Poverty alleviation: the role of the engineer

David Singleton
Introduction The statistics on world poverty are frightening. Close to half the worlds 6bn people live on less than US$2 a day; conversely 1% of the population has an income equal to that of the entire bottom 57%1. But poverty is not only about lack of wealth in monetary terms; it also implies the denial of various choices and opportunities basic to human development. These include the ability to lead a long, creative and healthy life, to acquire knowledge, to have freedom, dignity, self-respect and respect for others, and to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of living.2 Community infrastructure is key to alleviating poverty and thus engineers have an essential role to play. Without ready access to clean water and sanitation, productivity is severely reduced through illness and time spent in water collection. Without roads, the poor are unable to sell their goods at market. Basic infrastructure is not a luxury that can wait for better economic times, but a precondition for creating them, and its provision is an urgent and ongoing requirement. The Economist has observed that over the past 50 years rich nations have given US$1 trillion in aid to poor ones. This stupendous sum has failed spectacularly to improve the lot of its intended beneficiaries. Poor countries that receive lots of aid do no better, on average, than those that receive very little3. Poverty is thus not being ignored, but alleviation strategies must be more effective for relief to be achieved. The origins of poverty To begin solving poverty, its origins must be clearly understood. The basic causes are: lack of access to safe water and sanitation lack of facilities for adequate health care lack of access to educational opportunities shortage of adequate nutrition lack of adequately paid employment inadequate or expensive transport facilities limited or expensive power supplies. Urban and rural poverty generally have different causes, though not mutually exclusive. The main causes of urban poverty are likely to be: lack of adequate income or no income, due to underemployment or unemployment inadequate housing, sanitation, and water supply limited opportunities for education inadequate or expensive transport facilities. Poor health and lack of access to education tend to minimize skills, compounding the problems of un- or underemployment, leading to reduction of income-earning capacity. The predominant causes of rural poverty are likely to be: lack of access to health care and education inadequate shelter, sanitation, and water supply lack of access to markets for agricultural products limited opportunity to earn income inadequate or expensive transport facilities no access to power and telecommunications facilities.

Poverty in rural areas tends to be more widespread and more intense than in urban areas, because: Employment opportunities are more limited. Access to a range of key facilities is much reduced. Many households are headed by women often due to abandonment of families by the males, with commensurate reduction in income. Sanitation and water supply deficiencies are more intense, leading to ill health. The trend in developing countries worldwide - whereby male family members gravitate to urban areas in search of employment - often reduces the rural familys ability to survive in a subsistence economy. Poverty alleviation strategies Historically, poverty alleviation strategies have focused on direct intervention to provide facilities that are lacking. Investments by international lending agencies over the past two to three decades have concentrated on solutions to deficiencies in infrastructure that are usually expensive, often with apparently limited thought to ongoing operation and maintenance. Local observers in several recipient countries, and other stakeholders, have commented on inadequacies in the implemented projects and programmes: lack of planning for ongoing operation and maintenance of the facilities limited attention to the development of a sense of ownership by the local community political interference and intervention allocation of funds to countries without a poverty alleviation strategy of their own corruption, leading to ineffectiveness of investment. At the recent Rio+10 Sustainability Summit, both the United Nations and the World Bank called for alleviation strategies involving no more hardware, noting that major investments over the last 20-30 years in water infrastructure schemes had often failed to benefit the people at whom they were aimed. This is because most facilities involving technology are generally abandoned within two years, as revenue streams are insufficient to pay for repairs and maintenance and because of the lack of local skills to carry out repairs. Corruption is also often a barrier. In agreeing to a target to halve the number of people without sanitation globally by 2020, the Summit noted that emphasis should be on smaller-scale solutions suited to local capabilities, understanding and skills. The role of engineers in delivering infrastructure schemes needs to change significantly. Again over the last 20-30 years, experience with implementing large-scale infrastructure improvement projects has led to an improved understanding of the conditions necessary for sustainable reduction in poverty levels: The local community must be empowered by the decision-making process. The local community must be involved in ongoing operation and maintenance. National and regional governments must also be involved in the project. Project selection must favour those projects that lead to economic growth. Strength of the market economy is a prerequisite to economic growth. Close involvement of the local community will improve the chances of project success; it needs to be owned. Poverty alleviation requires interventions that involve considerable social and cultural change. Poverty has many aspects, and solutions require more than a technical or engineering basis. Provision of infrastructure alone will not alleviate poverty, without access to that infrastructure. We can ask such questions as: What good is a road if there is no means of transport? What good is a latrine if it is not being used? What good is a water supply system if it is in disrepair? In developing strategies to alleviate poverty, we must take account of and address these wider issues.
1a & b. Problem and solution (see Case study 2, p5).

