FMFRP 12-41

ProfessionalKnowledgeGained
from OperationalExperiencein
Vietnam,1967

U.S. Marine Corps

PCN 140 124100 00

 DEPARTMENTOF THE NAVY
HeadquartersUnitedStatesMarineCorps
Washington,DC 20380-0001
8 August 1989
FOREWORD

1. PURPOSE
Fleet MarineForce ReferencePublication(FMFRP) 12-41,Professional
Knowledge Gained from Operational Experience in Vietnam, 1967, is pub-
lishedto ensuretheretentionanddisseminationof usefulinformationwhich
isnot intendedto becomedoctrineor to bepublishedin FleetMarineForce
manuals.FMFRPsin the 12Seriesare a specialcategoryof publications:
reprintsof historicalworkswhichwerepublishedcommerciallyor by the
U.S. GovernmentPrintingOfficeand are no longerin print.

2. SCOPE
Thisreferencepublicationcomplementsexistingtrainingmanualson small-
unit tactics,patrolling,weapons,minesand boobytraps,and leadership.
Writtenby a multitudeof Marinesduringthe VietnamWar, this volume
isan excellentcompendiumof lessonsto belearnedfromtheMarineCorps’
experiencein 1967.It is enthusiasticallyrecommendedto all junior offi-
cers, SNCOS,and NCOSwho willprofit from the principlespresented.

3. CERTIFICATION
Reviewedand approvedthis date.

BYDIRECTIONOF THECOMMANDANT
OF THEMARINECORPS

M. P; SULLIVAN
Major General,U.S. MarineCorps
DeputyCommanderfor Warfighting
MarineCorps Combat DevelopmentCommand
Quantico,Virginia

DISTRIBUTION:“TL7”
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I MARINES IN VIETNAM - 1967

III MAF Balanced Canlpaign,,,,..,.. 1
Operations in the DMZ Region . .. . . 4
Operations in the Nui Loc Son
Basin, .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 8
Amphibious Operations of 7th
Fleetts Special Landing Forces. 11
Small Unit Counterguerrilla
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . ..o .. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Revolutionary Development and
Pacification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 16
H TACTICS
Rules of Engagement... o. . . . ..o .. . . . . . 21
Of fense . . . . . . . . . . . . ..o . . . . . ..e. o. . . . .. . . . . . 30
Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Ambush Tactics . . . . . . . . . ...* . . . . . . . ...0 80
Monsoon Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Land Navigation and Movement . . . . 93
Snipers . .. . . ..o . . ..o . . . . . . . ..o . . . . . ..o . . . . . 104
Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...* ., . .. . . .
● 109
Tracked Vehicles, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Intelligence . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Dogs in 111MA . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 141
The Combined Action Company . . . . 146
Kit Carson Scouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Riverine Operation . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . 157
Weapons and Munitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
U.S. Army Battalion Commander.. 184
Chapter Page
111 NATURE OF THE ENEMY
The Enemy . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . ...* . ...* 189
NVA/VC Registration Technique.. 207
Enemy Fortifications . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 208
Enemy Employment of RPG-2
Antitank Rocket Launchers .. ... 209
Enemy Snipers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
VC Warning Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
VC Tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... ... .. .. ... 213
VC Deception . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
VC Attacks ......... ... .....0. .. ....0..0. . 216
VC Counterambush Technique . . . . . . 217
Viet Cong River-Crossing Tech-
niques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Viet Cong Medicine ... ... .. ....... *..* ● 219
Overt Viet Cong Meetings . . . . . . . .. . . 225
Viet Cong Rice Ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
VC Topographical and Military
Symbols . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
IV AVIATION
The Helicopterborne Assault . . . . . . . 247
Helicopter Retraction . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . 257
Reconnaissance Party Insertion
and Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 262
Combat Resupply by Helicopter . . . . 267
Medical Evacuation by Helicopter. 275
Monsoon Weather Flying . . . .. . . . . . . . . 285
Night Helicopter Operations . .. .. ... 288
Pilots Briefing on Emergency
Missions . .. . . . ... . . . . .*. ...*...*. ..*. ● 290

ii
Chapter Page

IV AVIATION (Continued)
Reaction Force Deployment by
Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Helicopter Limitations . ., . *.,**..,*
● 293
Helo-Ground Communications ..,. 295
Interference and Bogus Trans-
missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., 296
Helicopter Crew Protection . . . . . .. 297
Helicopter Gunners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Ordnance Loading for Armed
UH-l E Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 299
Aircraft Bilge Drainholes.. . ...... 300
Visual Reconnaissance From
Helicopters . ..0..0..,,.. . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Tip for Aircrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Prevention of Midair Collisions
in Low Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 302
Increasing Helicopter Visibility.. 303
TACAN Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Monsoons and Map Changes . . .. . . . 304
You Are Mr. Clean . 0....0.,,.. . ...0. 304
Use of SATS Loader and Univer-
sal Weapons Cradle When
Loading Napalm and 2.75-
Inch Rockets on the F-4 B...... 305
RCPT-105 Dual Starting System . 307
SERE Kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. . . . . . . . . . .. . . 307
F-4 Drag Chute Door Latch . . . . . . . 308

iii
Chapter Page

IV AVIATION (Continued)
Altitude Separation . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Night Air Attacks . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Keep a Clean Cockpit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Employment of A-6A Aircraft . . . . . . 311
Airstrike Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
NATOPS Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 313
Pilot Frequency Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
C-11 7D Maintenance . . .. ... .. .. ... ... . 314

