1

2.Electricalresistivity
methods

Theresistivitymethodisusedinthestudyof
horizontalandverticaldiscontinuitiesinthe
electricalpropertiesoftheground.

Itutilizesdirectcurrentsorlowfrequency
alternatingcurrentstoinvestigatethe
electricalproperties(resistivity)ofthe
subsurface.

Aresistivitycontrastbetweenthetargetand
thebackgroundgeologymustexist.
2
Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.1:Groundwater
exploration
3
Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.2:Mineral
exploration,detection
ofcavities
4
Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.3:Wastesite
exploration
5
Possibleapplicationsof
resistivitysurveying
Fig.4:Oilexploration
6
2.1Resistivity
Fig.5:Ohm'slaw
Adirectcurrentwith
strengthI[A] flowsthrough
aconductorofalimited
size.
I=
qV
jl
currentstrength[A]
Voltage[V]
crosssection[m]
length
resistivity
conductivity
I:
V:
q:
l :
j:
c=1/j:
(Dm)
(2.1)
7
Resistivity
Thiscanbewrittenalternativelyintermsoffield
strength(E[V/m])andcurrentdensity(j[A/m]).
1.610
8
Dmj10
16
Dm
j=E/ j
|
Dm

Resistivityisoneofthemostvariablephysical
properties.
nativesilver puresulfur
8
Rocktypesandresistivity
Igneousrocks highestresistivities
Sedimentaryrocks tendtobethemost
conductiveduetotheirhighfluidcontent
Metamorphicrocks haveintermediatebut
overlappingresistivities
Ageoftherockisalsoimportantfortheresistivity.
Forexample:
Youngvolcanicrock(Quaternary)
Oldvolcanicrock(Precambrian)
10200Dm
1002000Dm
9
Rocktypesandresistivity
Mostrockformingmineralsareinsulators:
10
8
10
16
Dm
However,measurementinsitu:
sedimentaryrocks:
metamorphic/crystallinerocks:
51000Dm
10010
5
Dm
Reason:Rocksareusuallyporousandporesarefilled
withfluids,mainlywater.Astheresult,rocksare
electrolyticconductors.Electricalcurrentis
carriedthrougharockmainlybythepassageof
ionsinporewaters.

Mostrocksconductelectricitybyelectrolytic
ratherthanohmicprocesses.
10
LawofArchie
n2
0.5a2.5
1.3m2.5

j=a
m
S
n
j
w
j1/
2
Observation:
:porosity
where
EmpiricallawofArchie

S
j
w
:fractionalporevolume(porosity)
:fractionoftheporescontainingwater
:resistivityofwater
(2.2)
11
Examplefortheapplication
ofArchie'slaw
j/j
w
=6 for =0.5
j/j
w
=1710
4
for =0.3
j/j
w
=150 for =0.1
j/j
w
=1.510
4
for =0.01
S=1 a=1.5 m=2
12
Schematiccurrentflowin
soilsample

Anincreaseinthenumberofionsinsoilwater
(groundwatercontamination)linearlydecreasesthe
soilresistivity.
Fig.6
13
Theapproximateresistivity
valuesofcommonrocktypes
Fig.7
14
Discussion:Resistivityvalues

Thereisconsiderableoverlapbetween
differentrocktypes.

Identificationofarocktypeisnotpossible
solelyonthebasisofresistivitydata.

Resistivityofrocksdependsonporosity,
saturation,contentofclayandresistivityof
porewater(Archie'sformula).
15
2.2Currentflowina
homogeneousearth
Fig.8:Currentflowfor
asinglesurfaceelectrode
16
Currentflowina
homogeneousearth

Asinglecurrentelectrodeonthesurfaceofa
mediumofuniformresistivity

Thevoltagedropbetweenanytwopointson
thesurfacecanbedescribedbythepotential
gradient.

dV/drisnegativebecausethepotential
decreasesinthedirectionofcurrentflow.
j
isconsidered.
17
Potentialdecayawayfrom
thepointelectrode
Fig.9

Currentflowsradiallyawayfromtheelectrode
sothatthecurrentdistributionisuniformover
hemisphericalshellscenteredonthesource.

