even more widely than power generation equipment costs as it is often based on signicant local content, which depends on the cost structure of where the project is being developed. Total installed costs can therefore vary signicantly by project, country and region depending on a wide range of factors.
The formula used for calculating the LCOE of renewable energy technologies is:
LCOE =
n t=1
It + Mt + Ft (1+r)t Et (1+r)t
n t=1
1.2 LEVELISED CoSt oF ELECtrICItY GENEratIoN

The LCOE of renewable energy technologies varies by technology, country and project based on the renewable energy resource, capital and operating costs, and the efficiency/performance of the technology. The approach used in the analysis presented here is based on a discounted cash ow (DCF) analysis. This method of calculating the cost of renewable energy technologies is based on discounting nancial ows (annual, quarterly or monthly) over the project lifetime to a common basis, taking into consideration the time value of money. Given the capital-intensive nature of most renewable power generation technologies and the fact that fuel costs are low, or often zero, the weighted average cost of capital (WACC), often also referred to as the discount rate4, used to evaluate the project has a critical impact on the LCOE. There are many potential trade-offs to be considered when developing an LCOE modelling approach. The approach taken here is relatively simplistic, given the fact that the model needs to be applied to a wide range of technologies in different countries and regions. However, this has the additional advantage that the analysis is transparent and easy to understand. In addition, a more detailed LCOE analysis results in a signicantly higher overhead in terms of the granularity of assumptions required. This often gives the impression of greater accuracy, but when it is not possible to robustly populate the model with assumptions, or to differentiate assumptions based on real world data, then the accuracy of the approach can be misleading.
Where: LCOE = the average lifetime levelised cost of electricity generation; It = investment expenditures in the year t; Mt = operations and maintenance expenditures in the year t; Ft = fuel expenditures in the year t; Et = electricity generation in the year t; r = discount rate; and n = economic life of the system.
All costs presented in this paper are real 2010 USD, that is to say after ination has been taken into account.5 The LCOE is the price of electricity required for a project where revenues would equal costs, including making a return on the capital invested equal to the discount rate. An electricity price above this would yield a greater return on capital, while a price below it would yielder a lower return on capital, or even a loss. As already mentioned, although different cost measures are useful in different situations, the LCOE of renewable energy technologies is a widely used measure by which renewable energy technologies can be evaluated for modelling or policy development. Similarly, more detailed discounted cash ow approaches that take into account taxation, subsidies and other incentives will be used by renewable energy project developers to assess the protability of real world projects.
4 These are not necessarily the same but in the analysis in this paper are assumed to be equivalent values. 5 An analysis based on nominal values with specic ination assumptions for each of the cost components is beyond the scope of this analysis. Project developers will develop their own specic cash ow models to identify the protability of a project from their perspective.
2. HYDROPOWER TECHNOLOGIES AND RESOURCES

2.1 INtroDuCtIoN
Hydropower is a renewable energy source based on the natural water cycle. Hydropower is the most mature, reliable and cost-effective renewable power generation technology available (Brown, 2011). Hydropower schemes often have signicant exibility in their design and can be designed to meet base-load demands with relatively high capacity factors, or have higher installed capacities and a lower capacity factor, but meet a much larger share of peak demand. Hydropower is the largest renewable energy source, and it produces around 16 % of the worlds electricity and over four-fths of the worlds renewable electricity. Currently, more than 25 countries in the world depend on hydropower for 90 % of their electricity supply (99.3 % in Norway), and 12 countries are 100 % reliant on hydro. Hydro produces the bulk of electricity in 65 countries and plays some role in more than 150 countries. Canada, China and the United States are the countries which have the largest hydropower generation capacity (IPCC, 2011; REN21, 2011; and IHA, 2011). Hydropower is the most exible source of power generation available and is capable of responding to demand uctuations in minutes, delivering base-load power and, when a reservoir is present, storing electricity over weeks, months, seasons or even years (Brown, 2011 and IPCC, 2011). One key advantage of hydropower is its unrivalled load following capability (i.e. it can meet load uctuations minute-by-minute). Although other plants, notably conventional thermal power plants, can respond to load uctuations, their response times are not as fast and often are not as exible over their full output band. In addition to grid exibility and security services (spinning reserve), hydropower dams with large reservoir storage be used to store energy over time to meet system peaks or demand decoupled from inows. Storage can be over days, weeks, months, seasons or even years depending on the size of the reservoir. As a result of this exibility, hydropower is an ideal complement to variable renewables as, when the sun shines or the wind blows, reservoir levels can be allowed to increase for a time when there is no wind or sunshine. Similarly, when large ramping up or down of supply is needed due to increases or decreases in solar or wind generation, hydro can meet these demands. Hydroelectric generating units are able to start up quickly and operate efficiently almost instantly, even when used only for one or two hours. This is in contrast to thermal plant where start-up can take several hours or more, during which time efficiency is signicantly below design levels. In addition, hydropower plants can operate efficiently at partial loads, which is not the case for many thermal plants.6 Reservoir and pumped storage hydropower can be used to reduce the frequency of start-ups and shutdowns of conventional thermal plants and maintain a balance between supply and demand, thereby reducing the load-following burden of thermal plants (Brown, 2011). Hydropower is the only large-scale and cost-efficient storage technology available today. Despite promising developments in other energy storage technologies, hydropower is still the only technology offering economically viable large-scale storage. It is also a relatively efficient energy storage option.
6 Although many modern gas-red plants can operate within one or two percentage points of their design efficiency over a relatively wide load range, this is usually not the case for older plants and coal-red plants. Start-stop operation at partial loads for short periods therefore implies low efficiencies, will often increase O&M costs and may prematurely shorten the life of some components.
The system integration capabilities of hydropower are therefore particularly useful for allowing the large-scale large penetration of wind and other variable power sources (IEA, 2010c). Systems with signicant shares of large-scale hydro with signicant reservoir storage will therefore be able to integrate higher levels of variable renewables at low cost than systems without the benet of hydropower. Hydropower can serve as a power source for both large, centralized and small, isolated grids. Small hydropower can be a cost-competitive option for rural electrication for remote communities in developed and developing countries and can displace a signicant proportion of diesel-red generation. In developing countries, another advantage of hydropower technology is that it can have important multiplier effects by providing both energy and water supply services (e.g. ood control and irrigation), thus bringing social and economic benets. Hydropower is generally CO2-free in operation,7 but there are GHG emissions from the construction of hydropower schemes8, from silting in the reservoirs and from the decomposition of organic material (predominantly an issue in tropical regions). Hydropower schemes can have an important spatial and visual footprint. One of the greatest challenges with the development of hydropower is ensuring that the design and construction of hydropower projects is truly sustainable. This means that, in addition to an economic assessment, proper social and environmental impact assessments must be conducted and if there are negative impacts on local populations, ecosystems and biodiversity, these issues need to be mitigated in the project plan. In the past, this is an area where hydropower has had a poor track record in some cases. Some of the more important impacts that need to be considered and mitigated include changes in river ow regimes, water quality, changes in biodiversity, population displacement and the possible effects of dams on sh migration.9 Although hydropower technologies are mature, technological innovation and R&D into variable-speed generation technology, efficient tunnelling techniques,
integrated river basin management, hydrokinetics, silt erosion resistant materials and environmental issues (e.g. sh-friendly turbines) will provide continuous improvement of environmental performance and, in many cases, costs reductions (IPCC, 2011).
2.2 HYDroPoWEr tECHNoLoGIES