V MINE WARFARE
Definitions . .... .... ... .... . .. . ... . . ... . .. 315
Facts We Have Learned About Viet
Cong Manufacture and Use
of Mines, Sabotage Devices
and Booby traps . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Punji Pits . . . . . . . . . ...0. . . . . . . . ...0...0..
● 340
Booby trapped Enemy Propaganda
Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
VC/NVA Mine Tactics . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . 342
Tricks Frequently Employed by
VC/NVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 345
Antitank Booby traps . *. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 349
Defense Against Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Detection of Antitank Mines . . . . . . . . . 353
Probe Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Rough Rider Mine Sweep . .. . . . . . . . . . . 354
Converging Mine Sweep Teams. . . . 355
Mine and Explosive Device Pro-
tection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 357

iv
Chapter Page

V MINE WARFARE (Continued)

VC Construction Block Mine . . . . . . . . 357
VC/NVA Utilization of Mines . . . . . . . 3sg

VI COMMUNICATIONS
Radio Operators . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
AN/PRC-25 . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...*..... . . . . . 360
AN/ PRC-25 Battery Installation .. 362
AN/PRC-47 Radio . .*....**..***. .*,,. ● 363
Antennas . . . . . . ....*... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .,, ,
● 364
Backup Communications . . . . . ...0.... 367
Record Friendly Frequencies ...... 368
Vehicular Radios . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Squad Level Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37(J
External Power Source Telephone
TA-312 . . . .. ..*....*. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
● 372
Ground Return Communications ... 373
Field Wire Line Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Switchboard Operations .. . ... .... .. .. 375
SB-86 Switchboard Demagnetiza-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...0..... . .. .. . . . . 376
Protect Power and Communication
CaMes . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*.. . .
● 377
Protect Communication Compo-
nents . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ... .,0 377
Security for Wire Teams . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Communication Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Checklist for Communications . . . . . . 381

v
Chapter Page

VII LOGISTICS
MILSTAMP and MILSTRIP . . . . . . . . . . 383
Embarkation . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
● 385
Supply Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 389
Field Expediency . . . . . ...*.... . . . ...*... 392
Maintcnancc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . 398
Spare That Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
● 410
Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . ...*.. ● 411
Sanitizing Food Service
Ecluipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*..... .,. 413
Flak Jacket Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*.*. 414
Long llange Patrol Rations . . . . . . . . . . 414

VIII CIVIC ACTION - PSYCHOLOGICAL

OPERATIONS
Revolutionary Development . . .. . . .. . 417
Civic Action . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Understanding the Vietnamese ... .. 427
Chieu Hoi Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
County Fair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Psychological Warfare in Vietnam . 447
Population and Resources Control. 460

IX MEDICAL
Prevention, Not Treatment . . . . . . . . . . 465
Acclimating Marines to Hot-Wet
Climate . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Heat Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Medical Problems in the Monsoon
Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....
● 475
Tips From the Corpsmen .. . . . . . . . . . . 478

vi
Chapter Page

Ix MEDICAL (Continued)
Night Medical Evacuation ...,...,. 479
Malaria Preventive Treatment.. 480
Leech Bites . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 480
Plasma Expander . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..* ● 481
Field Ambulance Support . . . . . . . . . 481
Mobile MEDCAP . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 482
Intravenous-In jec~ion Supply
Chest . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...0 . . . . 483
Portable Stand for Intravenous
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 483
Poisonous Snakes of Vietnam ..,. 484

vii
 Chapter I: MARINES IN
VIETNAM -1967

1. III MAF BALANCED CAMPAIGN

The focal point of the Vietnam war in 1967
was in I Corps Tactical Zone. As the year
progressed, the DMZ region of northern Quang
Tri Province and, to the south, the Nui Loc Son
Basin, emerged as primary scenes of contention.
It was in these areas that the enemy, seeking to
stem exploitation of the HI MAF balanced cam-
paign, marshaled major formations and re-
sources.
The enemy’s motive for combat in the jungle
highlands of the DMZ was clear. Protection of
his guerrilla infrastructure, the key to his in-
fluence among the population of the coastal low-
lands, demanded a diversion of the U.S./GVN
1
forces involved in the lowland pacification effort.
The enemy knew that invasion of South Vietnam,
or the threat of invasion, would probably draw
friendly power into northern Quang Tri Province,
thus drawing attention from the joint U. S./GVN
Pacification Program. The Nui Loc Son Basin,
located between Danang and Chu Lai, was a
major source of the enemy’s rice, manpower,
and intelligence. He could not afford to relinquish
it to Free World forces ,without a fight. These
two areas, the DMZ and the Nui Loc Son Basin,
were therefore of critical importance to the
enemy if he was to impede the Pacification Pro-
gram by drawing allied forces into the hinterland
and at the same time retain a degree of control
over the rice rich Nui Loc Son Basin.
The 111 MAF balanced campaign consisted of:
(1) large unit operations, (2) small unit counter-
guerrilla operations and (3) Revolutionary De-
velopment and Pacification.
Centered primarily in the DMZ region and,
to the south, in the Nui Loc Son Basin, III MAF
units and the 7th Fleet’s Special Laqding Forces
conducted 116 battalion or larger size opera-
tions. In this effort, the Marines defeated the
enemy’s four major invasion attempts across the
DMZ, inflicting heavy personnel losses on him.
The small unit counterguerrilla element of
III MAF’s 1967 balanced campaign established a
record pace of operations, showing an increase
of 180 percent over the 1966 total.