This article is an edited version of the Fourth Brunel International Lecture 2002/03, given under the auspices of the Institution of Civil Engineers, by David Singleton, Chairman of Arup Australasia.

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Sound engineering solutions to poverty alleviation Engineering solutions are integral to mitigating poverty; however, engineering is not the sole contributor to successful poverty alleviation programmes, which also entail attention to social, economic, and political influences. Sustainable engineering will be achieved when the engineering solutions adopted take into account their use of natural resources. Optimum solutions will have a positive or neutral impact on natural resource consumption. Unsound engineering solutions, by comparison, may leave the environment depleted and society poorer over time. Life-cycle engineering takes into account the operational and maintenance cost of the engineering solutions proposed, such that the completed projects have effective and affordable operational and maintenance regimes. Empowered engineering will take into account the capabilities of the local community, particularly its engineering and technical professions. Where possible, the solutions developed will involve local professional and technical staff and will establish an on-going engineering and operational resource. Appropriate engineering will consider various options that meet the engineering needs of the project and may adopt techniques of labour-based construction, which differs significantly from labour-intensive construction. The latter basically substitutes men for machines, eg constructing a concrete-framed building where the concrete is mixed by hand without a mechanical mixer. Labour-based construction, by contrast, aims to change the technology involved to what is appropriate for manual labour, eg eliminating the concrete frame and building the structure of load-bearing masonry. Labour-based construction has been shown to compare favourably with plant-based construction4. In addition, it facilitates knowledge transfer, creates jobs, encourages private enterprise, creates ownership, and may reduce cost. The following five case studies illustrate engineering applications to poverty mitigation programmes and identify the associated social, economic, and political actions put in place. Each shows sound and appropriate engineering.

Case study 1: Australian remote Aboriginal communities

Arup has undertaken many projects across the globe addressing the lack of access to basic infrastructure. For example, we have extensive involvement in water supply and sanitation projects in Botswana5, and in health, housing, and community infrastructure projects for indigenous communities throughout Australia6. Project background The Infrastructure Operation and Maintenance Project for the Aboriginal Co-ordinating Council (ACC) commenced in 1999, with a budget of A$6M and a planned duration of three years. The project was instigated in response to the challenges faced in Queenslands remote indigenous communities in developing and maintaining infrastructure. Limited recurrent funds and the difficulties in acquiring appropriate technical and management skills in remote communities resulted in low infrastructure lifecycles, and thus lower standards of living and poor health.

Project details This pilot project was implemented in six remote communities in Queensland. It was a grassroots initiative for indigenous communities that aimed to: improve the health and wellbeing of their people develop and support a culture of asset management protect investment of capital funds in their infrastructure. Arup was appointed as project co-ordinator to oversee the project and liaise with communities, funding and training agencies. The firms role included the development and implementation of technical and management on the job training (during Stage 1, 21 Trainees completed Certificate 2 in Essential Services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) communities through the Technical and Further Education Programme (TAFE)), the implementation of best practice in infrastructure asset management, raising awareness among community members of the importance of caring for infrastructure assets, and the need to establish mechanisms for permanent Essential Services Officer positions.

