NATURE OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Interaction
INTRODUCTION

Bodies

n Rest/Motio
Forces:
Tension
Compression
Shear
Solids:
Rigid
Deformable
Fluids:
Liquids
Gases

- Velocity

- Acceleration

- Time
SIMILARITY IN THE BRANCHES OF MECHANICS

a. Basic Principles and Fundamental Concepts
b. Newtons Laws of Motion
c. Principle of Work and Energy
d. Principle of Impulse and Momentum
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
System Mass ( M ) Length ( L ) Time ( T ) Force ( F )
SI Kilogram ( kg ) Meter ( m ) Second ( s ) Newton ( N ) *
English Slug * Foot ( ft ) Second ( s ) Pound ( lb )
Metric Kilogram Meter ( m ) Second ( s ) Kilogram (kgF)*
*Derived Units from Newtons Second Law of Motion


a. Standard Acceleration of Gravity ( g ):
SI: g = 9.81 m/sec
2
English: g = 32.2 ft/sec
2


b. Mass (M) and Weight (W): W = Mg

c. Conversion Factors:
1 kgF = 2.2 lb 1 kgF = 9.81 N 1 lb = 4.448 N





Ma F =
8 . 9 / Ma kgF =
d. Common Prefixes of SI Units:
SI Prefix Abbreviation Multiple
Giga G 10
9
Mega M 10
6
Kilo K 10
3
Centi c 10
-2
Milli m 10
-3
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
a. Compressibility:

- incompressible
- compressible

b. Viscosity:

- Non-viscous
- Viscous
- Newtonian
- Non-Newtonian

c. Ideal Fluid:

- Incompressible and non-viscous


FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Mechanics of Fluids and Hydraulics, these are
sciences that deals with the laws of liquids and gases at rest
or in motion and of their practical applications. Fluid
mechanics is based on the same fundamental principles
that are employed in mechanics of solids. Hydraulics
utilized experimental techniques to developed empirical
formulas which supplied answers to practical problems.

DEFINITION OF A FLUID

Deforms continuously when subjected to shear stress



Three Branches of Fluid Mechanics

1. Fluid Statics, is the study of the mechanics of
fluids at rest.
2. Kinematics, deals with velocities and streamlines
without considering forces or energy involved.
3. Fluid Dynamics, is concerned with the relations
between velocities and accelerations and the
forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

1.1 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN A GAS AND A LIQUID

GAS
1. Molecules are very far apart.
2. Very compressible.
3. Expand indefinitely when external pressure is removed.
4. Can be held in equilibrium only when it is completely enclosed.
5. No free surface

LIQUID
1. Molecules are little closer.
2. Relatively incompressible.
3. Cohesion between molecules holds them together except of its
own vapor and does not expand indefinitely.
4. Can be held in equilibrium both in an open and close space.
5. May have a free surface (i.e a surface from which all pressure is
removed, except that of its own vapor) .

A. FLUID STATICS
PART 1: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Specific weight, y: the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid, or


Units:
English System:

Metric System:

S.I. :

Note: This relationship is true for liquids where varies slightly
regardless of temperature and pressure. For gases, is
computed from Charles and Boyles laws which give

English:

R- gas constant

T absolute temperature, ( 460 + F)


V
W
=
3
ft
lb
3
cm
gr
3
m
tons
3
m
N
RT
p
=
or
where
p - absolute pressure
R) lbf/lbmol (1545ft

S.I.




T=K, K =273 + C
Alternative unit of R: J/kg-K; Btu/lb-R; ft-lbf/lb-R
2. Specific Volume,
The reciprocal of the density, or


English:

RT
p
=
2
m
N
p =
K kg
m N
R

=
: v

v
1
=
slugs
ft
3
gr
cm
3
kg
m
3
: Metric : .I S
K) m/kmol (8314N
R) lbmol (1.986Btu/

3. Mass Density,
The mass per unit volume of the fluid, or



Units: English,

Metric,

S.I.,


: ) (rho
V
M
=
gV
W
=
g

=
3
ft
slugs
3
cm
gr
3
m
kg
The density of water at 4 C (39.2 F ) is 1.00 g/cc ( or 1.00 g/mL ), equivalent
to 1000 kg/cu. m.
4. Specific Gravity; s: the dimensionless ratio of the fluid specific weight (or density) to
the standard reference fluid, water (for liquids),and air (for gases):



Note: At 39.2 F (4 C) the specific weight of water is approximately

or

5. Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity, (mu): the property of a fluid which determines the
amount of its resistance to a shearing stress.
Note: The shearing stress, T (Tau), and the viscosity, (Mu) are related by,