2
 In support of large unit and small unit counter-
guerrilla operations, Marine fixed-wing and
helicopter operations also accelerated, keeping
pace with the intensified operations of HI MAF,
ARVN, and other Free World forces in I CTZ.
By mid-year, and after a period of regression,
the Revolutionary Development Program began
to show signs of power and cohesion. Due in part
to the increasing competence exhibited by ARVN
forces assigned in support, the U. S./GVN pro-
gram displayed modest progress during the
latter half of 1967. III MAF’s combat successes,
coupled with the accomplishments of the ARVN
in support of RD and the success of the Vietnam-
ese national elections, created conditions in
1967 which allowed 250,000 people to flee the

3
Viet Cong and find a refuge with the Govern-
ment. These same conditions were a major factor
in the record number of enemy defections,
which was up 54 percent over the 1966 total.

#####

2. OPERATIONS IN THE DMZ REGION

Operations in the DMZ region during 1967

were marked by four periods of intense combat:
in lace February and early March, in late April
and early May, in early July, and throughout
most of September. Each period reflected a
major enemy combined arms effort to
achieve a victory in northern I CTZ by means of
a trans-DMZ invasion. Each effort was defeated
by a combination of Marine ground/heliborne
maneuver and the supporting fires of air, artil-
lery, and naval gunfire.
The initial 1967 enemy invasion effort was
signaled. in February by aerial reconnaissance
detection of substantial troop and supply train
movement north of the Ben Hai River. The enemy
offensive followed closely 111MAF’s initiation of
artillery attacks into the DMZ and North Vietnam.
Authorized on 25 February by COMUSMACV,
the artillery attacks were aimed at the destruc-
tion of known and suspected enemy troop and
supply installations previously immune from
friendly fires.

4
of Cam Lo by Operation PRAIRIE, conducted in
coordination with the Special Landing Force of
the 7th Fleet in Operation BEACON HILL, a
heliborne/amphibious assault against the enemy’s
east flank. NVA losses were 1,107 killed.
The second major enemy offensive occurred
in late April and early May, when he advanced a
strong force-- three NVA regiments--against Khe
Sanh in the western DMZ area, and also attempted
concurrently to overrun the outpost at Con Thien
in the eastern sector of northern Quang Tri
Province. In the Khe Sanh area, aggressive
patrolling detected the presence of the 325C
NVA Division before the enemy could launch his
attack. This encounter triggered a powerful
Marine air/ground team counterattack, which
defeated the enemy’s forces, during the first
week of May, in the Hill 861-881 complex north-
west of Khe Sanh. At Con Thien, meanwhile, an
NVA two-battalion, mortar supported attack was
thrown back with heavy losses on 8 May.
Exploiting the defeat inflicted on the enemy,
III MAF invaded the southern half of the DMZ
in mid-May. This combined operation, which
involved Marines of 111 MAI? and the Special
Landing Forces, along with ARVN units, opened
Route 561 north from Cam Lo and forced the
enemy’s retreat across the Ben Hai River into
NVN. NVA casualties in May were 1,880 dead--
the largest monthly total in the DMZ area through
the end of 1967.

6
 In July, the enemy’s invasion effort was
marked by increased heavy weapons fire support
from his NVN sanctuary. Long range Russian
artillery weapons, introduced in April, delivered
a heavy volume of fire against Marine installa-
tions near the DMZ, as a five-battalion NVA
invasion force once again crossed the provi-
sional military demarcation line. On 2 July, a
Marine company engaged this enemy force two
miles north of Con Thien. HI MAF’s Operation
BUFFALO, complemented by amphibious Opera-
tions BEAR CLAW and BEAVER TRACK, maneu-
vered to flank the NVA battalions, and by mid-
July, the enemy had withdrawn to the north,
suffering the loss of over 1,300 killed.
The enemy’s fourth invasion attempt, launched
in September and again directed at the Marine
strong point at Con Thien, was characterized
by the largest volume of heavy weapons fire yet
fired on the Marines (over 9,000 rounds of
artillery, mortar, and rocket fire, of which 6,058
rounds, or 87 percent fell on Con Thien). The
operation was begun with the movement of the
812th NVA Regiment into an attack position south
of Con Thien. Detected in its early stages by
Marine patrols, the enemy effort was defeated
by a combined arms counterattack.
At year’s end, the enemy was engaged in a
major buildup in the western DMZ area near Khe
Sanh.

#####

7
3, OPEIiAr~lOl~!S IN THE NUI L(3C SON BASIN

The April m May arrival of Task Force

Oregon in Lhe southern sector of I CTZ freed
cwo Marine battalions for deployment into the
INu i Loc Son Basin region, midway between
Oanang and Chu Lai. Prior to April 1967, al-
~hough desirable, there had been little opportunity
m conduct a nlajor offensive in this area.
In Apxil, a Marine patrol operating near Nui
Loc Son ridge made contact with a large enemy
force and triggered the UNION series of opera-
tions. For a period of 6 weeks, heavy fighting
ensued, with Marines of III MAF and the 7th
Flee[’s Special Landing Forces combining heli-
bolnc and ground maneuver to inflict a succes-
sion of defeats on the 3d and 21st NVA Regiments.
By early June, hard results were evident, At
least 1,747 enemy had been killed, with hundreds
more estimated to have died in bunkers and
tunnels collapsed by artillery and air attacks.
More important, however, was the reaction of
the local Vietnamese population, which, encour-
aged by the continuing presence of friendly forces,
began to respond favorably to the U. S./GVN
pacification effort.

