Newton's second law

Walter Lewin explains Newton's second law, using gravity as an example. (MIT OCW)[18]

The second law states that the net force on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of its linear momentum p in an inertial reference frame:

where, since the law is valid only for constant-mass systems, the mass can be taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant factor rule in differentiation. Thus,

[19][20][21]

where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body's acceleration. Thus, the net force applied to a body produces a proportional acceleration. In other words, if a body is accelerating, then there is a force on it. Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum that is not the result of an external force. A different equation is necessary for variable-mass systems (see below). Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular motion. The relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is zero, the momentum of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of change of the momentum. Newton's second law requires modification if the effects of special relativity are to be taken into account, because at high speeds the approximation that momentum is the product of rest mass and velocity is not accurate.

Impulse

An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time t, and it is given by

[22][23]

Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that

This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the [24] second law. Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.
[25]

Variable-mass systems
Main article: Variable-mass system Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and ejecting spent gases, are not closed and cannot be directly treated by making mass a function of time in the [20] second law. The reasoning, given in An Introduction to Mechanics by Kleppner and Kolenkow and other modern texts, is that Newton's second law applies fundamentally to [21] particles. In classical mechanics, particles by definition have constant mass. In case of a well-defined system of particles, Newton's law can be extended by summing over all the particles in the system:

where Fnet is the total external force on the system, M is the total mass of the system, and acm is the acceleration of the center of mass of the system. Variable-mass systems like a rocket or a leaking bucket cannot usually be treated as a system of particles, and thus Newton's second law cannot be applied directly. Instead, the general equation of motion for a body whose mass m varies with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by rearranging the second law and adding a term to account for the momentum carried by mass entering or leaving the [19] system:

where u is the relative velocity of the escaping or incoming mass with respect to the center of mass of the body. Under some conventions, the quantity (u dm/dt) on the left-hand side, known as the thrust, is defined as a force (the force exerted on the body by the changing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the quantity F. Then, by substituting the definition of acceleration, the equation becomes

History
Newton's original Latin reads:

Lex II: Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur. This was translated quite closely in Motte's 1729 translation as: Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impress'd. According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his [26] terminology, this is understood, in modern terms, as an equivalent of: The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is impressed. Motte's 1729 translation of Newton's Latin continued with Newton's commentary on the second law of motion, reading: If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (being always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both. The sense or senses in which Newton used his terminology, and how he understood the second law and intended it to be understood, have been extensively discussed by historians of science, along with the relations [27] between Newton's formulation and modern formulations.

Newtons Second Law of Motion

When a force acts upon a body, it imparts an acceleration proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body and in the direction of the force. This law can be formulated in many different ways, well cite here a few other formulations to help in understanding it. The acceleration of an object of constant mass is proportional to the net force acting upon it. If an unbalanced force is acting upon an object this object accelerates. The acceleration is proportional to the net force causing it and has the direction of that force. From the last formulation we deduce that unbalanced force means the same thing asnet force. Acceleration caused by the acting force always has the direction of that force and this is obvious from the formula defining Newtons Second Law of Motion. If on both sides of equal sign there are vector quantities, as in equation (1), these two vectors must have the same direction. In paragraph Force in Physics we defined force qualitatively as something which can change the state of motion. Here we will define force quantitatively. To do this we must first explain the term mass. In a dictionary we will find, among other definitions, the amount of matter in an object. Such definition is not precise enough for a physicist. But, happily enough, Newtons Second Law of Motion will define mass precisely. In this law we deal with force equation , mass m, and acceleration , which are related by

(1) We wrote quantities in this equation in such order on purpose to exactly follow the text of Newtons Second Law given at the beginning of this paragraph: ACCELERATION is proportional to FORCE and inversely proportional to MASS. Any algebraic rearrangement of equation (1) is allowed, and very often it is written in the form (2) which consequently should be read: The force acting on a mass m is proportional to the acceleration a caused by thisforce. The coefficient of proportionality is a property of the object, called mass. In other words, the larger the acceleration of a given object with constant mass, the larger is the force acting

on this object. The order in which acceleration, force, and mass appear in equation (1) is more convincing. It is a force that causes acceleration not vice versa. The Newtons Second Law of Motion can also be considered as a definition of mass. In most textbook on physics vector quantities are written without arrows above the symbols, but with bold face letters. The equation defining Newtons Second Law of Motion will look like a = F/m (1a) or F = ma (2a) From time to time we will also use this notation of vectors to remind you that they represent exactly the same vector quantities. Units of Force From formula (2) we can find [F] = [m] [a] [F] = kg m/s2 (3) The unit force in the SI system is force needed to accelerate one kilogram of mass by one meter per square second. It is called a newton and the symbol used for it is N The Newton as a unit of force is still not very common in everyday life. More popular are: 1kgf one kilogram of force, unit of force equal to the gravitational force on a mass of one kilogram. 1 lbf one pound of force, unit of force equal to the gravitational force on a mass of one pound. There are many other units of force, all derived from the formula (2) describing Newtons Second Law of Motion, but these three listed above are the mostly used in science and in everyday life. In this Tutorial we will mainly use newton as a unit of force as it is recommended officially for any scientific application. It also slowly coming into use in everyday life. Comprehensive understanding of Newtons Second Law of Motion will come after solving numerous problems located at the end of this Chapter. As mentioned in theIntroduction to this tutorial we add-on to it on an every day basis, so nearly each time you visit it you will find more paragraphs, and more problems which are solved and carefully explained. The formulation of Newtons Second law of Motion given at the beginning of this paragraph does not state that the mass of the body must be constant during the acceleration. Nevertheless we defined and explained such a case, where the mass of an object in question is constant. This is a simplest case for introducing Newtons Second Law of Motion. There will be numerous problems given for such situation. But. what about a rocket launched from the surface of Earth? It accelerates due to the force produced by its engine, but at the same time its mass decreases because the fuel which constitutes a large part of its mass is burned at a very high rate.

This situation requires a more general formulation of Newtons Second law of Motion which will be the subject of next paragraph, but most of the problems will be devoted to constant mass conditions because they are more common in everyday life.

Newton's Second Law states that an applied force, F, on an object equals the time rate of change of its momentum, p. From this the equation F=ma is derived. A jet plane is a classic example. The engine develops thrust or a backward force. When divided by the mass of the plane, one can determine the acceleration. Gravity is another example. One can measure the force of impact given the gravitational constant and the mass of the object.