Units of :
English System: S.I:



;
water
liquid
water
liquid
liquid
s

= =
3
4 . 62
ft
lb
w
=
; 9810
3
m
N
dx
dv
= T
, ,
2 2 |
|
.
|

\
|
mm
N
ft
lb
,
dx
dv
2
sec
ft
lb
2
m
s N
2
) (
cm
s dyne
P poise

=
: Metric
;
air
gas
air
gas
gas
s

= =
3
205 . 1
m
kg
air
=
ml
g
cm
g
m
kg
w
0 . 1 0 . 1 1000
3 3
= = =
s
m kg
=
is the velocity gradient
2
1 . 0
m
s N
=
At 20 C, = 1 cP
= 0.01P =mN-s/m
2
Newtons Law of Viscosity
Fluid between parallel plates:
a
F
y
b b
Velocity Distribution:

Assumptions/Observations:
a. Closely spaced plates, y is very small.
b. Lower plate is fixed.
c. Force F exerted on upper plate with area A imparting a velocity u to the plate.
d. No slip at the boundaries, velocity of fluid same as boundary.
e. Line ab moves to the line ab after time interval.
f. Velocity distribution is linear.
g. Based on experimental observations: The applied force is proportional to the
area and velocity gradient. is the constant of proportionality.


h. Differential form ( Newtons Law of Viscosity):
y
Au
F =
y
u
t = or
dy
du
t =
Temp, C
Specific
weight
, N/m
3

Density ,
kg/ m
Viscosity ,
kg / (m-s)
10
-3
=
Kinematic
Viscosity
, m
2
/s
10
-6
v =
Surface
Tension
, N / m
100 =
Vapor
Pressure
head
p / , m
Bulk modulus
of elasticity
K, N..m
2

10
-2
K =
0 9805 999.9 1.792 1.792 7.62 0.06 204
5 9806 1000.0 1.519 1.519 7.54 0.09 206
10 9803 999.7 1.308 1.308 7.48 0.12 211
15 9798 999.1 1.140 1.141 7.41 0.17 214
20 9789 998.2 1.005 1.007 7.36 0.25 220
25 9779 997.1 0.894 0.897 7.26 0.33 222
30 9767 995.7 0.801 0.804 7.18 0.44 223
35 9752 994.1 0.723 0.727 7.10 0.58 224
40 9737 992.2 0.656 0.661 7.01 0.76 227
45 9720 990.2 0.599 0.605 6.92 0.98 229
,50 9697 988.1 0.549 0.556 6.82 1.26 230
'55 9679 985.7 0.506 0.513 6.74 1.61 231
60 9658 983.2 0.469 0.477 6.68 2.03 228
65 9635 980.6 0.436 0.444 6.58 2.56 226
70 9600 977.8 0.406 0.415 6.50 3.20 225
75 9589 974.9 0.380 0.390 6.40 3.96 223
80 9557 971.8 0.357 0.367 6.30 4.86 221
85 9529 968.6 0.336 0.347 6.20 5.93 217
90 9499 965.3 0.317 0.328 6.12 7.18 216
95 9469 961.9 0.299 0.311 6.02 8.62 211
100 9438 958.4 0.284 0.290 5.94 10.33 207
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES TABLE OF WATER IN SI UNITS
Illustrative Examples:
a) The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is
. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Compute the
density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury.

Solution.


. / 81 . 9
3
m kN
g
w
w

=
2
3
81 . 9
81 . 9
s
m
m
kN
=
3
1000
m
kg
=
Note :

kg
m
s N
1 1
2
=

3 3
133 81 . 9 55 . 13
m
kN
m
kN
s
water mercury mercury
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
3 3
550 , 13 1000 55 . 13
m
kg
m
kg
s
water mercuty mercury
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
3
81 . 9
1000
81 . 9
s
m
m
N x
=
b) A gallon of water weighs 4.08 lb. Compute the following:
1) Mass in slugs
2) Mass in kg
3) Volume in cu. ft.