The enemy’s reaction was violent. By mid-

August, he had deployed lhe entire 2d NVA Divi-
sion (the 3d and 21st NVA Regiments, and the
1st VC Regiment), into the Nui Loc Son region,
making it clear that he intended to contest the
U. S./GVN presence. Subsequently, Marine Opera-
tions ADAIR, PIKE, COCHISE, and SWIFT, coor-
dinated with Special Landing Force amphibious
Operations BEACON TORCH and BEACON GATE
9
and U.S. Army Operations BENTON, WHEELER
and WA LLOWA, trapped the 2d NVA Division
between the Marines on the north and the Army
on the south. ARVN units, which had made a
commendable showing during UNION I and II,
also make a significant contribution to the con-
tinuing effort, accounting for a total of 418 enemy
killed in LIEN KET, 112 and 116 in August and
September.
The enemy’s attempts to escape were unsuc-
cessful. In August, his forces were driven south
out of the basin by Marines in Operation COCHISE,
only to be chased back to the north by the U.S.
Army Operation BENTON. In September, two of
the regiments, the 1st VC and 3d NVA, were
attacked in Operation SWIFT and lost 571 killed
to the Marine air-ground team, as Marine air
flew 535 attack sorties in support of the ground
maneuver. Operation WHEELER concluded the
entrapment, as three U.S. Army battalions moved
into the area west of Tam Ky, cutting off the
enemy’s escape route.
During the period 22 April - 30 September,
friendly forces killed 4,222 enemy troops in the
Nui Loc Son Basin, the 2d NVA Division had been
reduced to only marginal combat effectiveness,
and the enemy, at end-September, no longer
enjoyed free access to the population and re-
sources of the Quang Nam-Quang Tin border
region. In October, the arrival in I CTZ of the
3d Brigade, 1st Air Cavalry Division (Airmo-
bile) freed two Marine battalions for deployment

10
out of the Nui Loc Son area of operations, north..
ward to the DMZ region.

#####

Integrated with, and complementing the suc-

cess of 111 MAF’s large unit operations in 1967
were the Special Landing Forces of the 7th
Fleet.
Taking advantage of the flexibility inherent in
existing amphibious doctrine, the SLF’S opera-
tions in 1967 were conducted under a special
arrangement established to meet the specific
needs of the Vietnam conflict.
 Each of the two Special Landing Forces (the
second SLF was activated on 1 Aprii 1967) con-
sists of a Marine battalion landing team and a
Marine helicopter squadron. Embarked in ships
of the 7th Fleet’s two Amphibious Ready Groups,
the SLF’S are capable of projecting their power
ashore either in an independent operation or in
support of combat maneuver already underway
by shore based ground units.
It is in this latter role that the most note-
worthy results are achieved, employing the “ham-
mer and anvil” technique to trap enemy forces
already pinioned ashore, or to drive the enemy
into a prepositioned blocking force. Employed
almost exclusively in this manner to support and
influence a scheme of maneuver ashore, the
Special Landing Forces accounted for a total of
2,134 enemy killed in 25 amphibious operations
in 1967.
However, the number of enemy killed by the
landing force does not reflect a true measure
of the success of amphibious operations, since
the landing force should also be credited with
being the instrument which drives the enemy,
in many cases, into the killing area of forces
ashore, thus contributing materially to the suc-
cess of the companion operation already estab-
lished ashore.
In additicn to the amphibious operations by the
Special Landing Forces to support operations
ashore in the DMZ, the six operations discussed

12
below portray the contribution made to the war
by the amphibious arm during 1967.
In February, Special Landing Force Alfa
landed against the exposed flank of enemy units
engaged with Marines in southern 1 Corps.
In late April, Special Landing Force Alfa cut
off the retreat of elements of the 2d ~VA Divi-
sion attempting to escape from Marine opera--
tions in the Nui Loc Son Basin. Marines of 111
MAF and the Special Landing Force combined
to kill 1,046 enemy troops in this effort.
In May, both Special Landing Forces executed
heliborne assaults Into the DMZ, joining !,hc
scheme of maneuver of Marine Qp?”r?.if)?k
HICKORY and ARVN Operation L:iiv; SON : ~ !rI
this, the first penetration of the DMZ, enemy
casualties were counted at 837 dead.
In June and July, Special Landing Forces
Alfa and Bravo assaulted the beaches northwest
of Hue and, in each case, drove an enemy battalion
into waiting ARVN forces. These two efforts
accounted for a total of 535 enemy killed.
In. August, Special Landing Force Alfa set a
blocking position between, Thang Binh and Tam
Ky, trapping elements of the 21st NVA Regiment
in the Nui Loc Son Basin. III MAF and ARVN
units combined with the Special Landing Force
to kill 384 enemy.
If # # # /1

5. SMALL UNIT COUNTERGUERRILLA

OPERATIONS
The major result of III MAF’s counterguer-
rilla campaign has been the continued erosion
of the guerrilla structure, to such an extent that
basically qualified replacements for the Viet
Cong forces, once drawn from the VC’S man-
power pool of irregulars, now include increasing
numbers of NVA soldiers. In the spring of 1965,
nearly all enemy forces in I CTZ were Viet
Cong while, by the end of 1967, nearly 60 per-
cent of the main force enemy was composed of
North Vietnamese Army regulars. The replace-
ment NVA regular, operating in unfamiliar ter-
rain and among peasants who both fear and dis-
trust the soldiers of the north, is at a disadvantage.