Hydropower has been used by mankind since ancient times. The energy of falling water was used by the Greeks to turn waterwheels that transferred their mechanical energy to a grinding stone to turn wheat into our more than 2000 years ago. In the 1700s, mechanical hydropower was used extensively for milling and pumping. The modern era of hydropower development began in 1870 when the rst hydroelectric power plant was installed in Cragside, England. The commercial use of hydropower started in 1880 in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where a dynamo driven by a water turbine was used to provide theatre and store front lighting (IPCC, 2011). These early hydropower plants had small capacities by todays standards but pioneered the development of the modern hydropower industry. Hydropower schemes range in size from just a few watts for pico-hydro to several GW or more for large-scale projects. Larger projects will usually contain a number of turbines, but smaller projects may rely on just one turbine. The two largest hydropower projects in the world are the 14 GW Itaipu project in Brazil and the Three Gorges project in China with 22.4 GW. These two projects alone produce 80 to 100 TWh/year (IPCC, 2011). Large hydropower systems tend to be connected to centralised grids in order to ensure that there is enough demand to meet their generation capacity. Small hydropower plants can be, and often are, used in isolated areas off-grid or in mini-grids. In isolated grid systems, if large reservoirs are not possible, natural seasonal ow variations might require that hydropower plants be combined with other generation sources in order to ensure continuous supply during dry periods.
7 Hydropower projects account for an estimated half of all certied emissions reduction credits in the CDM pipeline for renewable energy projects (Branche, 2012). 8 These can be direct (e.g. CO2 emissions from construction vehicles) or indirect (e.g. the CO2 emissions from the production of cement). 9 The International Hydropower Association has a hydropower sustainability assessment protocol that enables the production of a sustainability prole for a project through the assessment of performance within important sustainability. www.hydropower.org.
Hydropower transforms the potential energy of a mass of water owing in a river or stream with a certain vertical fall (termed the head10). The potential annual power generation of a hydropower project is proportional to the head and ow of water. Hydropower plants use a relatively simple concept to convert the energy potential of the owing water to turn a turbine, which, in turn, provides the mechanical energy required to drive a generator and produce electricity (Figure 2.1). The main components of a conventional hydropower plant are: Dam: Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back water, creating a large water reservoir that can be used as storage. There may also be a de-silter to cope with sediment build-up behind the dam. Intake, penstock and surge chamber: Gates on the dam open and gravity conducts the water through the penstock (a cavity or
pipeline) to the turbine. There is sometimes a head race before the penstock. A surge chamber or tank is used to reduce surges in water pressure that could potentially damage or lead to increased stresses on the turbine. Turbine: The water strikes the turbine blades and turns the turbine, which is attached to a generator by a shaft. There is a range of congurations possible with the generator above or next to the turbine. The most common type of turbine for hydropower plants in use today is the Francis Turbine, which allows a side-by-side conguration with the generator. Generators: As the turbine blades turn, the rotor inside the generator also turns and electric current is produced as magnets rotate inside the xed-coil generator to produce alternating current (AC).
Reservoir
Electrical Energy
Powerhouse Long Distance Power Lines
Potential Energy
Intake
Generator
Kinetic Energy
Penstock Turbine River
Mechanical Energy
figure 2.1: Typical low head hydropower planT wiTh sTorage (picTure adapTed from hydropower news and informaTion (hTTp://www.alTernaTive-energy-news.info/Technology/hydro/)
10 Head refers to the vertical height of the fall of a stream or river. Higher heads provide a greater pressure and therefore greater hydropower potential.
Transformer: The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC voltage and converts it into higher-voltage current for more efficient (lower losses) long-distance transport. Transmission lines: Send the electricity generated to a grid-connection point, or to a large industrial consumer directly, where the electricity is converted back to a lowervoltage current and fed into the distribution network. In remote areas, new transmission lines can represent a considerable planning hurdle and expense. Outow: Finally, the used water is carried out through pipelines, called tailraces, and re-enters the river downstream. The outow system may also include spillways which allow the water to bypass the generation system and be spilled in times of ood or very high inows and reservoir levels. Hydropower plants usually have very long lifetimes and, depending on the particular component, are in the range 30 to 80 years. There are many examples of hydropower plants that have been in operation for more than 100 years with regular upgrading of electrical and mechanical systems but no major upgrades of the most expensive civil structures (dams, tunnels) (IPCC, 2011). The water used to drive hydropower turbines is not consumed but is returned to the river system. This may not be immediately in front of the dam and can be several kilometres or further downstream, with a not insignicant impact on the river system in that area. However, in many cases, a hydropower system can facilitate the use of the water for other purposes or provide other services such as irrigation, ood control and/or more stable drinking water supplies. It can also improve conditions for navigation, shing, tourism or leisure activities. The components of a hydropower project that require the most time and construction effort are the dam, water intake, head race, surge chamber, penstock, tailrace and powerhouse. The penstock conveys water under pressure to the turbine and can be made of, or lined with, steel, iron, plastics, concrete or wood. The penstock is sometimes created by tunnelling through rock, where it may be lined or unlined.
The powerhouse contains most of the mechanical and electrical equipment and is made of conventional building materials although in some cases this maybe underground. The primary mechanical and electrical components of a small hydropower plant are the turbines and generators. Turbines are devices that convert the energy from falling water into rotating shaft power. There are two main turbine categories: reactionary and impulse. Impulse turbines extract the energy from the momentum of the owing water, as opposed to the weight of the water. Reaction turbines extract energy from the pressure of the water head. The most suitable and efficient turbine for a hydropower project will depend on the site and hydropower scheme design, with the key considerations being the head and ow rate (Figure 2.2). The Francis turbine is a reactionary turbine and is the most widely used hydropower turbine in existence. Francis turbines are highly efficient and can be used for a wide range of head and ow rates. The Kaplan reactionary turbine was derived from the Francis turbine but allows efficient hydropower production at heads between 10 and 70 metres, much lower than for a Francis turbine. Impulse turbines such as Pelton, Turgo and cross-ow (sometimes referred to as Banki-Michell or Ossberger) are also available. The Pelton turbine is the most commonly used turbine with high heads. BankiMichell or Ossberger turbines have lower efficiencies but are less dependent on discharge and have lower maintenance requirements. There are two types of generators that can be used in small hydropower plants: asynchronous (induction)
1000
Pelton Turbines
10 10 0M W
00
MW
100 Head (m)
Turgo
10 1M W
MW
Francis Turbines
Crossow
10
0,1 M
W
Kaplan Turbines
0 1 10 Flow (m /s) 100 1000
figure 2.2: working areas of differenT Turbine Types

Source: Based on NHA and HRF, 2010.
and synchronous machines (NHA and HRF, 2010). Asynchronous generators are generally used for microhydro projects. Small hydropower, where a suitable site exists, is often a very cost-effective electric energy generation option. It will generally need to be located close to loads or existing transmission lines to make its exploitation economic. Small hydropower schemes typically take less time to construct than large-scale ones although planning and approval processes are often similar (Egre and Milewski, 2002). Large-scale hydropower plants with storage can largely de-couple the timing of hydropower generation from variable river ows. Large storage reservoirs may be sufficient to buffer seasonal or multi-seasonal changes in river ows, whereas smaller reservoirs may be able to buffer river ows on a daily or weekly basis. With a very large reservoir relative to the size of the hydropower plant (or very consistent river ows), hydropower plants can generate power at a nearconstant level throughout the year (i.e. operate as a base-load plant). Alternatively, if the scheme is designed to have hydropower capacity that far exceeds the amount of reservoir storage, the hydropower plant is sometimes referred to as a peaking plant and is designed to be able to generate large quantities of electricity to meet peak electricity system demand. Where the site allows, these are design choices that will depend on the costs and likely revenue streams from different congurations.
dam and generation is dependent on the timing and size of river ows. Reservoir (storage) hydropower schemes have the ability to store water behind the dam in a reservoir in order to de-couple generation from hydro inows. Reservoir capacities can be small or very large, depending on the characteristics of the site and the economics of dam construction. Pumped storage hydropower schemes use off-peak electricity to pump water from a reservoir located after the tailrace to the top of the reservoir, so that the pumped storage plant can generate at peak times and provide grid stability and exibility services. These three types of hydropower plants are the most common and can be developed across a broad spectrum of size and capacity from the very small to very large, depending on the hydrology and topography of the watershed. They can be grid-connected or form part of an isolated local network.
run-of-river technologies
In run-of-river (ROR) hydropower systems (and reservoir systems), electricity production is driven by the natural ow and elevation drop of a river. Run-of-river schemes have little or no storage, although even run-of-river schemes without storage will sometimes have a dam.12 Run-of-river hydropower plants with storage are said to have pondage. This allows very short-term water storage (hourly or daily). Plants with pondage can regulate water ows to some extent and shift generation a few hours or more over the day to when it is most needed. A plant without pondage has no storage and therefore cannot schedule its production. The timing of generation from these schemes will depend on river ows. Where a dam is not used, a portion of the river water might be diverted to a channel or pipeline (penstock) to convey the water to the turbine.
2.3 HYDroPoWEr CLaSSIFICatIoN bY tYPE

Hydropower plants can be constructed in a variety of sizes and with different characteristics. In addition to the importance of the head and ow rate, hydropower schemes can be put into the following categories:11 Run-of-river hydropower projects have no, or very little, storage capacity behind the
11 In addition to these established and mature hydropower technologies, so-called in-stream hydropower technologies allow the generation of electricity without disruption to the river system and cost of dam construction. In-stream hydropower technologies have yet to be deployed at scale and are beyond the scope of this report. However, R&D is progressing and they have a number of interesting features that mean that it is worth pursuing. 12 The denition of run-of-river hydropower projects varies around the world. A strict denition is that it is a system without storage, but in many countries this is applied to systems with several hours or even days of storage.
Run-of-river schemes are often found downstream of reservoir projects as one reservoir can regulate the generation of one or many downstream run-of-river plant. The major advantage of this approach is that it can be less expensive than a series of reservoir dams because of the lower construction costs. However, in other cases, systems will be constrained to be run-of-river because a large reservoir at the site is not feasible. The operation regime of run-of-river plants, with and without pondage, depends heavily on hydro inows. Although it is difficult to generalise, some systems will have relatively stable inows while others will experience wide variations in inows. A drawback of these systems is that when inows are high and the storage available is full, water will have to be spilled. This represents a lost opportunity for generation and the plant design will have to trade off capacity size to take advantage of high inows, with the average amount of time these high inows occur in a normal year. The value of the electricity produced will determine what the trade-off between capacity and spilled water will be and this will be taken into account when the scheme is being designed.
xed. Reduced costs for tunnelling or canals can open up increased opportunities to generate electricity. Hydropower can facilitate the low-cost integration of variable renewables into the grid, as it is able to respond almost instantaneously to changes in the amount of electricity running through the grid and to effectively store electricity generated by wind and solar by holding inows in the reservoir rather than generating. This water can then be released when the sun is not shining or the wind not blowing. In Denmark, for example, the high level of variable wind generation (>20 % of the annual electricity production) is managed in part through interconnections to Norway where there is substantial hydropower storage (Nordel, 2008a).
Pumped storage hydropower technologies