Linesofequalvoltage(equipotentials)
intersectthelinesofequalcurrentatright
angles.
18
Potentialofapoint
electrode
Ohm'slaw
Thus,thepotentialV
r
atdistanceris
obtainedbyintegration.
V
r
=
jI
q
=
jI
2nr
2
V
r
=

V=

jI
2nr
2
r=
jI
2nr
(2.3)
Thecircuitiscompletedbyacurrentsinkat
alargedistancefromtheelectrode.
19
2.3Electrodeconfigurations
andgeneralcase
2.3.1GeneralCase
Thegeneralcaseisconsidered,wherethe
currentsinkisafinitedistancefromthesource.
Fig.10
20

Fig.11:
Principleof
measurement
andpotential
fieldforfor
geoelectricDC
surveys
21
Potentialforthegeneral
case
ThepotentialV
M
attheinternalelectrodeMis
thesumofthepotentialcontributionsV
A
andV
B

fromthecurrentsourceatAandthesinkatB.
V
M
=V
A
+V
B
ThepotentialsatelectrodeMandNare
V
M
=
jI
2n
|
1
AM

1
MB

V
N
=
jI
2n
|
1
AN

1
NB

(2.4)
(2.5)
.
22
Potentialforthegeneral
case
Potentialdifferencesaremeasured
AV
MN
=V
M
V
N
=
jI
2n
|
1
AM

1
MB

|
1
AN

1
NB

- j=
2nAV
MN
I
|
1
AM

1
MB

|
1
AN

1
NB

1
(2.6)
(2.7)
Definitionofthegeometricfactor
k=2n

1
AM

1
MB

1
AN
+
1
NB

1
j=
AV
MN
k
I
(2.8)
(2.9)
.
.
23
Discussion

Trueresistivityofthesubsurfaceifitis
homogeneous.

Wherethegroundisuniform,theresistivity
shouldbeconstantandindependentofboth
electrodespacingandsurfacelocation.

Whensubsurfaceinhomogeneitiesexist,the
resistivitywillvarywiththerelativepositionsof
electrodes.
24
Discussion

Thecalculatedvalueiscalledapparent
resistivity.

Ingeneral,allfielddataareapparent
resistivity.Theyareinterpretedtoobtainthe
trueresistivitiesofthelayersintheground.
j
a
j
a
=
AV
MN
I
k
(2.10)
25
2.3.2Electrode
configurations
Theapparentresistivity
dependsonthe
geometryofthearray
used(Eq.2.8and2.9).
Fig.12:Maintypesof
electrodeconfigurations
26
Geometryfactorsfor
differentconfigurations
Derivedgeometricfactors:
k=2na
k=
n
a
|
(
L
2
)
2

(
a
2
)
2

k=nn( n+1)( n+2) a

Therearetwomain
modesofdeployment
ofelectrodearrays.
A)Geoelectricmapping:
Determinationoflateral
variationofresistivityin
definedhorizons.
Thecurrentandpotential
electrodesaremaintained
atafixedseparationand
progressivelymovedalong
aprofile.
Fig.13
28
Applicationsofgeoelectric
mapping

Thismethodisemployedinmineral
prospectingtolocatefaultsorshearzonesor
todeterminelocalizedbodiesofanomalous
conductivity.

Itisusedingeotechnicalsurveystodetermine
variationsinbedrockdepthandthepresence
ofsteepdiscontinuities.
29
Fig.14:(a)TheobservedWennerresistivityprofile
overashalefilledsinkofknowngeometryin
Kansas,USA.(b)Thetheoreticalprofilefora
buriedhemisphere.
30
Fig.15:Aconstant
separationtraverse
usingaWenner
arraywith10m
electrodespacing
overaclayfilled
solutionfeature
(positionarrowed)
inlimestone.
31
Fig.16:Observed
apparent
resistivityprofile
acrossaresistive
landfillusingthe
Wennerarray.
32
GeoelectricSounding
B)Geoelectricsounding:determinationofthe
verticalvariationoftheresistivity.
Thecurrentandpotentialelectrodesare
maintainedatthesamerelativespacingand
thewholespreadisprogressivelyexpanded
aboutafixedcentralpoint.
Asthedistancebetweenthecurrent
electrodesisincreased,sothedepthtowhich
thecurrentpenetratesisincreased.
33
Fig.17:Geoelectric
Sounding
34
Fig.18:Realizationofageoelectricsounding,
developmentofasoundingcurve.
4
35
Multielectrodesystems

Soundingsandmappingsareverytime
consuming.