Solution.
1) Mass in slugs:


2) Mass in kg:

3) Volume in cu. ft. :


g
W
M =

2
2 . 32
08 . 4
s
ft
lb
M =
) ( 1267 . 0
2
slugs
ft
s lb
=
2
81 . 9
448 . 4
08 . 4
s
m
lb
N
lb
M

= ) ( 85 . 1
2
kg
m
s N
=
gal
ft
galx V
48 . 7
1
1
3
=
3
134 . 0 ft =
c)
A certain gas weighs 16 N/cu. m. at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to air weighing 12 N/cu. m. ?
Solution.
The density of the gas is,



The specific volume is,



The specific gravity is,



g

=
2
3
81 . 9
16
s
m
m
N
=
3
631 . 1
m
kg
=

v
1
=
3
631 . 1
1
m
kg
=
kg
m
3
613 . 0 =
a
s

=
3
3
12
16
m
N
m
N
= 333 . 1 =
d) The specific gravity of glycerin is 1.26. Compute its density and
specific weight.
Solution.
The density is,




The specific weight is,
water
glycerin
s

=
3 3
26 . 1 00 . 1 26 . 1
cm
g
cm
g
glycerin
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

or
3 3
1260 1000 26 . 1
m
kg
m
kg
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
glycerin glycerin
=
2 3
81 . 9 1260
s
m
m
kg
=
3
360 , 12
m
N
= or
3
360 . 12
m
kN
6. Kinematic Viscosity, v (nu): the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to its
mass density, or


Units of :
English System: S.I:

Metric System:
7. Adhesion: the property of a liquid that enables it to stick to another
body.
8. Cohesion: the property of a liquid that resists tensile stress.
9. Surface Tension, (sigma): the effect of cohesion between particles
of the liquid at its surface.
Unit: English System, S.I,

v =
sec
2
ft
) (
sec
2
st stoke
cm
=
sec
2
cm
stoke =
ft
lb
m
N
o
10. Capillarity: this is due to cohesion and adhesion. If adhesion has a
greater effect than cohesion, the liquid will rise at the point where it
comes in contact with another body. If cohesion is prevalent, the
liquid will depressed.

10. Capillarity: this is due to cohesion and adhesion. If adhesion has a
greater effect than cohesion, the liquid will rise at the point where it
comes in contact with another body. If cohesion is prevalent, the
liquid will depressed. The capillary rise in a tube can be expressed,


where


gr r
h

u o

u o cos 2 cos 2
= =
= surface tension in units of
force per unit length
= wetting angle
= specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
h = capillary rise
= density of liquid
g = gravitational acceleration
h
r


11. 11. Vapor Pressure, : the pressure exerted by the vapor as
evaporation of the liquid takes place within a closed space.

Units: English System,

S.I.,

Metric System,

v
p
2
ft
lb
or
2
in
lb
2
m
N
2
cm
gr
Property Definition Dimension
(SI Units)
Common Values
For Water ( 4 C) *
, Mass Density mass per unit volume ML
-3
(kg/m
3
)
1,000 kg/m
3
, Specific Weight weight per unit
volume
FL
-3
(N/m
3
)
9,800 N/m
3
S, Specific gravity /
water
(for liquid)

0 1
p, Pressure Normal force per unit
area
FL
-2
(N/m
2
)
, Absolute Viscosity Newtons law of
viscosity
FL
-2
T
(N s/m
2
)
1.52 x 10
-3
N s/m
2
, Kinematic Viscosity / L
2
T
-1
(m
2
/s)
1.52 x 10
-6
m
2
/s
* Note: The values of fluid properties vary with temperature
FLUID PROPERTIES MOST COMMONLY CONSIDERED
C COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID
The compressibility ( change in volume due to change in pressure ) of
a liquid is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity,
also known as the bulk modulus. This is defined as


where

Rearranging the definition of as an approximation, we may used
for the case of a fixed mass of liquid at constant temperature,


or
dp
dv
v
dv
dp
v E
v
|
.
|

\
|
= =
v = specific volume
p = pressure
,
v
E
v
E
p A
~
A
v
v
v
E
p p
1 2
1
1 2

~

v
v v
Coefficient of Compressibility



= coefficient of compressibility
v
E
1
= |
Example 1. Reduce 1 centipoise to the English system. If this is the
dynamic viscosity of water at 68 F (20C), what is the kinematic
viscosity in the English system?
Solution.
1 centipoise
1 lb = 444,800 dynes
a) The dynamic viscosity in English system



b) The Kinematic viscosity in the English system



s cm
g
cm
s dyne
poise

= = 01 . 0 01 . 0 01 . 0
2

poise 01 . 0 =
2
2
12 54 . 2
800 , 444
1
01 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
ft
in
in
cm
dynes
lb
cm
s dynes
2
5
10 088 . 2
ft
s lb
x