2. Drilling a borehole.

3. Installation of piped water services.

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Case study 2: South African roundabout HIV/AIDS initiative

Project background The AIDS epidemic is tearing apart the social and economic fabric of many African nations. 70% of the worlds AIDS-infected adults and 80% of infected children live in Sub-Saharan Africa. There are 11M child AIDS orphans, and grandparents are forced to assume the responsibility for childrearing7. Affected families lose income-earning capacity, both through the absence of the income earner and the time and cost incurred in nursing the infected. The problem compounds itself: poverty is a key factor leading to the behaviour that exposes people to risk of HIV infections, and the resulting HIV compounds the poverty. Project details The concept is simple: a childs playground roundabout bolted on top of an existing borehole, with the energy of the children at play harnessed to pump drinking water into an overhead storage tank screened with billboards promoting HIV/AIDS awareness to the children and communities. There is a communal tap at ground level. Each roundabout/pump costs US$5000, and is based on standard windmill equipment located below ground8. The above-ground equipment includes the tank and galvanized sheet as advertising boards, available at any farm supply store. Project construction and replication are helped by the use of standard and easily procurable materials. Play power has advantages over conventional energy sources. It is clean, renewable, and robust, and the borehole recovers naturally during the night. There is no risk of pumping dry or engine burnout if the pump is accidentally left on overnight. At least 50% of the billboard space promotes health-related information, in particular on HIV and AIDS. This is an effective advertising medium in the absence of conventional first world media like newspapers, magazines, television, and the Internet. Revenue from commercial advertisers in the remaining space will provide a regular flow of income for the manufacture of new roundabouts and to cover maintenance costs. Women and young girls benefit from the saving of time and energy previously spent fetching water for daily needs from deep wells at long distances, and are placed at less risk. Also, they benefit from the HIV/AIDS awareness campaign.
0 BOTSWANA NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE

Messina

MOZ.

Pietersburg Pretoria Johannesburg SWAZILAND Ladysmith Richards Bay Durban

Upington

Kimberley

Bloemfontein De Aar

LESOTHO

Saldanha Cape Town 50 100 km

East London Port Elizabeth Area where roundabouts have been installed

Mosselbaal

5. Southern Africa.

4. Play power.

Progress report More than 300 roundabout pumps have been installed in South Africa, each serving a community of over 2500 people. Various improvements to standard of living have been noted, including the ready availability of clean drinking water. This reduces water-borne diseases like cholera, and helps in the development of thriving vegetable farms providing fresh produce for schools and for sale at market.

6. Children at play turning a roundabout bolted above an existing borehole. This action works a pump enabling drinking water to be pumped into an overhead storage tank screened with billboards promoting HIV/AIDS awareness to the community.

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Case study 3: Micro-finance in Bangladesh

Project background Bangladesh is one of the poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations in the world. With more than 125M inhabitants, it is the eighth most populous country in the world - but with a per capita annual income estimated at around US$2809. Situated in a low-lying delta where four major river systems come together, the country is blessed with highly fertile soil, but also suffers regular and severe flooding. Shelter is one of the most basic requirements, but many Bangladeshis cannot afford the cost of housing able to withstand the monsoon and winter periods. Typical houses are made of jute sticks placed side-by-side and cost between US$25 and US$30. Such houses tend to collapse in moderately severe weather. Even if constructed with bamboo walls and hay/thatch roofing, at a significantly higher cost, they are not very durable. As a result, almost every year, people replace or repair the roof of their house at a cost of up to US$40. This cost is increasing with the constant rise in price of bamboo and hay. This ongoing expenditure is a heavy burden on the poor. If they have no access to cash, people are forced to borrow money from moneylenders at very high rates (10% per month)9. This situation could be avoided if more durable shelter could be constructed; in turn this depends on finance. Project details The Grameen Bank10, the largest rural credit institution in Bangladesh, with 2.4M borrowers (95% of them female), was established in 1976. The Bank recognizes that it is lack of access to collateral rather than inability to make loan payments that perpetuates poverty. Regular micro-enterprise loans are typically disbursed to individuals for one year and are paid back in weekly instalments at 2% of the loan amount, which is normally no more than US$20 for the first loan. To participate in the loan programme, a member must gather five people with similar economic and social backgrounds who will agree to apply for and sign together on loans (a group). A cluster of groups (between two and 10) constitutes a centre, which is presided over by two officials9. The borrowers group and centre members must agree to stand behind the loan for the individual member. The collateral system, based on peer support, means that families help each other out with payment to ensure that all repayments are made on time. Grameen Bank operates as a specialized bank for the poor, generating income from its investments; it is not reliant on donor funding. When the Bank was formally incorporated in 1983, the original rural members provided 40% of the initial capital: the Bangladesh government contributed the rest. The Bank has since become largely self-sufficient, with the government now holding less than 10% of the equity. Housing loans: In 1984, the Bank started to lend money for housing, and to date 450 000 houses have been built using these loans. An average of 7000-8000 new loans are made every month. Although exceptions are made for the poorest of poor in dire need of shelter, relatively strict rules govern these loans. To qualify for a housing loan, a member must fulfil the following: be an existing Bank borrower, with a 100% repayment record, and have completely repaid their first two loans from income generating activities prove that they have an adequate income and have acquired savings have a history of regularly attending weekly meetings provide legal documentation of land ownership where the house will be built (if the member does not own land, he/she is encouraged to use the loan towards land purchase), and must submit a proposal on the type of house planned and devise a repayment schedule. House design: The Grameen Bank developed house designs for borrowers. The houses, although varying in appearance, have the same basic structural components: four reinforced concrete pillars on brick foundations at the corners and six intermediary bamboo posts, with bamboo tie beams, wooden rafters, and purlins supporting corrugated iron roofing sheets. This design provides stability in flood and strong monsoon winds and protection from rain. Although the borrower is responsible for the construction of the house, the Bank ensures that it meets basic health and safety requirements and achieves minimum Grameen standards. Since mid-1998, the Bank has required members to install a sanitary latrine with each house.