Thereforemultielectrodesystemsare
developed.Typically50electrodesarelaid
outintwostringsof25electrodes,with
electrodesconnectedbyamulticorecable
toaswitchingboxandresistancemeter.The
wholedataacquisitionprocedureissoftware
controlledfromalaptopcomputer.
36
Fig.19:Geoelectricmappingusingamulti
electrodedevice.
4
37
Continuousgeoelectric
mapping

Anewandquickmappingsystemisthepulled
arraycontinuouselectricalprofilingtechnique.
Fig.20
4
38
Continuousgeoelectric
mapping

Anarrayofheavysteelelectrodeseach
weighing1020kgistowedbehindavehicle
containingthemeasuringequipment.
Measurementaremadecontinuously.1015
linekilometersofprofilingcanbeachievedin
aday.
39
2.4Interpretationof
geoelectricdata
Aimoftheinterpretation:Determinationoftheresistivity
andthicknessofeachlayerfromtheobserved
resistivities.
Fig.21
Verticalelectricalsoundingscanbeinterpretedbyusing:
a)graphicalmodelcurves(mastercurves)littleused
b)computermodeling(inversioncalculation)
Geological
Interpretaion
40
Mastercurves
Mastercurves:Themaster
curvesarepreparedin
adimensionlessformfor
anumberofreflection
coefficients
orfor
bydividing
andbydividing.
isthethicknessofthe
upperlayer(fortwo
layercase!).
k=(j
2
j
1
)/(j
2
+j
1
)
j
a
/j
1
a/ z
1
z
1
Fig.22
5
j
2
/j
1
41
Usageofthemastercurves
Thefieldcurvetobeinterpretedisplottedon
transparentlogarithmicpaperwiththesame
modulusasthemastercurve.Itisthenshifted
overthemastercurvekeepingthecoordinate
axesparallel,untilareasonablematchis
obtainedwithoneofthemastercurvesor
withaninterpolatedcurve.
42
Fig.23:Theinterpretationofatwolayer
apparentresistivitygraphbycomparisonwitha
setofmastercurve.Theupperlayerresistivityis
68anditsthicknessis19.5m.
j
1
Dm
z
1
43
3layercase
3layercase:Muchlargersetsofcurvesare
requiredtorepresenttheincreasednumberof
possiblecombinationsofresistivitiesandlayer
thicknesses.
j
a
/j
1
=f (j
2,
j
3,
k
1,
z
1,
a)
Directcurvefittingistimeconsuming,betteruse
auxiliarypointtechniques.
44
Fig.24:Exampleofcurvefittingforthreelayers;
experimentalpointsarebaseduponactual
measurementsintheArcticusingaSchlumbergerarray.
6
45
Fig.24(continued):.Numberon
curvesarevaluesof.Toobtainthefield
parameterstheaxes(dashedlines)ofthetheoretical
curvesareextendedtointersecttheaxes(fulllines)of
thefieldcurve.Thepointsofintersectiongivethefield
valuesofand.andfollowfromtheratios
givenforthisfamilyofcurves.isfoundfromtheratio
numbergivenonthebestfittingcurve.Inthiscasean
intepolationhasbeenmadebetweencurvesfor4and
6.Finalresultsthereforegive:
j
2
/j
1
=0.2, j
3
/j
1
=3
z
2
/ z
1
j
1
j
3
j
2
z
1
z
2
j
1
=13Dm, j
2
=1.6Dm, j
3
=39Dm
z
1
=2.2m, z
2
=11m
46
Computermodeling
INPUT
INVERSION
OUTPUT
j
a
(L/ 2)
calculated
apparent
resistivities
j
a
(L/ 2)
observed
apparent
resistivities
j
1,
h
1
j
2,
h
2
j
3
startmodel
j
1,
h
1
j
2,
h
2
j
3
finalmodel
47
Fig.25:Inversionschemeingeoelectric
sounding
48
2.4.1Possibleinterpretation
errors
a)Equivalentmodels

Resistivitiesandthicknessesofeachlayercan
bederivedfromtheapparentresistivitycurve
clearly.

Inthefieldmeasurementerrorsoccur.

Theapparentresistivitycurvecanbe
interpretedbydifferentresistivitymodels.
Theprincipleofequivalence:Thethicknessand
resistivitycannotbederivedindependently.
(j
a
!Aj
a
)
49
Fig.26
50
Fig.27:Exampleof
ageoelectric
soundingona
graveldeposit.
Dependingonthe
assumedapparent
resistivityofthe
targetthethickness
ofthedeposit
varies.
4
51
Fig.28:Duetotheprincipleofequivalence
differentdepthofthegroundwatertable
canbederivedfromthedata.
4
52
Modelselection