=

v
g
= =
where
) ( 32 . 62
3
water
ft
lb
= at F 68
( )
sec
10 079 . 1
32 . 62
2 . 32 10 088 . 2
2
5
5
ft
x
x

= = v
Example 2. The kinematic viscosity unit of 1 ft
2
/sec is equivalent to how
many stokes?
Solution:



Example 3. A volume of 15.5 cu. ft of a certain fluid weighs 782 Ib.
Compute the mass density.
Solution:


2
2
12 54 . 2
sec
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
ft
in
in
cm ft
v
sec
929
2
cm
=
V
M
=
gV
W
=
( )
3
2
5 . 15
sec
2 . 32
782
ft
ft
lb
=
3
567 . 1
ft
slugs
=
or stokes 929
Example 4. A barangay of 8,000 population has an average water
consumption per person per day of 110 gallons. Compute the average
total rate of consumption in cubic feet per sec. and in gallons per
minute. (1 cu. ft. = 7.48 gallons)
Solution:
a) Average Total Consumption: 8,000 persons x 110





b) Average Total Consumption:






day person
gallons

day
gal
x
4
10 88 =
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
hr day
hr
ft
gal
day
gal
x
ATC
sec 3600
24 48 . 7
10 88
3
4
sec
362 . 1
3
ft
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
hr day
hr
day
gal
x
ATC
1
min 60
24
10 88
4
min
gal
min
111 . 611
gal
=
Example 5. Compute the unit weight of dry air at 15 C and an absolute
pressure of 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch). Also solve for the
kinematic viscosity.
Solution.
As determined by Bearden, the dynamic viscosity of air at 20 C is
0.0001819 poise and changes at that temperature at a rate of
0.0000005 poise /C
a)




where:
RT
p
=
( ) F
R
ft
ft
in
in
lb
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
59 460 3 . 53
144
7 . 14
2
2
2
3
0765 . 0
ft
lb
=
R
ft
R

= 3 . 53
( ) air
F C = 59 15

b)







The Kinematic viscosity is,


at ( ) 0000005 . 0 5 0001819 . 0 15 = C
) ( 0001794 . 0 P poise =
or
2
sec
cm
dyne
2
2
54 . 2 12
800 , 444
sec
0001794 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
in
cm
ft
in
lb
dynes
cm
dyne
2
7
sec
10 74 . 3
ft
lb
x

=

v
g
= =
3
2 2
7
0765 . 0
sec
2 . 32
sec
10 74 . 3
ft
lb
ft
ft
lb
x
|
.
|

\
|

=

sec
10 58 . 1
2
4
ft
x

=
Example 6. At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa.
Assume specific weight at the surface is 10.05 kN/cu.m and that the
average volume modulus is for the pressure
range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c ) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Solution.
(a) Change in specific volume,

2
9
10 34 . 2
m
N
x
v
E
p
v
v A
=
A

v
E
p
v
A
= A v
2
9
2
6
3
3
2
10 34 . 2
10 8 . 81
10 05 . 10
81 . 9
m
N
x
m
N
x
m
N
x
s
m
v = A
kg
m
x v
3
5
10 412 . 3

= A
( b ) Specific volume at that depth of 8 km

kg
m
x v v v
3
5
1 2
10 412 . 3

= = A
kg
m
x v
3
5
1
2
10 412 . 3
1

=

kg
m
x
g
v
3
5
1
2
10 412 . 3

=

kg
m
x
kg
N
x
s
m
v
3
5
3
2
2
10 1412 . 3
10 05 . 10
81 . 9

=
kg
m
x v
3
4
2
10 420 . 9

=

(c) Specific weight at that depth 8 km

g =
2 2

g
v
=
2
2
1

2 3
4
2
81 . 9
10 420 . 9
1
s
m
kg
m
x
=

3
414 , 10
m
N
=
Example 7. The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1 mm.
The surface tension of water at 20 C is equal to 0.0728 N/m . For a
water glass = 0







Solution.
( a) Capillary rise in the tube in mm



h


2r
gr
h

u o cos 2
=
( )( )
( )( ) 001 . 0 81 . 9 1000
0 cos 0728 . 0 2
=
. 0148 . 0 m = mm 8 . 14 =
( b ) Total force due to surface tension





( c ) Weight of water



) )( cos ( d F t u o =
( ) t 002 . 0 ) 0 cos 0728 . 0 ( = F
N x F
4
10 57 . 4

=
V W = ( )( ) ( ) | | m m
m
N
0148 . 0 001 . 0 9810
2
3
t =
N x
4
10 57 . 4

=
Example 8. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of
chlorine gas at 25 C and under a pressure of 600 kPa absolute. The gas
constant R for chlorine is 117 N m/ kg - K.