Pumped hydro plants allow off-peak electricity to be used to pump water from a river or lower reservoir up to a higher reservoir to allow its release during peak times. Pumped storage plants are not energy sources but instead are storage devices. Although the losses of the pumping process contribute to the cost of storage, they are able to provide large-scale energy storage and can be a useful tool for providing grid stability services and integrating variable renewables, such as wind and solar. Pumped storage and conventional hydropower with reservoir storage are the only large-scale, low-cost electricity storage options available today (Figure 2.3). Pumped storage represents about 2.2 % of all generation capacity in the United States, 18 % in Japan and 19 % in Austria (IEA, 2012 and Louis, 2012). Pumped storage power plants are much less expensive than lead-acid and Li-ion batteries. However, an emerging solution for short-term storage are SodiumSulphur (NaS) batteries, but these are not as mature as pumped hydro and costs need to be conrmed (Figure 2.3). However, pumped storage plants are generally more expensive than conventional large hydropower schemes with storage, and it is often very difficult to nd good sites to develop pumped hydro storage schemes. Pumped hydropower systems can use electricity, not just at off-peak periods, but at other times where having some additional generation actually helps to reduce grid costs or improve system security. One example is where spinning reserve committed from thermal power plants
Hydropower schemes with reservoirs for storage

Hydropower schemes with large reservoirs behind dams can store signicant quantities of water and effectively act as an electricity storage system. As with other hydropower systems, the amount of electricity that is generated is determined by the volume of water ow and the amount of hydraulic head available. The advantage of hydropower plants with storage is that generation can be decoupled from the timing of rainfall or glacial melt. For instance, in areas where snow melt provides the bulk of inows, these can be stored through spring and summer to meet the higher electricity demand of winter in cold climate countries, or until summer to meet peak electricity demands for cooling. Hydropower schemes with large-scale reservoirs thus offer unparalleled exibility to an electricity system. The design of the hydropower plant and the type and size of reservoir that can be built are very much dependent on opportunities offered by the topography and are dened by the landscape of the plant site. However, improvements in civil engineering techniques that reduce costs mean that what is economic is not
0.5
0.4
2010 USD/kWhlife
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0 10 MW Lead-acid batteries 10 MW 100 MW 25 kW - 10 MW 200 MW 500 MW Large-scale CAES Li-ion batteries NaS batteries Flow batteries Pumped hydro
figure 2.3: comparison of The lifecycle cosT of elecTriciTy sTorage sysTems

Source: IRENA, 2012.
would be at a level where they would operate at low, inefficient loads. Pumped hydro demand can allow them to generate in a more optimal load range, thus reducing the costs of providing spinning reserve. The benets from pumped storage hydropower in the power system will depend on the overall mix of existing generating plants and the transmission network. However, its value will tend to increase as the penetration of variable renewables for electricity generation grows. The potential for pumped storage is signicant but not always located near demand centres. From a technical viewpoint, Norway alone has a long-term potential of 10 GW to 25 GW (35 TWh or more) and could almost double the present installed capacity of 29 GW (EURELECTRIC, 2011).
other renewable projects. For a given set of inows into a catchment area, a hydropower scheme has considerable exibility in the design process. One option is to have a high installed capacity and low capacity factor to provide electricity predominantly to meet peak demands and provide ancillary grid services. Alternatively, the installed capacity chosen can be lower and capacity factors higher, with potentially less exibility in generation to meet peak demands and provide ancillary services.13 Analysis of data from CDM projects helps to emphasise this point. Data for 142 projects around the world yield capacity factors of between 23 % and 95 %. The average capacity factor was 50 % for these projects (Figure 2.4).
Hydropower capacity factors

The capacity factor achieved by hydropower projects needs to be looked at somewhat differently than for
2.4 LarGE aND SMaLL HYDroPoWEr SCHEMES

A classication of hydropower by head is interesting because it is this that determines the water pressure on the turbines, which, together with discharge, are
13 This is a generalisation, and it is impossible to be categorical about this distinction as there is a continuum of possibilities over a year for each type of plant to provide all these services.
10 Cost Analysis of Hydropower
100% 90%
80% 70%
Capacity factor (%)
60%
50% 40%
30% 20% 10%

0%
Project
figure 2.4: capaciTy facTors for hydropower projecTs in The clean developmenT mechanism
Source: Branche, 2011.
the most important parameters for deciding the type of hydraulic turbine to be used. However, generally speaking, hydro is usually classied by size (generating capacity) and the type of scheme (run-of-river, reservoir, pumped storage). Although there is no agreed denition, the following bands are typical to describe the size of hydropower projects: Large-hydro: 100 MW or more of capacity feeding into a large electricity grid; Medium-hydro: From 20 MW to 100 MW almost always feeding a grid; Small-hydro: From 1 MW to 20 MW usually feeding into a grid; Mini-hydro: From 100 kW to 1 MW that can be either stand-alone, mini-grid or gridconnected; Micro-hydro: From 5 kW to 100 kW that provide power for a small community or rural industry in remote areas away from the grid; and
Pico-hydro: From a few hundred watts up to 5 kW (often used in remote areas away from the grid). However, there is no agreed classication of small and large hydro and what constitutes small varies from country to country (Table 2.1). A given countrys denition of what is a small hydropower system is often important because it can determine which schemes are covered by support policies for small hydro and which are covered by those (if any) for large hydro.
Table 2.1: definiTion of small hydropower by counTry (mw)

Small hydropower denition (MW)
Brazil Canada China European Union India Norway Sweden United States
Sources: IPCC, 2011 and IJHD, 2010.
30 < 50 50 20 25 10 1.5 5-100
11
Small hydropower plants are more likely to be run-ofriver facilities than are large hydropower plants, but reservoir (storage) and run-of-river hydropower plants of all sizes utilise the same basic components and technologies. The development of small hydropower plants for rural areas involves similar environmental, social, technical and economic considerations to those faced by large hydropower. Local management, ownership and community participation, technology transfer and capacity building are basic issues that will allow sustainable small hydropower plants to be developed. Small hydropower plants have been used to meet rural electrication goals in many countries. Currently there is 61 GW of small hydropower capacity in operation globally (Catanase and Phang, 2010). China has been particularly successful at installing small hydropower projects to meet rural electrication goals and 160 TWh was produced from 45 000 small hydro projects in China in 2010 (IN-SHP, 2010).
2.5 tHE HYDroPoWEr rESourCE

The overall technical and economic potential for hydropower globally is available from some literature sources. However, the accuracy of these estimates is open to debate. In many cases country-level estimates of technical or economic potentials have been calculated using different criteria and combining these results means the totals are not directly comparable. Efforts to improve the mapping of the global hydropower resource are ongoing, but further work is required and should be encouraged. However, taking into account these uncertainties, it is clear that the hydropower resource is very large, with many parts of the world being fortunate enough to have large resource potentials (Figure 2.4). Virtually all regions have some hydropower resources although these resources are sometimes concentrated in a small number of countries and are not always located adjacent to demand centres.
3000
2500
2000
TWh/year
1500
1000
500
figure 2.5: world hydropower Technical resource poTenTial14
Source: WEC, 2010.
14 This is based on taking the theoretical total hydropower generation that could be achieved in a country by using all natural inows as if they dropped to sea level and then assuming what proportion of this could technically be converted to hydropower with todays technologies. However, it is not known for certain whether all of the compiled data sources adhered to this methodology so the totals must be treated with caution.
Table 2.2: hydropower resource poTenTials in selecTed counTries Gross theoretical resource China Russia Brazil Canada India United States Tajikistan Peru Norway Congo (Democratic Republic) Venezuela Indonesia Mexico
Source: WEC, 2010.
Technically exploitable resource (TWh) 2 474 1 670 1 250 827 660 1 339 264 395 240 774 261 402 135
Economically exploitable resource 1 753 852 818 536 442 376 264 260 206 145 100 40 33
Ratio of technical to economic 0.71 0.51 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.28 1.00 0.66 0.86 0.19 0.38 0.10 0.24
6 083 2 295 3 040 2 067 2 638 2 040 527 1 577 600 1 397 731 2 147 430
The total technical hydropower resource potential depends on a number of critical assumptions in addition to average inows into a catchment area. However, despite the uncertainty around the calculations, the estimated technical potential for hydropower is as much as 15 955 TWh/year or 4.8 times greater than todays production of hydropower. Estimates of the economically feasible hydropower capacity are not comprehensive enough to provide global estimates, but Table 2.2 presents data for a number of countries with important hydropower resources. What the economically feasible hydropower potential is for a given country is a moving target. The cost of alternative generation options, which sets the limit at which the LCOE of a hydropower project would be economically feasible, as well as the costs of developing hydropower projects (e.g. through advances in civil engineering, cost reductions for equipment), will change over time. The simple analysis in Table 2.2 also highlights the limitations of some of the available data. The very high ratio of economic to technically feasible resources for some countries tends to suggest that only hydropower resources that have already been examined in detail have been included in the analysis. In other cases, the reason is that the country does have very economic hydropower resources.
Further work to better characterise the hydropower resource under standard denitions would help improve the comparability of resource estimates between countries and with other renewable power generation options. The efforts underway to achieve this should be encouraged. Africa remains the region with the lowest ratio of deployment-to-potential, and the opportunities for growth are very large. However, in Africa complicated competing priorities and concerns mean that hydropower development is not straightforward. The impact of hydropower development on local populations, their impacts on water use and rights, as well as issues over the biodiversity impacts of largescale hydropower developments, mean that signicant planning, consultation and project feasibility assessments are required. This is often required to take place in consultation with countries downstream, given the importance of Africas rivers to the water supply of each country. Only once all major concerns are addressed can projects move to the detailed design phase and look to secure nancing. The critical issue in Africa, and other regions, of the allocation of water rights between countries and different users within countries can be a signicant delaying factor in getting project approval and funding. Growing populations and increasing water scarcity in some regions mean that these issues are complex and potentially divisive, but, without agreement, development is unlikely to move forward.
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3. GLOBAL HYDROPOWER CAPACITY AND GENERATION TRENDS