Thegeophysicisthastoselectthemodel,that
agreesbestwiththeknowngeologicaland
hydrogeologicalstructuresoftheground.
Anotherselectivecriterionisthecomparison
withneighboringsoundings.
53
b)Supression
Thisisparticularlyaproblemwhenthreeor
morelayersarepresentandtheirresistivities
areascendingordescendingwithdepth.
Themiddleintermediatelayermaynotbe
evidentonthefieldcurve.
54
Fig.29:Exampleforsupression.
7
55
Averaged
resistivity
Anisotropy
coefficient
c)Theeffectofanisotropy
Insedimentssuchasclayorshaletheresistivity
perpendiculartothelayeringisusuallygreaterthan
paralleltothedirectionoflayering.
h'=\h
Sand,gravel
\=1.3
\=2
Fig.30
\=
.
j
t
/j
l
j=
.
j
t
j
l
Coal
Anisotropyresultsintoo
largethicknessesbeing
assignedtolayers.
56
d)Nonhorizontallayering
1Dinterpretationisvalid,ifthedipofthelayers
isnotgreaterthan15.
Fig.31
57
e)Interpretationerrors
causedbyfaults

Measurementsperpendiculartothestrike
directionofthefault.

Thelocationofthefaultcanbedetermined.
Fig.32
58

Measurementsparalleltothestrikedirection
ofthefault.

Noeffectofthefaultcanbeseenonthe
apparentresistivitycurve.

Interpretationerror.Thecurvecanbe
interpretedasa2layercase.Howeverthere
isonlyonelayer!
Fig.33
59
2.4.2Methodsforthe
determinationoflateralvariations
ofresistivityintheearth

HalfSchlumbergermeasurements
Fig.34
60
Measurementonthesamelocationwith3arrays
Fig.36
Fig.35

Nofault,no
lateralvariation
ofresistivity!

Faultoralateral
changeinthe
earthexists.
61
Fig.37:Circular
geoelectric
soundingcurvesin
adisturbed
environment.
4
Commonmidpoint

Circular
geoelectric
measurements
62
2.4.3Reciprocity
Fig.38
AU
MN
I
A B
=
AU
A B
I
MN
63
2.5CaseHistories:
WasteSites
Fig.39:Contoursof
apparentspecific
resistivity,
industrial/domesticwaste
dump.Areahatched
>60Ohmm,cross
hatched<20Ohmm.
arrows=possible
seepagepaths
64
Fig40a:GeoelectricSoundings(Schlumbergerarray)ofa
hazardouswastesiteonRhineisland.Sounding17Eliesoutside,
13Einsidethedump,displayingprofounddifferencesinresistivity
betweenwasteandsediment.
65
Fig40b:GeoelectricSoundings(Schlumbergerarray)ofa
hazardouswastesiteonRhineisland.
66
Fig41:
Hermsdorf
DC
67
Fig42:(a)Vertical
electricalsounding
adjacenttotestborehole
intheCentralLens,Grand
Cayman.(b)Layered
modelinterpretationof
theVES.(c)Interpreted
salinityprofile.
2.5CaseHistories:
Groundwater
68
Fig43:Exampleofasoundingcurvetolocatethemarl
layer.
4
2.5CaseHistories:
Geology
69
Fig44:Mappingverticalcontactswiththehalf
Schlumberger(gradient)array,Kongsberg,Norway.
5
70
Fig.45:
Schlumberger
soundingcurvein
SouthAfrica.
71
Fig.46
72
Fig.47
73
Fig.48
74
Fig.49
2.5CaseHistories:
Archaeology
75
Fig.50
76
Fig.51
77
Fig.52:Cologne2Dinversion
78
References
1)Reynolds,J.M.:AnIntroductiontoAppliedand
EnvironmentalGeophysics,Wiley,1998
2)Kearey,P.,Brooks,M.:AnIntroductiontoGeophysical
Exploration,Blackwell,2002
3)Vogelsang,D.:EnvironmentalGeophysics,A
PracticalGuide,SpringerVerlag,1995
4)Kirsch,R.:UmweltgeophysikinderPraxis:
UntersuchungvonAltablagerungenund
kontaminiertenStandorten,ScriptUniKiel
79
References
5)Telford,W.M.,Geldart,L.P.,Sherrif,R.E.,Keys,D.A.:
Geophysics,CambridgeUniversityPress
6)Beck,A.E.:PhysicalPrinciplesofExplorationMethods
7)Hamel,H.:MethodischeUntersuchungenzur
InterpretationvonKurvendesscheinbaren
WiderstandesderGeoelektrik,Hausarbeitin
Gttingen