Solution:

1. The density of chlorine gas is




2. The specific weight of chlorine is



3. The specific volume of chlorine gas is
RT
p
=
( ) 273 25 117
10 600
3
+
=
x
3
209 . 17
m
kg
=
g = ( ) 81 . 9 209 . 17 =
3
820 . 168
m
N
=

v
1
=
209 . 17
1
=
kg
m
3
058 . 0 =
Example 9. A fuel oil having a viscosity of 0.297 N s/m
2
flows through a
circular pipe 15 cm in diameter. At the center of the pipe the velocity is 1.20
m/s and decreases to a minimum value at the pipe wall. The value of the
velocity at any point in the cross section a distance x from the center is



and r is the radius of the pipe. Compute the shear stress at a point midway
between the center and the wall ( x = 3.75 cm).

Solution:
( )

2 2
4 . 63
x r
V

=
1.2 m/s
15 cm V m/s
x (m)
V = f(x)
Substituting r = 7.5 cm or 0.075 m
and = 0.296 N s/m
2
to V, we
get
( )
297 . 0
075 . 0
4 . 63
2 2
x
V

=
2
468 . 213 201 . 1 x V =
x
dx
dV
936 . 426 =
Note: The negative sign denotes that V is decreasing as x increases.
15 cm
x (m)
t
3.75 cm = 0.0375 m
The shearing stress at x = 0.0375 m is
dx
dV
t =
( )( ) 0375 . 0 936 . 426 297 . 0 = t
x
dx
dV
936 . 426 = Note :
2
755 . 4
m
N
= t
PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS

For any ideal gas experiencing any process or changes, the equation
of state is given by:

(Universal Gas Law) (1)

When temperature is held constant, equation 1 reduces to
2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V p
T
V p
=
2 2 1 1
V p V p =
(Boyles Law)
(2)
When the volume of a confined gas is constant, the pressure is
proportional to the absolute temperature, or
2
2
1
1
T
p
T
p
=
(3)
If the pressure of a confined gas is unchanged, the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature, or
2
2
1
1
T
V
T
V
=
(4)
Equations (3) and (4) are called Charless laws.
From equation (1)
k
T
pV
=
R
W
m
T
pV
= nR
T
pV
=
nRT pV =
(General Gas Law)
where: n = number of moles
m = mass of the gas in grams
W = atomic or molecular mass of the gas in grams/mole
R = universal gas constant
If a gas is compressed or expand without loss of heat through the walls
of its container, the change in volume is said to be adiabatic or isentropic. Then
the special pressure volume relation is given as
t cons v p v p
k k
tan
2 2 1 1
= =
where: p = absolute pressure
v = specific volume
k = adiabatic exponent, the ratio of specific heat at constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.

The value of k depends on the molecular structure of the
gas
k = 1.4 for air, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND DENSITY OF AIR
Temperature
C
Density
( kg/m
3
)
Specific Weight
(N/m
3
)
0 1.293 12.68
10 1.248 12.24
20 1.205 11.82
30 1.165 11.43
40 1.128 11.06
60 1.060 10.40
80 1.000 9.81
100 0.946 9.28
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR
Temperature
C
Viscosity
Pa s x 10
5
0 1.71
10 1.76
20 1.81
30 1.86
40 1.90
60 2.00
80 2.09
100 2.18
Holmans equation for finding of air is
( )
2 3
00000034 . 0 00275 . 0 1 10 716 . 1 T T x + =

where: is in Pa-s and T is the temperature in C

Problems for exercise

1. If a certain gasoline weighs 7 kN/m
3
, what are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to water at 15 C?
2. A cubic meter of air at 101.3 kPa and 15 C weighs 12 N. What is its
specific volume?
3. The density of alcohol is 790 kg/m
3
. Calculate its specific weight, specific
weight, specific gravity and specific volume.
4. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m
3
at a certain temperature and pressure.
What are the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity
relative to air weighing 12 N/m
3
?
5. Compute the number of watts which are equivalent to one horsepower.
( 1 HP = 550 ft-lb/sec; W = 10
7
dynes-cm/sec; 1 lb = 444,800 dynes).
6. A city of 6000 population has an average total consumption per person
per day of 100 gallons. Compute the daily total consumption of the city in
cubic meter per second ( 1 ft
3
= 7.48 gallons ).