NEPAL

Rangpur

INDIA

7. Bangladesh.

Mymensingh Rajshahi Tungi Dhaka INDIA Narayanganj Jessore Khulna Mongla Barisal Chittagong Comilla Sylhet

Coxs Bazar 0 50 100 km

MYANMAR

Progress report The Bank operates efficiently and is widely considered innovative, progressive, and corruption-free. The rate of repayment for all loans is 98%, and for housing loans it is close to 100%, compared to 25-30% for other banks. Loans are currently available at 8% interest, again comparing very favourably with the 20% interest charged for regular or short-term loans from other banks9. The Bank provides employment for 12 600 people. To date, the Grameen Bank housing programme has assisted hundreds of thousands of Bangladeshi families to break out of the downward spiral of poverty. A sturdy, well-built house is a symbol of social status, so borrowers gain dignity and standing within the community. The larger houses give improved environments for work and study, and hence have directly contributed to higher income generation. It is estimated that 95% of borrowers children attend school, well above the nationwide average. By demanding standardized construction practices like the use of cement pillars and installation of sanitary latrines, Grameen Bank assists in improving the health and safety of borrowers. In one survey, the general health of those with the new Grameen houses compared well with those in pre-existing or more traditional houses. Fever, influenza, and typhoid (among other diseases) were down by almost 50%9. Micro-credit programmes based on the Grameen experience have been established in 56 other countries.
8. A group of borrowers at their micro-credit weekly meeting with the Grameen Bank manager.

9 above: Typical housing before, and 10 below: after Grameen programme.

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Case study 4: BP solar energy project, Philippines