3.1 CurrENt HYDroPoWEr CaPaCItY aND GENEratIoN
Hydropower is the largest source of renewable power generation worldwide. In 2009/2010 11 000 hydropower plants15 in 150 countries were generating electricity. The total electricity generated by hydropower in 2009 reached 3 329 TWh, 16.5 % of global electricity production (Figure 3.1). This is around 85 % of total renewable electricity generation and provided more than one billion people with power (REN21, 2011 and IEA, 2011). Global installed hydropower capacity was estimated to be between 926 GW and 956 GW in 2009/2010, excluding pumped storage hydropower capacity. Pumped hydro capacity was estimated to be between 120 GW and 150 GW (IHA, 2011) with a central estimate of 136 GW. In 2010, 30 GW of new hydro capacity was added (REN21, 2011 and BNEF, 2011). The global production of electricity from hydro was estimated to have increased by more than 5 % in 2010. This was driven by new capacity additions and above average hydro inows in China (IHA, 2011). The world leaders in hydropower are China, Brazil, Canada, the United States and Russia. Together these countries account for 52 % of total installed capacity (Table 3.1) Norways generation system is almost 100 % hydro, with hydro accounting for 97 % of generation in 2009 and 99 % in 2010. In 2010, hydro accounted for 84 % of total generation in Brazil and 74 % in Venezuela. Central and South America generate nearly 64 % of all their electricity from hydropower (ANEEL, 2011). There are a number of countries in Africa that produce close to 100 % of their grid-based electricity from hydro. Russia has an
Table 3.1: Top Ten counTries by insTalled hydropower capaciTy and generaTion share, 2010
Installed capacity (GW) China Brazil USA Canada Russia India Norway Japan France Italy Rest of world World Source: IHA, 2012 and IPCC, 2011. 210 84 79 74 50 38 30 28 21 20 302 936 Norway Brazil Venezuela Canada Sweden Russia India China Italy France Rest of world World Hydropowers share of total generation (%) 99 84 74 59 49 19 18 16 14 8 14 16
15 These plants contained an estimated 27 000 generating units.
3500 Middle East Non-OECD Europe and Eurasia 2500 China (Region) Asia excluding China Latin America Africa 1000 OECD Europe 500 OECD Asia Oceania OECD Americas
3000
2000
TWh
1500 0
figure 3.1: hydropower generaTion by region, 1971 To 2009

Source: IEA.
estimated 50 to 55 GW of installed hydropower capacity, which represents about one-fth of the countrys total electric capacity (Frost and Sullivan, 2011). Asia accounts for the largest share of global installed hydropower capacity, followed by Europe, then North and South America, then Africa (WEC, 2010 and IHA, 2011). Chinas installed hydropower capacity reached an estimated 210 GW in 2010, a signicant increase over the 117 GW in operation at the end of 2005 (IHA, 2012 and US EIA, 2009). Despite having the largest installed capacity of hydropower plants in the world, only around 16 % to 17 % of Chinas total generation needs come from hydro. Hydropower in Africa currently accounts for some 32 % of current capacity, but this capacity is just 3 % to 7 % of the technical potential on the continent (IRENA, 2011).
as well as the time required to secure nancing for these large multi-year construction projects, mean that capacity growth is more likely to be slow and steady than rapid. The conventional hydropower activities focus on adding new generating capacity, improving the efficiency/ capacity at existing hydroelectric facilities, adding hydroelectric generating capacity to existing nonpowered dams and increasing advanced pumped-storage hydropower capacity. Emerging economies in Asia (led by China) and Latin America (led by Brazil) have become key markets for hydropower development, accounting for an estimated 60 % of global activity (IHA, 2011). OECD economies in North America and Europe are focussing on the modernisation of existing facilities, often leading to increased capacity or generation capability, as well as new pumped storage facilities. However, new greeneld capacity is being added in relatively modest quantities. China added 16 GW during 2010 to reach an estimated 210 GW of total hydro capacity. Brazil brought around 5 GW on stream in 2010, bringing its existing capacity to
3.2 tHE outLooK For HYDroPoWEr

With less than one-quarter of the worlds technical hydropower potential in operation, the prospects for growth in hydro capacity are good. However, long lead times, project design, planning and approval processes,
15
81 GW while a further 8.9 GW is under construction (IHA, 2011 and IHA, 2012). In South America as a whole, 11 GW is planned and a further 16.3 GW is at the feasibility stage (IHA, 2012). In Western Asia, there is a total of 15.5 GW of capacity under construction with India accounting for 13.9 GW and Bhutan for 1.2 GW (IHA, 2012). Canada added 500 MW of capacity in 2010, raising total installed hydropower capacity to 76 GW. However, the future should see higher rates of capacity coming on stream as more than 11 GW of new projects were under construction in Canada by early 2011. An estimated 1.3 GW of this is due to become operational before the end of 2012 (IHA, 2011 and REN 21, 2011). Canada has a total of 21.6 GW of hydropower capacity at different stages of planning or construction (IHA, 2012). Development in the United States has slowed recently due to the economic difficulties in North America. However, total installed capacity reached 78 GW in 2010 (to which must be added 20.5 GW of pumped storage), producing 257 TWh during the year, up from 233.6 TWh in 2009. The largest projects completed in 2010 included the 1.1 GW Nam Theun 2 hydropower plant in Laos, Chinas 2.4 GW Jinanqiao plant, Brazils 0.9 GW Foz do Chapeco plant and two facilities (0.5 and 0.3 GW) in Ethiopia (IPCC, 2011). Interest in pumped storage is increasing, particularly in regions and countries where solar PV and wind are reaching relatively high levels of penetration and/or are growing rapidly (IHA, 2011). The vast majority of current pumped storage capacity is located in Europe, Japan and the United States (IHA, 2011). About 4 GW of new pumped storage capacity was added globally in 2010, including facilities in China, Germany, Slovenia and the Ukraine. The central estimate of total pumped hydro capacity at the end of 2010 was approximately 136 GW, up from 98 GW in 2005 (IHA, 2011). Worldwide, the installed capacity of small hydro is 61 GW (Catanase and Phang, 2010). Europe is a market leader in small hydropwoer technologies, and it is the second highest contributor to the European renewable energy
mix. The European Commissions Renewable Energy Roadmap identies small hydro power as an important ingredient in the EUs future energy mix. China has ambitious plans that may not all be realised to start construction on 140 GW of capacity over the next ve years (Reuters, 2011). In collaboration with Iran, China also plans to build the worlds tallest dam, a 1.5 GW project in Irans Zagros Mountains. Brazil plans two major projects in the Amazon region, including a 3.2 GW reservoir project due for completion in late 2011 (Hydro World, 2011). In North America and Europe, new plants are also under construction, but the focus is on modernising existing plants and adding pumped hydro storage capacity.
Long-term global scenarios for hydropower