14
15
 His one advantage lies in the weapons carried
by his parent unit from North Vietnam. This was
the source of the rockets, manpack flamethrowers,
and tear gas first used against Free World
forces in I CTZ in 1967. And, because of his
possession of the more modern NVA weaponry,
the guerrilla enemy increased his rate of mortar,
rocket and artillery attacks during the year.

#####

5. REVOLUTIONARY DEVIZLOPMENT AND

PACIFICATION
During 1967, the enemy accelerated his cam-
paign to disrupt the Revolutionary Development
Program, but to little avail. Vietnamese civilians,
seeking security and protection, continued their
alignment with the GVN in growing numbers.

16
 The GVN/111 MAF Pacification Program began
a resurgence in April, gained momentum in mid-
summer, and reflected significant accomplish-
ment by year’s end. The 1967 increase of nearly
200,000 people considered by III MAF to be living
in secure areas is one indicator. A record num-
ber of enemy defections (2,539), an increase from
280,000 in January to 530,000 at end-December in
the number of civilians seeking refuge from
Viet Cong domination, and an increase in the
impact of the Combined Action Program on the
advancing security of the Vietnamese country-
side, all lent credence to the expanding in-
fluence of the GVN in the I CTZ.

a. Elections
The most significant manifestation of
progress during 1967 in the RD and Pacifica-
tion Programs was the series of hamlet through
national-level elections. Having begun in Septem-
ber 1966 with the election of the national con-
stitutional convention, the process of democratic
selection culminated in October 1967, with the
election of a national constituent assembly. This
voting process entailed the selection of village
officials in April, the hamlet elections in May,
and the choosing of the national executive branch
on 4 September.
The enemy, recognizing the threat these
elections posed to his objectives, launched an I
CTZ-wide campaign of terror and intimidation
against the voting populace. Aimed at discrediting

17
the entire process by limiting the voter turnout
to an insignificant sampling of the people, this
campaign was a failure, as 82.3 percent and
78.8 percent of the eligible voters in I CTZ went
to the polls during the village and hamlet elec-
tions, respectively.
Following the failure of his earlier anti-
electron efforts, the enemy vowed that the Septem-
ber elections would not be held. A well-coordinated
sequence of murders, kidnappings and attacks
agains~ government facilities and military in-
stallations was initiated in early August, reach-
ing a crescendo as election day, 4 September,
approached. Despite the total of 673 innocent
civilians killed or kidnapped, and the 272 acts of
violence aimed at the electorate, 86 percent of
the eligible Vietnamese people in I CTZ, in

18
defiance of the enemy terrorists, voted for the
candidates of their choice.
The October elections were a reinforce-
ment of the victories won earlier in 1967. The
Viet Cong, realizing the free Vietnamese were
not to be kept from the polls, did not wage their
expected campaign of terror. In consequence,
there was very little anti-election activity through-
out the five provinces. Again the people voted,
with 77.9 percent of the eligible voters casting
their ballots.

#f# ###

19
 C]lapter II: TACTICS

1. RULES OF ENGAGEMENT

The rules of engagement set forth below are

used by one Marine unit in the densely populated
areas of Vietnam to minimize noncombatant

21
personnel and property losses which may occur
in the execution of military operations.

a. General
The use of unnecessary force leading to
noncombatant battle casualties in areas tempo-
rarily controlled by the enemy wiil embitter the
population, drive them into the arms of the
enemy and make the long range goal of RD more
difficult and costly. Accordingly, these circum-
stances call for the exercise of restraints not
normally recluired on the battlefield. All unit
commanders must apply only that force neces-
sary to accomplish their mission, giving due
regard to the safety of their command and the
importance of preventing injury to the noncom-
batant populace.
Incidents of noncombatant casualties and
destruction of property by RVNAF and Free
World combat forces are exploited by the enemy
to the fullest extent to enhance their objectives,
to foster resentment against the GVN and to
effect the permanent alienation of the people
from the Government.
A unit must establish the reputation of
being able to move at will throughout assigned
area of responsibility and to defeat any enemy
force encountered. Concurrently, units must con-
stantly demonstrate their concern for the safety
of noncombatants, compassion for the injured
and willingness to aid and assist the sick, hungry,
and dispossessed.