Project background The Philippines archipelago comprises around 7100 islands, 1000 of them inhabited. Less than a half exceed 2.5km2 in area. Many of the villages (Barangays) dotted over the country are remote and difficult to access by land or sea, so for many connection to a national power grid is not feasible. Most district hospitals and regional health units have little or no electricity, and lack of lighting in community halls limits opportunities for further education and involvement in community affairs. Many villages rely on shallow wells or surface springs for their water, hence water-borne disease is endemic. Latrines are unsanitary, if existing at all. Solar power can provide a highly effective, low-cost and environmentally friendly alternative to extending power lines and/or transporting generator fuel to these areas. Project details After the success of a solar power project completed in Sri Lanka in 1993/94, BP Solar Australia approached the Philippines government with a concept for large-scale implementation of solar power across rural communities, and received a favourable response. The initial objective was to install about 1000 stand-alone solar-powered equipment packages in 400 villages in remote areas of Mindanao and Visayas provinces. At its time, this was the largest solar contract in the world, at a total project cost of US$27M. Fundamental to the projects success was the simplicity of the funding, via a single loan recipient - the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) - through a grant (33%) plus a soft loan (67%), both from the Australian government. Community mobilization phase: Community involvement throughout the entire duration of a project, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility, is essential for success. The Municipal Solar Infrastructure Project (MSIP) was implemented with the help of two full-time BP staff from Australia, but the other 500 staff involved were Filipino, selected from the communities they were to work in, enabling communication in local dialects. Prior to project finalization, officials used community assemblies to introduce the project, discuss the benefits both to individuals and the entire community, and explain the basics of solar electricity. If the community - in particular the mayor - was interested, agreements were made to proceed. Site and social surveys were used to determine the development needs of each community and to identify the means by which solar energy could be best used as the enabling technology to meet these needs. BP also spent time with each Barangay, exploring revenue-generating activities that would enable them to pay for the services provided by the solar-powered systems. Provision of systems: Solar systems were supplied and installed in the specified areas, though the logistics were challenging, due to the difficulty of getting construction materials, equipment, and systems into the communities. As this was a tied-aid project funded by the Australian government, BP Australia was obliged to source a minimum of 87% of components from Australia. However, some construction items, videos, and televisions were sourced locally/nationally11. Training and capacity building: In each Barangay, two people were elected to form the Barangay Technical Team (BTT) and trained on simple system maintenance: cleaning the modules, topping up the battery electrolyte, etc. Municipal engineers and operatives were trained on the more technical repairs and maintenance of system components. Spare parts were distributed to the municipality to give the communities easy access to replacement parts. High-level training was provided for the universities, with staff and students being able fully to dismantle, repair, and reassemble the components. After the commissioning and handover of each system, BP Solar carried out three separate follow-up visits with the groups that had been formed. Over 2000 people have been trained (including training of trainers) on both project governance (how to organize meetings, accounting and reporting; how to collect fees/local revenues for sustaining services/maintenance, etc) as well as on the technical aspects (maintenance, including local repair and replacement of parts). Experience has clearly shown that without such training, systems fall into disuse and disrepair and communities are then left disillusioned.
13 below: Communal lighting to wharves.

Progress report MSIP commenced in November 1997 and completed in May 2001. In total 1145 packaged solar systems were installed in 11 Provinces, 53 Municipalities and 435 Barangays. The quality of life for over 720 000 people in some of the most remote and poorest provinces of the Philippines has been improved12. Improved health, safety, education, governance, and easier access to potable water will bring about poverty alleviation. The project improved local governance by enhancing the ability of the Local Government Units (LGU) to deliver essential social services and elicit the participation of community organizations and individuals in improved governance. Although it was necessary for BP Solar to pull out of several areas over the life of the project due to political uncertainty, an impressive list of community facilities were upgraded: Four district hospitals, 11 rural health centres, and 104 Barangay health centres: More than half a million people will directly benefit from improved services. Improved capacity to store and utilize vaccines, and other medicines will reduce infant maternal mortality rates, assist in tetanus prevention, and improve general illness treatment. 289 areas of communal lighting for markets and fishermens wharves: These facilitate safer night vessel navigation and reducing night fishing wharf accidents. 260 Barangay potable water supply systems: These will lead to substantial reductions in water-borne disease. Women in particular will benefit from time savings in water collection and caring for ill family members. 266 schools, six municipal halls, and 201 Barangay halls: Access to school facilities at night for adult education or entertainment will further improve quality of life.
0 50 100 km Aparri

Angeles Manila Legaspi Samar Iloillo Palawan Iligan Mindanao Davao

Jolo

11. The Phillippines.

12 left: Lighting for improved education facilities.