A 2010 report from the International Energy Agency (IEA) projected that global hydropower production might grow by nearly 75 % from 2007 to 2050 under a business-as-usual scenario, but that it could grow by roughly 85 % over the same period in a scenario with aggressive action to reduce GHG emissions (IEA, 2010c). This is short of the IEAs assessment of the realistic potential for global hydropower, which is a two- to three-fold increase in generation over todays level. They estimate that the majority of the remaining economic development potential is located in Africa, Asia and Latin America (IEA, 2008 and IEA, 2010c). The IEA notes that, while small hydropower plants could provide as much as 150 GW to 200 GW of new generating capacity worldwide, only 5 % of the worlds small-scale hydropower potential has been exploited (IEA, 2008). A review of the literature examining the potential contribution of renewable energy to climate change mitigation scenarios by the IPCC identied a median increase in the amount of hydropower generation of 35 % by 2030 and 59 % by 2050. However, the range of results in the scenarios examined was very wide, with the 25th percentile of results indicating a 34 % increase over 2009 by 2050, compared to a 100 % increase for the 75th percentile (IPCC, 2011).
4. THE CURRENT COST OF HYDROPOWER

Hydropower is a capital-intensive technology with long lead times for development and construction due to the signicant feasibility, planning, design and civil engineering works required. There are two major cost components for hydropower projects: The civil works for the hydropower plant construction, including any infrastructure development required to access the site and the project development costs. The cost related to electro-mechanical equipment. The project development costs include planning and feasibility assessments, environmental impact analysis, licensing, sh and wildlife/biodiversity mitigation measures, development of recreation amenities, historical and archaeological mitigation and water quality monitoring and mitigation. The civil works costs can be broadly grouped into categories: Dam and reservoir construction; Tunnelling and canal construction; Powerhouse construction; Site access infrastructure; Grid connection; Engineering, procurement and construction (EPC); and Developer/owners costs (including planning, feasibility, permitting, etc.). For developments that are far from existing transmission networks, the construction of transmission lines can contribute signicantly to the total costs. Accessing remote sites may also necessitate the construction of roads and other infrastructure at the site. The electro-mechanical equipment for the project includes the turbines, generators, transformers, cabling and control systems required. These costs tend to vary signicantly less than the civil engineering costs, as the electro-mechanical equipment is a mature, well-dened technology, whose costs are not greatly inuenced by the site characteristics. As a result, the variation in the installed costs per kW for a given hydropower project is almost exclusively determined by the local site considerations that determine the civil works needs. There has been relatively little systematic collection of data on the historical trends of hydropower costs, at least in the publically available literature (IPCC, 2011). Such information could be compiled by studying the costs of the large number of already commissioned hydropower projects. However, because hydropower projects are so site-specic, it is difficult to identify trends. This would require detailed data on the cost breakdown of each project and require a signicant investment in data collection, time and analysis. Until such time as analysis of this type is completed, it is therefore difficult to present historical trends in investment costs and the LCOE of hydropower.
4.1 totaL INStaLLED CaPItaL CoStS oF HYDroPoWEr

The total investment costs for hydropower vary signicantly depending on the site, design choices and the cost of local labour and materials. The large civil works required for hydropower mean that the cost of materials and labour plays a larger role in overall costs than for some other renewable technologies. There is
17
signicantly less variation in the electro-mechanical costs. The total installed costs for large-scale hydropower projects typically range from a low of USD 1 000/kW to around USD 3 500/kW. However, it is not unusual to nd projects with costs outside this range. For instance, installing hydropower capacity at an existing dam that was built for other purposes (ood control, water provision, etc.) may have costs as low as USD 500/kW. On the other hand, projects at remote sites, without adequate local infrastructure and located far from existing transmission networks, can cost signicantly more than USD 3 500/kW. Figure 4.1 summarises a number of studies that have analysed the costs of hydropower plants. A large, comprehensive cost analysis of over 2 155 potential hydropower projects in the United States totalling 43 GW identied an average capital cost of USD 1 650/kW, with 90 % of projects having costs below USD 3 350/kW (Hall, et al., 2003). In another study (Lako et al., 2003), 250 projects worldwide with a total capacity of 202 GW had an average investment cost of just USD 1 000/kW and 90 % had costs of USD 1 700/kW or less (Lako et al., 2003).
Figure 4.2 presents the investment costs of hydropower projects by country. The cost of hydropower varies within countries and between countries depending on the resource available, site-specic considerations, cost structure of the local economy, etc., which explains the wide cost bands for hydropower. The lowest investment costs are typically associated with adding capacity at existing hydropower schemes or capturing energy from existing dams that do not have any hydropower facilities. The development of greeneld sites tends to be more expensive and typically range from USD 1 000 to USD 3 500/kW. Small projects have investment costs in slightly higher range bands and are expected to have higher average costs. This is particularly true for plants with capacities of less than one MW where the specic (per kW) electromechanical costs can be very high and dominate total installed costs. The investment costs per kW of small hydropower plant projects tend to be lower if the plant has higher head and installed capacity. The relationship between installed capacity and specic investment costs is strong irrespective of the head size. The economies of scale for head sizes above 25 to 30 metres are modest (Figure 4.3).
Average 7000 2010 USD/kW 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
figure 4.1: summary of The insTalled cosTs hydropower projecTs from a range of sTudies
9000 8000 7000 6000
2010 USD/kW
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Large Small Small to large United States Canada Brazil China India Other Asia Large Small
European Union
Africa
figure 4.2: ToTal insTalled hydropower cosT ranges by counTry

Sources: IRENA, 2011; IEA, 2010b; Black & Veatch, 2012; and IRENA/GIZ.
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 25 50 75 Head (metres) 100 125
50 kW 500 kW 1 MW 5 MW 10 MW
2010 USD/kW
150
figure 4.3: invesTmenT cosTs as a funcTion of insTalled capaciTy and Turbine head
Source: Based on Kaldellis and Kondili, 2005.
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8000 7000 6000
2010 USD/kW
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 5000

India China
10000
15000 kW
20000
Rwanda Uganda
25000
30000
South Africa Ethiopia
figure 4.4: insTalled capiTal cosTs for small hydro in developing counTries by capaciTy
Source: IRENA/GIZ.
In the United Kingdom, plants between 1 MW and 7 MW have installed capital capital costs between USD 3 400 and USD 4 000/kW (Crompton, 2010). However, plants below 1 MW can have signicantly higher capital costs. The range can be from USD 3 400 to USD 10 000/kW, or even more for pico-hydropower projects. Data for small hydro in developing countries from an IRENA/GIZ survey and from other sources highlight similar cost bands (Figure 4.4), although they suggest that larger small hydro projects in developing countries may have slightly lower specic costs. Critically, miniand pico-hydro projects still appear to generally have costs below those of PV systems, suggesting that small hydros role in off-grid electrication will remain a strong one. For large hydropower plants, economic lifetimes are at least 40 years, and 80-year lifetimes can be used as upper bound. For small-scale hydropower plants, the typical lifetime is 40 years but in some cases can be less. The economic design lifetime may differ from actual physical plant lifetimes.
refurbishment, repowering and rehabilitation of existing hydropower plants

Hydropower plant refurbishment, repowering and rehabilitation (hereafter referred to as refurbishment for simplicity) refer to a range of activities such as repair or replacement of components, upgrading generating capability and altering water management capabilities. Most refurbishment projects focus on the electro-mechanical equipment, but can involve repairs or redesigns of intakes, penstocks and tail races. Generally speaking, the output of a hydropower scheme will decline over time as equipment and some of the civil works become worn down by the ow of water or constant use. At a certain point, it will often become economic to refurbish the plant to reduce the increasing O&M costs and restore generation capacity to its designed level, or even take the opportunity to boost it above this original level.
Refurbishment projects generally fall into two categories: Life extension is where equipment is replaced on a like for like basis and little effort is made to boost generating capacity potential from what it was. This will, however, generally result in increased generation relative to what was being produced at the scheme as worn out equipment is replaced. On average, these repairs will yield a 2.5 % gain in capacity; and Upgrades are where increased capacity and, potentially, efficiencies are incorporated into the refurbishment, where the increased cost can be justied by increased revenues. These upgrades can be modest or more extensive in nature and depending on the extent of the wear and tear and additional civil works to try and capture more energy yield increases in capacity of between 10 % and as much as 30 %. The slowing in the development of greeneld projects in countries that have exploited most of their existing potential and the many countries with ageing hydropower projects mean that refurbishment will become an increasingly important way of boosting hydropower output and adding new capacity. The rehabilitation and refurbishment of old hydropower plants will usually become economic at a certain point, as the reduced O&M costs and higher output postrefurbishment will offset what are the relatively modest low investment costs for refurbishment. In addition, the current R&D efforts into rehabilitation and refurbishment of hydropower plants include the development of innovative technologies to minimise their environmental impact. For small hydropower plant, ambitious refurbishments can be envisaged. It may be possible to completely rebuild the hydropower scheme by constructing a new plant, completely replacing the main components and structures to capture more energy. The refurbishment of large hydropower schemes will generally aim to extend the plants working lifespan, improve the yield, increase in reliability, reduce maintenance needs and increase the degree of automation of operations.
The key items that need to be replaced or repaired are the turbines, which can suffer from pitting, wear or even fatigue cracks. Similarly, in the generator, stator windings last for as much as 45 years, but will eventually benet from replacement. The generator rotor and bearings could also need replacement. In addition to the electromechanical components, repairs or redesigns of intakes, penstocks and the other civil works can be considered in order to improve efficiency and increase electricity generation. The data available on the costs of refurbishment isnt extensive, however, studies of the costs of life extension and upgrades for existing hydropower have estimated that life extensions cost around 60 % of greeneld electro-mechanical costs and upgrades anywhere up to 90 % depending on their extent (Goldberg and Lier, 2011).
4.2 brEaKDoWN oF HYDroPoWEr CoStS bY SourCE