22
 b. Application

All commanders are directed to plan and

conduct operations in accordance with the follow-
ing guidelines:
+ Both the military and psychological
objectives of each operation will be considered.
Strikes in populated areas, reconnaissance by
fire into hamlets, and poorly selected harassing
and interdiction fires are examples of military
measures which will be counterproductive in the
long run,

-L Troop indoctrination briefings will be

held before each operation to emphasize both
the short and long range importance of minimiz-
ing noncombatant battle casualties. These brief-
ings will include the location of noncombatants

23
and friendly forces, measures to prevent mutual
interference, safety precautions for fire control
support, rules of engagement, identification and
recognition signals, emergency procedures and
other appropriate matters.
+ Concurrent air/ground planning to en-
sure dlat proper selection of helicopter landing
zones and the proper employment and integration
of artillery, naval gunfire, and airstrikes will
avoid unnecessary damage to lives and property
of noncombatants.
-k-- All persons involved in the control and
coordination of supporting arms will be briefed
on areas to be avoided due to the presence of
friendly or potentially friendly populace. Such
information must be sought from local officials
at province and district levels.
4- Specified strike zones should be con-
figured to eliminate populated areas except those
in accepted enemy bases.
+ Operations should be planned in coor-
dination with province and distric~ chiefs with
due regard to security of plans. A liaison officer
from Marine forces conducting operations in a
particular province should be positioned at the
district headquarters for coordination. The dis-
trict advisors will perform this function in the
absence of a liaison officer.
+ With due regard to security and success
of the mission, the people will be warned by

24
leaflets and broadcasts, whenever possible, of
impending airstrikes oroperations. This warning
should emphasize that the enemy by his presence
makes the action necessary, further that the
enemy is directly responsible for damages in-
curred resulting from combat in populated areas.
+ Assignment 10 Marine forces of quali-
fied RVNAF liaison officers from appropriate
RVNAF commanders is essential and will be
arranged between Marine commanders and ad-
visors for each significant operation. These
liaison officers, through their knowledge of the
area of operations and the population, can assist
in identification of friend from foe and can help
ensure close coordination with all RVN forces.
+ Each operation plan or order will in-
clude a psychological warfare annex and a civil
affairs annex, and all persons concerned will be
familiar with them. Fragmentary orders will in-
clude reference to these annexes and appropriate
unit orders and SOP’s on psychological warfare
operations and civil affairs.
+ The participation of RVN forces in op-
erations will be encouraged so that the war does
not appear to be a U.S. action against the Vietnam-
ese people. Regional and Popular Force participa-
tion will be sought at Marine battalion or com-
pany level so that they may assist in the search
of private dwellings, obtain information and
contribute to the desired effect of the cooperative
war effort.

25
+ In carrying out search and destroy
operations, take all practicable measures to
minimize the destruction of indigenous private
property and to ensure proper control, disposi-
tion, and safeguarding thereof. Plans will include
procedures for the protection of private property
and reporting, security and disposition of excess
supplies.
-> A civic action plan will support each
operation even if the area has been controlled by
the enemy. As the situation dictates, operation
plans will provide for utilization of all available
assets to include a program for dispensing of
medical supplies; transportation and distribution
of emergency rations; medical evacuation of
injured or sick regardless of suspected or known
political affiliation; and light engineering work
within the capabilities of tactical units.
+ Established rules of good military con-
duct and discipline will be enforced.
+ Nothing in the above shall be construed
to inhibit the inherent right of a Marine unit or
other U.S. unit to defend itself against hostile
action from any source.

26
 c. Conduct of Operations

(1) General

-+ During hours of darkness the sequence

of engagement will be:
Challenge.
●

If the person challenged

● makes an
overt attempt to avoid apprehension, opens fire
or commits any other hostile act and thereby
endangers the life of the challenger, the challenger
may fire.
Unit commanders
● may prescribe il-
lumination prior to firing if local circumstances
allow.
●The requirement for challenge may
be waived by the local commander if required

27
by the tactical situation and no friendly forces
are known to be operating in the area.
+ Magazines will not be inserted in weap-
ons in a camp area during daylight hours unless
under attack.
+- Warning shots will not be employed on
contact with the enemy with the exception of day-
time control of waterborne traffic. Craft failing
to respond to challenge may be warned by fire.
+ Rounds will not be chambered in indi-
vidual weapons unless contact with the enemy is
imminent. The senior Marine present will de-
termine if, in his judgment, the measure must
be taken to preserve the lives of personnel. Initia-
tion of any offensive or defensive formation
implies imminent contact with the enemy.
+ Within the TAOR, and during opera-
tions in areas external thereto, the establishment
of a curfew is the responsibility of GVN officials.
Assistance in enforcing the curfew will normally
devolve upon division units. In such instances,
indigenous personnel will be informed of the
time limits involved and the reqtiirement for
strict adherence. It will be further explained
that the curfew is to ensure that innocent civilians
are not mistaken for the enemy and shot.

28
 d. Destruction of VN Property

+ Civilian dwellings will not be burned, nor

will private property, including livestock, be
destroyed except as an unavoidable consequence
of combat actions.
+ Destruction of Vietnamese dwellings and
livestock as a measure of denying their use to
the enemy is left to RVNAF units. Requests
from Vietnamese authorities for employment
of Marine forces to perform such destruct~.on
will be referred to the III MAF headquarters.

e, Miscellaneous
USMC units do not have the authority to
exercise police powers over the Vietnamese
people; hence the majority of controls will have

29
to be established by the National Police, Army
of Victmam Military Police, or other RVNAIT
military units and Regional and Popular Force
units as appropriate. In the event of civil dis-
turbance, the neares~ Vietnamese National Police
establishment will be notified. 3cI MarDiv units
will take no action other than to defend them-
selves and the property of the U.S.

