Medenilla, Gina Erika N. BSIT 3A IT 311 SETS 1. SET NOTATION uses curly braces, with elements separated by commas.

A set is a collection of objects that have something in common or follow a rule. The objects in the set are called its elements. Every object in a set is unique: The same object cannot be included in the set more than once. Example: Eduardo was in art class when the teacher wrote this on the chalkboard: In fine arts, primary colors are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors. Then she asked the class: What is the set of primary colors? Solution: Eduardo answered: red, blue and yellow. Angie answered: We can use set notation to list the set of all primary colors. Kyesha went to the chalkboard and wrote: X = {red, blue, yellow}

The Notation { } Describes a Set

A set can be described by listing the comma separated members of the set within a pair of curly braces. An example Let S = { 1, 3, 9 }. S is a set. The members of S are 1, 3, 9.

Order and Repetition Do Not Matter in { }

By the principle of extension, a set is determined by its members. For example, the following expressions are equivalent { 1, 3, 9 } { 9, 1, 3 } { 1, 1, 9, 9, 3, 3, 9, 1 } They denote the set whose members are 1, 3, 9.

The Membership Symbol

The fact that x is a member of S can be expressed as o xS The membership symbol can be read as o is in, is a member of, belongs to An Example o S = { 7, 13, 21, 47 } o 7 S, 13 S, 21 S, 47S The negation of is written .

Defining a Set by Membership Properties Notation S = { x T | P(x) } The members of S are members of an already known set T that satisfy property P. An example Let Z be the set of integers. Let Z+ be the set of positive integers. Z+ = { x Z | x > 0 } Sets are usually named using capital letters. This isn't a rule, as far as I know, but it does seem to be traditional. So let's name this set as "A". Then we have: A = {pillow, rumpled bedspread, a stuffed animal, one very fat cat who's taking a nap} The cat's name is "Junior", so this set could also be written as: A = {pillow, rumpled bedspread, a stuffed animal, Junior} Sets are "unordered", which means that the things in the set do not have to be listed in any particular order. The set above could just as easily be written as: A = {Junior, pillow, rumpled bedspread, a stuffed animal} We use a special character to say that something is an element of a set. It looks like an odd curvy capital E. For instance, to say that "pillow is an element of the set A", we would write the following: This is pronounced "pillow is an element of A". The elements of a set can be listed out according to a rule, such as: {x is a natural number, x < 10} If you're going to be technical, you can use full "set-builder notation", which looks like this: This is pronounced as "the set of all x, such that x is an element of the natural numbers and x is less than 10". The vertical bar is usually pronounced as "such that", and it comes between the name of the variable you're using to stand for the elements and the rule that tells you what those elements actually are. This same set, since the elements are few, can also be given by a listing of the elements, like this: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} Listing the elements explicitly like this, instead of using a rule, is often called "using the roster method".

Your text may or may not get technical regarding the names of the types of numbers. If it does, these are the symbols to use:

The symbols require those double-barred strokes. Sets can be related to each other. If one set is "inside" another set, it is called a "subset". Suppose A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then A is a subset of B, since everything in A is also in B. This is written as:

That sideways-U thing is the subset symbol, and is pronounced "is a subset of". To show something is not a subset, you draw a slash through the subset symbol, so the following:

...is pronounced as "B is not a subset of A". If two sets are being combined, this is called the "union" of the sets, and is indicated by a large U-type character. If instead of taking everything from the two sets, you're only taking what is common to the two, this is called the "intersection" of the sets, and is indicated with an upsidedown U-type character. So if C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and D = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, then:

These are pronounced as "C union D equals..." and "C intersect D equals...", respectively. 2. TWO METHODS OF WRITING A SET: Listing Method o i.e A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Set Builder Notation o i.e B = {x | 1 < x < 10 and 3 | x} o Set builder notation has two parts separated with a vertical bar or a colon. The first part names a variable (in this case x) that ranges over all objects in the set. The second part gives one or more constraints that these objects must satisfy, e.g. 3 x 7. The type of the variable (integer in our example) can be specified either before or after the vertical bar. The separator (| or :) is often read such that. Heres an example of a set containing an infinite number of objects multiples of 7 {. . . 14,7, 0, 7, 14, 21, 18, . . .} {x Z | x is a multiple of 7}

3. KINDS OF SETS: a. finite sets {1,2,3} it has an ending is a set that has a finite number of elements. For example:

b. infinite sets {1,2,3...} it ends with an elipsis (...) which means it is uncountable or infinite. A set that is not finite is called infinite. For example, the set of all positive integers is infinite: c. null set or empty set {} which means empty. is the unique set having no elements; its size or cardinality (count of elements in a set) is zero. d. unit sets {1} it has only one element. also known as a singleton. is a set with exactly one element. For example, the set {0} is a singleton. e. universal set denotes as U is a set which contains all objects, including itself. A universal set is the set of all elements under consideration, denoted by capital U or sometimes capital E. Example: Given that U = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, list the elements of the following sets. a) A = {x : x is a factor of 60} b) B = {x : x is a prime number} Solution: The elements of sets A and B can only be selected from the given universal set U . a) A = {5, 6, 10, 12} b) B = {5, 7, 11}