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Case study 5: Communal sanitation, Myanmar

Project background Access to clean water and adequate sanitation is essential to the development of a sustainable community. Access for the poor is a key factor in improving health and economic productivity, and is therefore an essential component in any effort to alleviate poverty. In 2001, 16% of the world was without water supply and 40% without access to adequate sanitation. Water-borne diseases are responsible for more than 80% of all sicknesses in the world, resulting in the deaths of over 4M children annually. Diarrhoeal diseases are the third most significant child killer (after respiratory infections and malaria), accounting for 15% of the under-five years mortality rate, especially in rural areas. Substantial decreases in the frequency of contagious disease from inadequate sanitation and water supply would result in substantial savings in healthcare costs. These could be invested in national development, thus further increasing national productivity. In 1997, Myanmar was crippled by diarrhoeal disease, killing 30 000 children. Sanitation coverage stood at only 39% of the population, and personal and domestic hygiene was poor13. Myanmar ranked 190th out of 191 in the WHO Report 200014. Project details Over the past decade, significant attempts have been made to improve sanitation in Myanmar. In the mid-1990s the government, in a bid to promote community participation, adopted a strategy in which families were provided with free latrine pans. However this proved too costly, failed to achieve community support, and was phased out. The government then recognized that it could no longer be the sole provider of sanitation services, and that the key role of government should be to facilitate and stimulate local communities to recognize and meet their own needs. This was to be carried out through organizing and financing community mobilization and household motivation, and running an awareness campaign, known as the National Sanitation Week (NSW). For the past five years, UNICEF has supported this programme. National Sanitation Week activities are carried out under the guidance of the National Health Committee and with the active involvement of the entire nation. The Week has three key objectives: to educate the general public in the values of sanitation to assist people in actual implementation of sanitary work to reduce the spread of communicable disease. Community mobilization: As individual users are the ultimate decision makers who embrace or reject new technology, community involvement is widely accepted as a key ingredient in the success of any aid project. As noted in previous case studies, participation of local people in all stages of a project, from design and construction to operation and maintenance, is paramount in fostering a sense of ownership and ensuring that facilities are properly used and maintained. Use of sanitation cannot be imposed - it has to be created by demand. In the past, supply-driven approaches to sanitation provision have led to widespread disuse of latrines, leaving latrine slabs as a health hazard and a negative influence on any future sanitation attempts. Demand for use of sanitation systems is thus not is easily generated, as rural populations do not often perceive the health benefits arising from sanitation. It is therefore fundamentally important that sanitation be effectively promoted, as part of health education, to create demand. Promotional campaign: This treated sanitation as a product to be marketed to individual households, with all available and affordable media and communication channels being used to promote sanitation messages. The approach was broad-based, emphasizing not only potential health improvements but also benefits such as privacy and convenience, elevation of household status, respect and dignity (especially for women), environmental awareness, and the potential economic benefits of generating resources out of waste. Social mobilization was intensified through community meetings organized at various levels, supported by visiting health teams and input non-governmental organizations, schoolteachers, and local leaders. A range of information and communication materials, such as posters, pamphlets, and models of affordable latrines, was produced. National television and media also played a significant communication role. UNICEF contributed about US$100 000 per year to these promotional activities15.
8
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The communication and social mobilization package has been improved each year to give greater attention to upgrading unsanitary latrines and integrating washing of hands into the sanitation cycle. Interested households form a village sanitation committee, which plays a fundamental role in co-ordinating activities. Implementation: Construction activities commenced only after the awareness campaign had been launched and hygiene and sanitation education provided. Thus construction took place only in motivated communities and with the co-operation of the end users; indeed, it was promoted as a do-it-yourself construction programme. Families were responsible for installing and financing their own sanitation facilities, with subsidies only made available for schools and for the communities that could not afford self-finance. Households were in fact subsidized during the 1997 floods but even then an element of self-help was expected. A low-cost (Kyat 900 or US$2.75) locallymanufactured plastic pan and pipe set was made available to each household that had excavated (and lined where necessary) a pit and then built as good a superstructure as it could afford16. A wide range of low cost and appropriate latrine designs was developed, suited to individual family preference and affordability. Every effort was made to promote capacity and income generation activities among community members, to allow them to participate by contributing labour, cash, and/or materials towards building the project. The private sector responded, to meet the rising demand for parts. Local production of plastic latrine pans has increased by a factor of six in the last five years, from about 40 000 in 1995 to more than 250 000 annually16. To reduce costs, locally available materials were widely used and some village leaders organized the bulk purchase of bamboo. Progress report In 1997, before the national campaign was launched, the sanitation coverage throughout rural areas stood at 39%13. In 2001, sanitation coverage stands at 57%17. Hand-washing with soap and water after latrine use has also increased, from 18% in 1996 to 43% in 200118. Too frequently, the success of sanitation programs is measured by the total number of latrines constructed, with little attention to actual operation, maintenance, or usage. Long-term success of these systems depends on the availability of supplies, parts, equipment, and the availability of trained people needed to monitor, maintain and repair the systems, as well as continued community demand for their use. As sanitation coverage in Myanmar grows, campaigning continues. Programmed follow-up to the National Sanitation Week is being provided in selected townships through more intensive social mobilization targeted at hard to reach households and communities, and activity-based sanitation and hygiene education in selected schools. This approach recognizes that schools create an excellent participatory and enabling learning environment in which to promote sanitary habits and hygienic practices. There continues to be widespread general training of decision-makers, planners, and trainers in social mobilization programmes for hygiene. The 2002 National Sanitation Week accordingly gave special emphasis to activities to be carried out in 73 of a total of 324 townships, where 50% or more of the households still do not have access to a sanitary latrine18. Myanmars success is a model to other countries and has been internationally recognized by South East Asian Region Countries. Government delegates from Indonesia, Pakistan, Bhutan, China, Vietnam and Laos have come to Myanmar to observe their activities and learn from their experiences. Nepal launched its own National Sanitation Action Week: March 2001.