The cost breakdown of an indicative 500 MW new greeneld hydropower project in the United States is presented in Figure 4.5. The reservoir accounts for just over one-quarter of the total costs, while tunnelling adds another 14 %. The powerhouse, shafts and electromechanical equipment together account for 30 % of the total costs. The long lead times for these types of hydropower projects (7-9 years) mean that owner costs (including the project development costs) can be a signicant portion of the overall costs. The largest share of installed costs for large hydropower plant is typically taken up by civil works for the construction of the hydropower plant (such us dam, tunnels, canal and construction of powerhouse, etc.). Electrical and mechanical equipment usually contributes less to the cost. However, for hydropower projects where the installed capacity is less than 5 MW, the costs of electro-mechanical equipment may dominate total costs due to the high specic costs of small-scale equipment. The cost breakdown for small hydro projects in developing countries reects the diversity of hydropower projects and their site-specic constraints and opportunities (Figure 4.6). The electro-mechanical equipment costs tend to be higher than for large-scale projects, contributing from 18 % to as much as 50 % of
21
USD 810/kW, 23%
Reservoir USD 911/kW, 26% Tunnel
Powerhouse and shafts USD 238/kW, 7% Powerhouse equipment
USD 556/kW, 16%
USD 486/kW, 14%
Engineering, procurement & construction management Owner's cost
USD 499/kW, 14%
Total: USD 3500/kW 35%
figure 4.5: cosT breakdown of an indicaTive 500 mw greenfield hydropower projecT in The uniTed sTaTes
Source: Black and Veatch, 2012.
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% Equipment 20% 10% 0% 2.25 MW 24 MW 12.6 MW 0.5 MW 0.68 MW 0.3 MW 2.2 MW 0.1 MW 1 MW 1.8 MW 0.5 MW 7 MW 0.13 MW 13 MW 9 MW 6.6 MW 18 MW Other installation costs
Planning
Civil works
Infrastructure & logistic
Electrical connection / Construction
figure 4.6: cosT breakdown for small hydro projecTs in developing counTries
Source: IRENA/GIZ.
total costs. For projects in remote or difficult to access locations, infrastructure costs can dominate total costs.
the contribution of civil works to capital costs

For large hydropower projects, the capital costs are dominated by the civil works. The cost of civil works is inuenced by numerous factors pertaining to the site, the scale of development and the technological solution that is most economic. Hydropower is a highly site-specic technology where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specic needs for energy and water management. Around three-quarters of the total investment costs of hydropower projects are driven by site-specic elements that impact the civil engineering design and costs. Proper site selection and hydro scheme design are therefore key challenges (Ecofys, et al., 2011). Therefore, proper dimensioning and optimisation of the key elements of civil structures and streamlining construction work during the engineering design and implementation stages are important factors to reduce construction costs of large-scale projects. The site-specic factors that inuence the civil construction costs include hydrological characteristics, site accessibility, land topography, geological conditions, the construction and design of the hydropower plant and the distance from existing infrastructure and transmission lines. The cost of the civil works for the hydropower plant will also depend on commodity prices and labour costs in the country. The cost of civil works in developing countries is sometimes lower than in developed countries due to the use of local labour. However, this is not always the case as poorer infrastructure or remote sites will entail signicant additional costs. Similarly, cement and steel prices are sometimes higher in developing countries.
The proposed capacity of a hydropower plant can be achieved by using a combination of a few large turbines or many small turbines and generating units. This will be inuenced to some extent by the hydro resource but is also a trade-off between guaranteeing availability (if there is only one generator and it is offline, then generation drops to zero) and the capital costs (smaller units can have higher costs per kW). The design decision is therefore a compromise between trying to minimise capital costs and maximise efficiency and the number of generating units to ensure the best availability. A range of studies have analysed the cost of the electromechanical equipment for hydro plants as a function of total plant size and head.16 Recent work has looked at using the following formula to describe the relationship between costs and the power and head of a small hydropower scheme (Ogayar and Vidal, 2009):
COST (per kW) = P1-H1

Where: P is the power in kW of the turbines; H is the head in metres;
is a constant; and and 1 are the co-efficients for power and head,
respectively. The results from analysis using this cost estimation methodology is available for a range of developed countries, but most of these studies are ten years old or more. The recent analysis of small hydropower plants in Spain which analysed separately the costs for Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, and semi-Kaplan turbines yielded equations a good t (Ogayar and Vidal, 2009). The results yielded by these types of analysis have been checked against existing cost data for electro-mechanical equipment from global manufacturers (Alstom, Andritz, Gilbert Gilkes & Gordon Ltd, NHT and Voith Siemens) and were found to be statistically consistent with real cost data from existing plants. Although this type of analytical
Electro-mechanical equipment costs

The electro-mechanical equipment used in hydropower plants is a mature technology, and the cost is strongly correlated with the capacity of the hydropower plant.
16 See Ogayar and Vidal (2009) for some of these studies.
23
10000
Argentina China Germany Laos Pakistan Rumania Turkey Armenia Colombia Iceland Madagascar Panama Russia Uganda Austria Congo India Spalte O Peru South Africa USA Brasil Ecuador Iran Malaysia Portugal Sudan Canada El Salvador Japan Nepal Rep. Dominicana Vietnam Chile Ethiopia Kenya Nicaragua Ruanda Switzerland
1000
USD million
2005
100
10
10
100
1000
10000
MW
figure 4.7: elecTro-mechanical equipmenT for hydro as a funcTion capaciTy by counTry (log-scale)
Source: Alvarado-Ancieta, 2009.
approach is a useful rst order estimate of costs, the results need to be treated with caution, given the range of costs experienced in the real world (Figure 4.7).
4.3 oPEratIoN aND MaINtENaNCE CoStS

Once commissioned, hydropower plants usually require little maintenance, and operation costs will be low. When a series of plants are installed along a river, centralised control and can reduce O&M costs to very low levels. Annual O&M costs are often quoted as a percentage of the investment cost per kW per year. Typical values range from 1 % to 4 %. The IEA assumes 2.2 % for large hydropower and 2.2 % to 3 % for smaller projects, with a global average of around 2.5 % (IEA, 2010c). Other studies (EREC/Greenpeace, 2010 and Krewitt, 2009)
indicate that xed O&M costs represent 4 % of the total capital cost. This gure may be appropriate for smallscale hydropower, but large hydropower plants will have values signicantly lower than this. An average value for O&M costs of 2 % to 2.5 % is considered the norm for large-scale projects (IPCC, 2011 and Branche, 2012). This will usually include the refurbishment of mechanical and electrical equipment like turbine overhaul, generator rewinding and reinvestments in communication and control systems. However, it does not cover the replacement of major electro-mechanical equipment or refurbishment of penstocks, tailraces, etc. The advantage of hydropower is that these kinds of replacements are infrequent and design lives of 30 years or more for the electromechanical equipment and 50 years or more for the refurbishment of penstocks and tail races are normal.
300 250 200 150
7.0% 6.0% 5.0% 4.0% 3.0%
100 50 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
2.0% 1.0% 0.0% 30000
2010 USD/kW/year
% of CAPEX
figure 4.8: operaTions and mainTenance cosTs for small hydro in developing counTries
Source: IRENA/GIZ.
A recent study indicated that O&M costs averaged USD 45/kW/year for large-scale hydropower projects and around USD 52/kW/year for small-scale hydropower plants (Ecofys et al., 2011). These gures are not inconsistent with the earlier analyses. These values are consistent with data collected by IRENA and GIZ for small hydropower projects in developing countries (Figure 4.8). Average O&M costs for miniand pico-hydro projects can be signicantly above the average, given the economies of scale available for O&M costs at hydropower projects.
Percentage of capital costs/year
USD/kW/year
25
5. COST REDUCTION POTENTIALS

ydropower is a mature, commercially proven technology and there is little scope for signicant cost reductions in the short-to-medium term. Technological innovation could lower the costs in the future, although this will mainly be driven by the development of more efficient, lower cost techniques in civil engineering and works. These improvements and cost reductions in major civil engineering techniques (tunnelling, construction, etc.) could help to reduce hydropower investment costs below what they otherwise would be.
However, analysis of cost reduction potentials in the literature does not provide a clear picture of any likely trends. Some studies expect slight increases in the range of installed costs, while others expect slight decreases when looking out to 2030 or 2050 (EREC/ Greenpeace, 2010; IEA, 2008a; IEA, 2008b; IEA, 2010c; and Krewitt et al., 2009). Part of the problem is that it is difficult to separate out improvements in civil engineering techniques that may reduce costs (which
would lower the supply curve) and the fact that the best and cheapest hydropower sites have typically already been exploited (i.e. we are moving up and along the supply curve). As a consequence of these difficulties, the inconclusive evidence from the literature and the fact that hydropower is a mature technology; no material cost reductions for hydropower are assumed in the period to 2020 in the analysis presented in this paper.
6. THE LEVELISED COST OF ELECTRICITY FROM HYDROPOWER