4. VENN EULER DIAGRAM An Euler (pronounced "oiler") diagram is a picture that represents sets and their relationships. It consists of closed curves, the elements of which are represented by the interior of the curves. The relationships to be represented are overlap, containment or neither. A Venn diagram represents all possible overlap permutations between sets. Therefore, Venn diagrams are a subset of Euler diagrams, for they are the Euler

diagrams that represent all potential overlaps, whether the sets have elements in common or not. 5. OPERATION ON SETS: The four basic operations of sets are unions, intersections, complements, and the Cartesian product. a. Unions A union is essentially the act of 'adding' multiple sets together to combine their elements into a single set. example: if A={1,3,5} and B={2,4,6} then the union AB={1,2,3,4,5,6} however, the same elements are not counted twice so if A={1,2,5} and B={1,2,4} then AB={1,2,4,5} b. Intersections An intersection makes a new set from the common elements of the sets involved. example: for A={2,3,5,7,11}, B={2,5,8} and C={5,9,11} then the intersection A(BC)={5} Notice that even though A and B have 2, and A and C have 11, the intersection of the three sets is 5 as that is the only common element between all three. Also notice that if you take the intersection of two sets with no elements in common you end up with the empty set. c. Complements There are 2 complements, the relative complement and the absolute complement. The relative complement is the 'subtraction' of multiple sets. The relative complement of A in B, written B\A, is the set of all elements that are in B but aren't in A. example: A={1,2,3,4,5,6}, B={5,6,7,8,9} then B\A={7,8,9} This property does not commute, B\AA\B Given a universal set U, defined as containing all the elements in that area, the absolute complement is the complement of A in U, and is denoted as Ac. i.e. Ac is the set of all elements in U that aren't in A. example: let U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, and A={2,3,5,7}. Then Ac={1,4,6,8,9,10} bigger example: if U={x} (the set of all positive integers not including 0) and A={x=2k|k} (the set off all positive and even numbers) then Ac is the set of all positive and odd integers.

d. Cartesian Product The cartesian product is the combination of elements from multiple sets. example: Let A={1,2,3} and B={red, blue} then the Cartesian product AxB={(1,red), (1,blue), (2,red), (2,blue), (3,red), (3,blue)} This property generally does not commute, AxB=BxA if and only if A=B. 6. APPLICATION OF UNION AND INTERSECTION OF SETS

The union of two or more sets is a set containing all of the members in those sets. For example, the union of sets with members 1, 2, 3, and a set with members 3, 4, 5 is the set with members 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. So we can write: Let A = {1. 2. 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then AB = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} The intersection of two or more sets is the set containing only the members contained in every set. For example, the intersection of a set with members 1, 2, 3, and a set with members 3, 4, 5 is the set with only member 3. So we can write: Let A = {1. 2. 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then A B = {3} 7. PROVING SET IDENTITIES

Set Identities: Consists of set identities, many of which we will prove.

Set Identities Identity

A= A AU = A AU = U A= AA= A AA= A A= A AB= BA

Name Identity laws Domination laws Idempotent laws Complementation law Commutative laws Associative laws Distributive laws De Morgans laws

AB= BA ( A B) C = A (B C ) ( A B) C = A (B C )
A (B C ) = ( A B) ( A C ) A (B C ) = ( A B) ( A C )

AB= AB AB= AB

There are many proof techniques used to prove set identities (we will omit membership tables.) Two of these methods are illustrated in what follows. Example 1: Prove DeMorgan's Law: A B = A B . Proof: AB= {x | x ( A B)} =

By definition of the complement of a set. {x | ( x ( A B))} = Symbolic notation of the negation. {x | ( x A x B)} = By definition of the union {x | ( x A) ( x B)} = ??? {x | ( x A) ( x B)} = {x | ( x A) ( x B)} = AB From symbolic notation to set notation. ??? By the definition of the intersection of sets.

Hence, A B = A B . End of Proof. Example 2: Exercise #6 (f) Prove A U = (Note that this is one of the U domination laws)
AU = {x | ( x A) ( x U ) } =

{x | ( x A) T} =

{x | T } = U

By definition of the intersection of sets. Since the empty set has no elements. ??

8. COMPUTER REPRESENTATION OF SETS Computer Representation of Set Assume that U is finite (and reasonable!) Let U be the English alphabet. Each bit represents whether the element in U is in the set The vowels in the alphabet: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 10001000100000100000100000 The consonants in the alphabet: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 01110111011111011111011111 Computer Representation of Set 2 Consider the union of these two sets: 10001000100000100000100000 01110111011111011111011111 11111111111111111111111111 Consider the intersection of these two sets: 10001000100000100000100000 01110111011111011111011111 00000000000000000000000000