//////////

2. OFl~ENSE

a. Small Unit Tactics

Enemy long range small arms fire is

often used to slow troop movement and inflict
casualties. Utilization of the practices summa-
rized I)C1OWwill assist in minimizing the effects
of such fire:
+ Avoid patterns of movement, diversify
patrol formations, times and routes.
+ Use all available forms of conceal-
ment.
4- Wear your armored vest.
* Establish a base of fire before crossing
open areas.
+ Use Marine snipers to counter enemy
fire.
+ Request aerial observers.
+ Move on one or more approach routes,
when possible.

30
+ 13e especially cautious at first light.
+ Plan for and keep within supporting
arms coverage.
+ Practice march discipline at all times,
including assigned sectors of observation and
fire and established intervals between troops.
+ When fire is received, return it and
maneuver quickly.

b. Rapid Reporting at Time of Contact

Once contact is established with the enemy

and the firefight begins, the platoon leader and
company commander have a multitude of tasks
to perform. One of these tasks, and a very im-
portant one, is the rapid and accurate reporting
of the contact so that higher echelons can take
the necessary action in support of the encounter.
IIowever, the importance of accurate and timely

31
reporting of contact is sometimes overlooked by
small unit leaders because of other duties.
To make certain that reports of contact
are relayed immediately it is a good idea to
train ,Marines, other than the unit leader, in the
procedures of accurate and timely reporting of
contact. This will take some of the load off the
unit leader and ensure that battalion is kept
abreast of the situation. They can ‘t support you
unless they have valid information. The III MAF
has found that such a system works well on the
company, platoon and squad levels.

c. Control in Dense Jungle Areas

A combat reconnaissance patrol operating

in Viet Cong territory was moving with great
effort through dense brush in column formation.
After a few hours of negotiating the rugged ter-
rain, personnel became fatigued and the column
inadvertently became a “V.” One member of the
point, hearing noise and seeing obscure move-
ment to his left rear, became alarmed and opened
fire. Although the cease fire was given imme-
diately, the damage was already done. Results:
One Marine killed, two wounded.
This tragedy points out what can happen in
dense jungle areas where control and identifica-
tion ~kcorne life and death matters. A definite
:-J=. fGT o?=:.ing fire rr. ust be established and,
.dLhGUSh positive idenLificaLion may not always

32
be possible, repeated emphasis must be placed
on target identification prior to opening fire,

d. Organization of Command Group When on

the Move

The majority of command group personnel

are armed with the .45 caliber pistol because of
the type of duty they perform and the fact they
are not expected to engage in the firefight. How-
ever, during operations in dense jungle terrain,
flank security sometimes is inadequate and units
always face the possibility of becoming separated
for short periods of time. If the command group
is attacked by the enemy under such circum-
stances, it has extremely limited firepower to
repel the assault unless it has been properly
organized.
In view of this, always carefully consider
the organization of tactical command groups when
disposing firepower means within the unit. Ensure
that an adequate number of personnel armed with
rifles and automatic weapons are in close proxim-
ity to the command group at all times.

e. Sweep and Block Forces

Operations, whether of the search and
destroy, or search and clear types, normally
involve a sweep force and a blocking force. The
technique of sweep and block constitutes an
effecuve means of sweeping an area if executed
correctly. Speaking in terms of company-size

33
operations of this nature, the following are sev-
eral techniques that have spelled the difference
between a successful operation and a long hot un-
eventful walk:
-f- Rarcly, if ever, will any attempt to es-
:ablish a block or cordon from a permanent patrol
base located within 2000 meters of the objective
area be successful. As is generally the case, the
block or cordon is set prior to first light which
usually necessitates establishing an operating
base near the objective area the previous evening.
Nothing can spoil an operation faster than a force
moving into close proximity of the objective area
and allowing the ever observant VC a 6- to 8-hour
headstart in fleeing the area.
+ Attempt wherever feasible to seal the
area off by approaching the blocking position from

34
as many different directions as possible. Not only
is a certain degree of deception gained by utiliz-
ing smaller sized units infiltrating from several
directions, but it also denies the enemy several
routes of egress. Essentially, the small units
“block and sweep” against each other while
moving into the blocking positions.
+ If armor is to beusedeitheras a part of
the block force or the sweep force, do not allow
the tank commander to start his vehicles’ engines
any sooner than 5 minutes prior to moving out.
The second of armor starting up early in the
morning is just like ringing a loud warning bell
for all the VC within 3 miles of the objective
area. Armor movement should be fast and direct
in order to gain maximum shock effect. It has
been found much better to give the infantry a
headstart on the approach march and have the
tanks catch and pass the infantry approximately
three-quarters of the way to the LOD.
+ Prep fires should be used judiciously and
sparingly. If not absolutely necessary, they should
be avoided. They tend to broadcast the “operation”
to everyone in the area.
+ Consider the use of fein[s and deceptions
as much as possible. It must be assumed that
every move the operational force is making is
being followed closely by the VC or their in-
formants. The use of feints or similar deploy-
ment may invoke a false sense of security among