ydropower is a proven, mature, predictable technology and can also be low-cost. It requires relatively high initial investments but has the longest lifetime of any generation plant (with parts replacement) and, in general, low operation and maintenance costs. Investment costs are highly dependent on the location and site conditions, which determine on average three-quarters of the development cost (Ecofys, et al., 2011). The levelised cost of electricity for hydropower plants spans a wide range, depending on the project, but under good conditions hydropower projects can be very competitive.
Existing hydropower plants are some of the least expensive sources of power generation today (IEA, 2010b). However, there is a wide range of capital costs and capacity factors that are possible, such that the LCOE of hydropower is very site-specic. The critical assumptions required to calculate the LCOE of hydropower are the: Installed capital cost; Capacity factor; Economic life; O&M costs; and The cost of capital. The cost of capital (discount rate) assumed to calculate the LCOE is 10 %.17 The other assumptions have been sourced from the earlier sections of this paper. There is insufficient information on the LCOE trends for hydropower, in part due to the very site-specic nature of hydropower projects and the lack of time series data on investment costs. Investment costs vary widely from a low of USD 450/kW to as much as USD 6 000/kW or more. Another complicating factor is that it is possible to
design hydropower projects to perform very differently. Capacity can be low to ensure high average capacity factors, but at the expense of being able to ramp up production to meet peak demand loads. Alternatively, a scheme could have relatively high capacity and low capacity factors, if it is designed to help meet peak demands and provide spinning reserve and or/or other ancillary grid services. The decision about which strategy to pursue for any given hydropower scheme is highly dependent on the local market, structure of the power generation pool, grid capacity/constraints, the value of providing grid services, etc. More than perhaps any other renewable energy, the true economics of a given hydropower scheme will be driven by these factors, not just the amount of kWhs generated relative to the investment. Hydropower is uniquely placed to capture peak power prices and the value of ancillary grid services, and these revenues can have a large impact on the economics of a hydropower project.18
6.1 rESuLtS FroM StuDIES oF tHE LCoE oF HYDroPoWEr

Black & Veatch studied the cost of new renewable electricity generation in the western United States
17 This discount rate is the same as used in the four other renewable power generation costing papers on wind, biomass, solar PV and concentrating solar power. 18 It is beyond the scope of this report to try to quantify these benets, but these are thought to add anywhere between USD 0.01 and USD 0.05/kWh in value, and, in certain cases, it could be even more.
27
0.20
0.15
2010 USD/kWh
0.10
0.05
0.00
AT BE BG CY CZ DE EE ES FI FR GR HU IE IT LA LT PL PT RO SE SI SK UK
figure 6.1: The minimum To average levelised cosT of elecTriciTy for small hydropower in The european union noTe: counTry abbreviaTions are The eu sTandard.19
Source: Ecofys, et al., 2011.
(where much of the potential for new hydropower in the United States is located) and estimated that the LCOE of new hydropower capacity was in the range of USD 0.02/kWh to USD 0.085/kWh, with the lowest costs being for additional capacity at existing hydropower schemes (Pletka and Finn, 2009). This compares with earlier analysis that put the cost range at USD 0.018 to USD 0.13/kWh for new capacity at existing hydroelectric schemes and between USD 0.017 and USD 0.20/kWh for new greeneld hydropower schemes (WGA, 2009). The LCOE of small hydropower in Europe, where most of the exploitable large-scale projects have already been constructed, reveals a wide range, depending on the local resource and cost structure, and ranges from a low of USD 0.03 to USD 0.16/kWh. The average cost for European countries ranges from USD 0.04 to USD 0.18/ kWh (Figure 6.1). A brief review of the LCOE range for hydropower in countries with the largest installed capacity of hydropower today is revealing. At the best sites, the LCOE of hydro is very competitive and among the lowest
cost generation options available. However, the majority of new developments will be in less optimal sites than existing hydropower schemes, although this is not always the case. The average LCOE of new developments is more likely to fall somewhere in the middle of the estimated LCOE range presented in Figure 6.2. The incorporation of small hydropower in the analysis for the United States, Canada and Africa can have a big impact on the range of potential costs. Although small hydro can be a competitive solution for remote locations, its LCOE will tend to be higher than an equivalent large-scale project. Similarly, at the lower end of the range, the incorporation of upgrading projects or the development of hydropower schemes at existing dams without a current hydropower scheme can suggest that hydropower costs are very low, when these tend to be relatively limited opportunities to add new capacity. Figure 6.3 presents the LCOE of 2 155 hydropower projects plotted against their cumulative capacity that were evaluated in the United States. These represent undeveloped sites, existing dams without hydropower
19 See http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-370100.htm
0.30
0.25
0.20
2010 US D/kWh
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
WGA, 2009 Pletka and WGA, 2009 Ecofys, et al. Eurelectric IEA, 2010 Finn, 2009 (IEA, 2010b) United States Canada Europe Japan IEA, 2010 IEA, 2010 ACIL Tasman, 2008 India IRENA, 2011
Brazil
China
Africa
figure 6.2: levelised cosT of elecTriciTy for hydropower planTs by counTry and region noTe: assumpTions on capiTal cosTs, capaciTy facTors, o&m cosTs, lifeTimes and discounT raTes differ. refer To each sTudy for The deTails.
Sources: ACIL Tasman, 2008; Ecofys, et al., 2011; IEA, 2010b; IRENA, 2011; Pletka and Finn, 2009; and WGA, 2009.
0.20
0.15
Assumes a 10% cost of capital
2010 USD/kWh
0.10
0.05
0.00 0 18 22 25 30 33 36 39 41 42 43 GW of cumulative capacity
figure 6.3: The lcoe of hydropower in The uniTed sTaTes

Source: Hall, 2003 and IRENA.
29
0.12
0.10
O&M
Assumes a 10% cost of capital
Other installation costs Planning Civil works
0.08
2010 USD/kWh
0.06
Infrastructure & logistic Electrical connection / Construction
0.04
Equipment
0.02
0.00 2.25 24 12.6 0.5 0.68 0.3 2.2 0.1 1 1.8 0.5 7 0.13 13 9 6.6 18 MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW MW
figure 6.4: The lcoe of small hydropower for a range of projecTs in developing counTries
Source: IRENA/GIZ.
and the expansion of existing hydropower schemes (Hall, 2003). The database includes cost estimates for the capital costs (civil works, electro-mechanical costs, etc.), licensing and mitigation costs to address archaeological, sh and wildlife, recreation or water quality monitoring requirements.20 Around 40 % of the capacity studied would come from undeveloped sites, 48 % from existing dams without hydropower schemes and the remainder from expansions at existing hydropower schemes. The average installed cost is USD 1 800/kW with an average capacity factor 52 %. Fixed O&M costs average around USD 10/kW/year while variable O&M costs average USD 0.002/kWh. The LCOE of the projects evaluated ranged from a low of just USD 0.012/kWh for additional capacity at an existing hydropower project to a high of USD 0.19/kWh for a 1 MW small hydro project with a capacity factor of 30 %. The weighted average cost of all the sites evaluated was USD 0.048/kWh. The LCOE of 80 % of the projects was between USD 0.018 and USD 0.085/kWh.
Figure 6.4 presents the LCOE of small hydropower projects in developing countries, broken down by source. The LCOE of small hydropower projects ranges from a low of USD 0.023/kWh to a high of USD 0.11/kWh. The share of O&M in the LCOE of the hydropower projects examined ranges from 1 % to 6 %. The largest share of the LCOE is taken up by the costs for the electro-mechanical equipment and the civil works. The share of the electro-mechanical equipment in the total LCOE ranged from a low of 17 % to a high of 50 %, with typical values being in the range 21 % to 31 %. The civil works had the highest contribution to the total LCOE in nine of the projects examined and their share ranged from zero (for an existing dam project) to a high of 63 %. In some remote projects, grid connection and electrical infrastructure dominated while it was signicant in a number of projects without being dominant. Similarly, infrastructure and logistical costs can be a signicant contributor to overall costs where site access is difficult and/or far from existing infrastructure.
20 The capital and O&M costs were not estimated using detailed, site-specic engineering analysis of the projects, but with capital and O&M tools developed for the project. The actual costs would vary around these estimates.
6.2 HYDroPoWEr LCoE SENSItIVItY to tHE DISCouNt ratE