Zayu

INDIA Myitkyina

CHINA

Banmauk

THAILAND Taunggyi Rangoon

Moulmein

0 100 200 km

14. Myanmar.

15. Rural water supply.

Conclusions
Each case study illustrates the application of relatively low technology engineering in small-scale investments which nonetheless enjoy high levels of community engagement. The success of these programmes is due in significant measure to this level of community commitment and to the extent of understanding of social, economic and political influences in that local community. As Sir Ove Arup said, Engineering problems are under-defined, there are many solutions, good, bad and indifferent. The art is to arrive at a good solution. This is a creative activity, involving imagination, intuition and deliberate choice. In these case studies and in many similar scenarios, the solutions developed have not been primarily engineering solutions, although engineering plays a key part in the outcome adopted. It is not known which profession took the lead in which scenario, but it is clear that engineers with appropriate sensitivity could have led in all of them. The case studies therefore illustrate the application of sound engineering solutions to poverty alleviation: Sustainable engineering was achieved, as the solutions adopted will have a positive or neutral impact on natural resources. Life-cycle engineering took into account the operational and maintenance cost of the engineering solutions. The completed projects have effective and affordable operational and maintenance regimes. Empowered engineering took into account the capabilities of the local community, in particular its engineering and technical professions. The solutions developed involve local professional and technical staff and will establish an on-going engineering and operational resource. Appropriate engineering considered various options that met the engineering project needs and adopted labour-intensive construction where relevant, so as to create community involvement and knowledge of the projects operations and to stimulate community income. The challenge for the engineering profession is to revisit our Brunel roots and develop a suite of solutions to the issues raised in this paper. These should include solutions not only to the alleviation of poverty when it occurs but also to the development of sustainable urban infrastructure; solutions that recognize rather than resist the inevitability of migration to urban centres and then make provision for these rapidly growing populations. Engineers can work effectively with other professions and community leaders to develop sustainable solutions to poverty. And engineers can take the lead in developing sustainable concepts for the urban areas of the future, concepts in which: Access to and opportunities for employment are enhanced. Housing, sanitation, and water supply are provided at affordable prices. Access to and opportunities for education are enhanced. Affordable transport facilities are available. This is our Brunel challenge. It is worthy of our commitment.

Authors acknowledgement: Nicole Hahn undertook the research for this paper. Her enthusiasm and personal commitment for this topic is unbounded and exemplifies the commitment of many young engineering professionals to make a difference. I am grateful for her contribution and support.

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Image Credits 2, 3: Arup 1, 4, 6: Roundabout Outdoor 5, 7, 11, 14: Daniel Blackhall 8-10: Building and Housing Social Foundation 12, 13, 15: BP Solar

The difference between what we do and what we could do would suffice to solve most of the worlds problems: Mahatma Ghandi No other issue suffers such disparity between human importance and its political priority: Kofi Annan (on water and sanitation)

THE ARUP JOURNAL 1/2003