Given that hydropower is capital-intensive, has low O&M costs and no fuel costs, the LCOE is very sensitive to investment costs and interest rates but less sensitive to lifetime, given the lifetime range typical for hydropower. The sensitivity of the LCOE of hydropower to different discount rates (3 %, 7 %, 10 %) and lifetimes (40 and 80
years) (IPCC, 2011) is presented in Table 6.1. The LCOE of hydropower projects is not particularly sensitive to assumptions about their economic lifetimes because they are so long. However, because virtually all of the costs are upfront capital costs, the LCOE is very sensitive to the discount rate used. The difference between a 3 % discount rate and a 10 % discount rate is very signicant, with the LCOE increasing by between 85 % and 90 % as the discount rate increases from 3 % to 10 %.
Table 6.1: sensiTiviTy of The lcoe of hydropower projecTs To discounT raTes and economic lifeTimes
Investment cost (USD/kW) 1 000 1 000 1 000 2 000 2 000 2 000 3 000 3 000 3 000 Discount rate (%) 3 7 10 3 7 10 3 7 10 LCOE (US cents/kWh) 1.7 2.5 3.2 3.5 5.1 6.5 5.2 7.6 9.7 Lifetime (years) 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 LCOE (US cents/kWh) 1.5 2.4 3.2 2.9 4.8 6.3 4.4 7.3 9.5
Note: base case assumes an economic life of 40 years, a 45 % capacity factor and 2.5 % of capital costs per year for O&M. Source: IPCC, 2011.
31
References
ACIL Tasman (2008), Projected energy prices in selected world regions, ACIL Tasman, Melbourne. Alvarado-Ancieta, C.A. (2009), Estimating E&M powerhouse costs, International Water Power and Dam Construction, pp. 21-25. See http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/storyprint.asp?sc=2052186. Black and Veatch (2012), Cost and Performance Data for Power Generation Technologies, Black and Veatch Corporation, Kansas. Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) (2011), Clean Energy-Analyst Reaction. Investment in Large-hydro How Large?, BNEF, London. Branche, E. (2011), Hydropower: the strongest performer in the CDM process, reecting high quality of hydro in comparison to other renewable energy sources, EDF, Paris. Brown, A., S. Mller and Z. Dobrotkov (2011), Renewable energy markets and prospects by technology, International Energy Agency (IEA)/OECD, Paris. Catanase, A. and W. Phang (2010), Sensitivity analysis of Small Hydropower Plant, Presentation to British Hydro Associations 2010 annual conference, Glasgow. Crompton, C. (2010), The Feed-in-tariff: The Consultation Story and Opportunities for the Hydro Industry, Presentation to British Hydro Associations 2010 annual conference, Glasgow. Egre, D. and J.C Milewski (2002), The diversity of hydropower projects, Energy Policy, Vol. 30 (14), pps. 1225-1230. Ecofys, Fraunhofer ISI, TU Vienna EEG and Ernst & Young (2011), Financing Renewable Energy in the European Energy Market: Final Report, Ecofys, Utrecht. EURELECTRIC (2011), Hydro in Europe: Powering Renewables, EURELECTRIC Working Group on Hydro, Brussels. European Renewable Energy Council (EREC) and Greenpeace (2010), Energy [R]evolution, EREC/Greenpeace, Brussels. Frost and Sullivan (2011), Changing the Future of Energy Hydrovision Russia 2011, Frost and Sullivan. Goldberg, J. and O.E. Lier (2011), Rehabilitation of Hydropower: An introduction to Economic and Technical Issues, World Bank, Washington, D.C. Hall, D.G. et al. (2003), Estimation of Economic Parameters of U.S. Hydropower Resources, Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho. Hydro World (2011), Iran, China Planning Worlds Tallest Dam, Hydro Project, HydroWorld.com. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2011), Special Report Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Working Group III-Mitigation of Climate Change, IPCC.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (2008a), World Energy Outlook 2008, OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA (2008b), Energy Technology Perspectives 2008, OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA (2010a), World Energy Outlook 2010, OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA (2010b), Projected Costs of Generating Electricity, IEA/OECD Paris. IEA (2010c), Energy Technology Perspectives 2010, OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA (2010d), Renewable Energy Essentials: Hydropower, OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA (2011), Key World Energy Statistics, IEA/OECD, Paris. International Journal on Hydropower and Dams (IJHD) (2010), World Atlas & Industry Guide, IJHD Wallington, Surrey. International Hydropower Association (IHA) (2011), IHA 2010 Activity Report, IHA, London. IHA (2012), Advancing Sustainable Hydropower: 2011 Activity Report, IHA, London. International Network on Small Hydro Power (IN-SHP) (2010), World Expo Special Edition Newsletter, IN-SHP, Vol. 1, issue 3. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) (2011), Prospects for the African Power Sector, IRENA, Abu Dhabi. IRENA (2012), Electricity Storage and Renewables for Island Power, IRENA, Abu Dhabi. International Water Power and Dam Construction (2012), See http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/graphic.asp?sc=2052186&seq=1. Kaldellis, J.K. and E. Kondili (2011), Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hydro Power Plants Using (NPV-IRR) Method: A Complete Sensitivity Analysis, TEI Piraeus, Athens. Lako, P. et al. (2003), Hydropower development with a focus on Asia and Western Europe. Overview in the framework of VLEEM 2, ECN and Verbundplan, The Netherlands. Louis, F. (2012), personal communication with the authors. National Electric Energy Agency of Brazil (ANEEL) (2011), Generation Data Bank, ANEEL, Brasilia. See www.aneel.gov.br/apliccoes/capacidadebrasil/capacidadebrasil.asp, January 2011. National Hydropower Association (NHA) and the Hydropower Research Foundation (HRF) (2010), Small Hydropower Technology: Summary Report, Summit Meeting Convened by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Washington, D.C. Nordel (2008a), Description of Balance Regulation in the Nordic Countries, Nordel. Ogayar, B. and P.G. Vidal (2009), Cost determination of the electro-mechanical equipment of a small hydro-power plant, Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, pp. 6-13. Pletka, R. and J. Finn (2009), Western Renewable Energy Zones, Phase 1: QRA Identication Technical Report, NREL, Boulder, CO.
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REN21 (2011), Renewables 2011 Global Status Report, REN 21 http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR2011.pdf. Reuters (2011), China to Develop Controversial Nu River Hydro Projects, Reuters, 2 February. United States Energy Information Administration (US EIA) (2009), International Energy Statistics, US EIA, Washington, D.C. http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=2&pid=33&aid=12&cid=regions&syi d=2005&eyid=2009&unit=BKWH]. Western Governors Association (WGA) (2009), Technology Assumptions for Supply Curve Analysis, ZITA working group. See http://westgov.org/wga/initiatives/wrez/zita/Technology %20Assumption %20- %20Supply %20Curve %20TCversion.pdf. World Energy Council (WEC) (2010), 2010 Survey of Energy Resources, WEC, London.
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IRENA woRkINg pApER p

International Renewable Energy Agency

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: COST ANALYSIS SERIES

Volume 1: Power Sector Issue 3/5

Dolf Gielen Director, Innovation and Technology

Large hydro Small hydro Refurbishment/upgrade

1 050 7 650 1 300 8 000 500 1 000

0.02 0.19 0.02 0.27 0.01 0.05

Note: The levelised cost of electricity calculations assume a 10 % cost of capital

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

will allow a fair comparison of hydropower with other generating technologies.1

1.1 DIFFErENt MEaSurES oF CoSt

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Transport cost Import levies

Factory gate Equipment

LCOE :Levelized cost of electricity

(Discounted lifetime costs divided by discounted lifetime generation)

figure 1.1: renewable power generaTion cosT indicaTors and boundaries

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

1.2 LEVELISED CoSt oF ELECtrICItY GENEratIoN

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

2. HYDROPOWER TECHNOLOGIES AND RESOURCES

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

2.2 HYDroPoWEr tECHNoLoGIES

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Penstock Turbine River

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

100 Head (m)

0 1 10 Flow (m /s) 100 1000

figure 2.2: working areas of differenT Turbine Types

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

2.3 HYDroPoWEr CLaSSIFICatIoN bY tYPE

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Pumped storage hydropower technologies

Hydropower schemes with reservoirs for storage

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

figure 2.3: comparison of The lifecycle cosT of elecTriciTy sTorage sysTems

Hydropower capacity factors

2.4 LarGE aND SMaLL HYDroPoWEr SCHEMES

10 Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Capacity factor (%)

30% 20% 10%

Table 2.1: definiTion of small hydropower by counTry (mw)

30 < 50 50 20 25 10 1.5 5-100

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

2.5 tHE HYDroPoWEr rESourCE

figure 2.5: world hydropower Technical resource poTenTial14

Source: WEC, 2010.

12 Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

3. GLOBAL HYDROPOWER CAPACITY AND GENERATION TRENDS

15 These plants contained an estimated 27 000 generating units.

14 Cost Analysis of Hydropower

figure 3.1: hydropower generaTion by region, 1971 To 2009

3.2 tHE outLooK For HYDroPoWEr

Cost Analysis of Hydropower

Long-term global scenarios for hydropower

16 Cost Analysis of Hydropower

4. THE CURRENT COST OF HYDROPOWER