35
the VC in the area and deprive them of precious
escape time once the sweep is commenced.
+ Use every means available to maintain
the momentum of the sweep force. Anticipate
those situations which might cause the sweep to
lose its forward momentum (i.e., resupply, cas-
ualties, darkness, demolitions work). Once the
pressure is applied, keep it on steadily. Hesitation
allows the VC the opportunity to escape or place
mines and booby traps in the sweeping force’s
path. There is no substitute for well-developed
and all-encompassing plans at all levels.
+ Don’t allow operations to become ster-
eotyped. Seize upon innovation. If the VC are able
to anticipate our every move, our initiative is
lost and the results unsatisfactory.

f. Blocking Position Security

Blocking forces are frequently harassed
by sniper fire from the rear while in the blocking
position. To counter this type harassment, am-
bushes should be placed covering likely avenues
of approach and/or sniper positions, 200 or 300
meters to the rear of the blocking force. This
precaution provides the blocking force with se-
curity from the rear and an early warning system
against VC attack.

g. Resupply for Recon

Resupply of small reconnaissance patrols
should be avoided whenever possible. Generally

36
these units can be expected to operate up to 5
days without resupply, provided water can be
obtained in the area of operations. This type
patrol should normally be withdrawn when sup-
plies carried into the field are expended.

.,, , “,
.,,.
‘%k.

$-”’. f ,.,;, {:
‘1”;!; :.: .1’
,, ::,: ,!

I
Resupply can be made by helicopter, should
operational commitments dictate. In such situa-
tions, if special consideration is given to: selec-
tion of the resupply site and preflight briefing;
preparation of supplies to be delivered; and
deceptive measures taken during delivery, the
likelihood of preserving the patrol’s clandestine
nature can be increased materially. The follow-
ing considerations of these three areas are
pertinent:
-P- Selection of the resupply site and pre-
flight briefing. In addition to the n o r m a 1

37
considerations for LZ selection; e.g., capable of
being locally secured and offering good ap-
proaches for helicopters, the site selected for
resupply should be positively secure from ob-
servation at ground level. That is, there must be
no observation by the enemy of activity in the
site when a helicopter is approaching the ground.
Examples of such sites are hedge enclosed rice
paddies and depressions near the top of a dominat-
ing, hill mass. Patrol leaders must be capable of
recognizing these areas. When a site is selected,
the coordinates should be radioed to the parent
unit, using shackles or other secure means. To
reduce chance of compromise by further radio
transmission, the patrol locations should be given
to the resupply helicopter flight leader in a face-
to-face briefing by a member of the patrol’s
parent unit. The briefing should include other
pertinent information such as radio frequencies
and alternates, ground signals to be used, patrol
size and uniform (for aircrew recognition of
patrol as friendly), thrust points in use if any,
etc. During this briefing a deception plan can be
worked out with the flight leader. If possible, the
Marine briefing the flight leader should accom-
pany the resupply run.
+ Preparation of supplies to be delivered.
Resupply will include mainly rations and radio
batteries. Handling these items can be facilitated
by preparing a “package” for each patrol mem-
ber. All miscellaneous packaging material, which
if included would have to be hidden or buried by

38
the patrol, should be removed and the supplies
placed in sandbags. These bags can be placed
near the helicopter exit door and at the proper
time can be pushed out in a matter of seconds.
When delivery to the site is completed, thepatrol
leader can have each of his men graba sandbag
and the patrol can evacuate the area expeditiously
without stopping to open boxes, distribute loads,
place rations in packs, or bury trash. Refine-
ments of the packages could include labels to
indicate special items such as radio batteries,
rifle cleaning supplies or messages for the
patrol leader. If time permits, an improvised
carrying sling may be placed on each sandbag.
+ Deceptive measures taken during de-
livery. With a map plot of the patrol’s reported
location, the helicopter flight can approach the
general area at an altitude out of small arms
range. Remaining at altitude, the aircrew(s)
should attempt to spot the patrol while flying
a random pattern over the general area. The
patrol should mark the landing site with air
panels and may signal the aircraft with mirrors
or lights. If the site is properly selected, none
of these markers or signals will be visible to the
enemy on the ground. If necessary, the aircraft
can enter the reconnaissance unit net to receive
directions from the patrol leader. Smoke should
not be used by the patrol to mark the site. When
the patrol is spotted, the flight leader should
begin a series of deceptive maneuvers which will
eventually bring the supply carrying aircraft to

39
a landing or hover in the site occupied by the
patrol. If the flight includes two or more aircraft,
only the supply-carrying helicopter need fly to
ground level; the remaining aircraft can maintain
altitude and provide support, if required. The
pilot” of the aircraft carrying the supplies can
execute a series of landings or near landings,
one of which will be in the aciual resupply site.
Deception can be increased during these maneu-
vers by firing machineguns in some of the “land-
ing “sites, ” dropping smoke grenades in some
sites, and taking such other actions as may be
considered appropriate to confuse any enemy
observer.

h. Basic Tactics Aaain

Almost without exception, combat reports

from Vietnam continue to underscore the need
for fundamental patrol training. Patrolling oc-
cupies a major part of Marine operations and the
foUowing points are repeatedly emphasized:
+ Automatic weapons and radios should
be concealed as much as possible within forma-
tions.
-+ Flankers and point men must be well
away (100 meters) from the main body when
terrain permits.
+ All patrol members should be
thoroughly briefed on patrol mission, objectives
and other details.
-+ Suspected enemy positions should be
designated as concentrations for supporting artil-
lery and mortar fires and personnel should know
how to call for and adjust these fires,

i. Tunnel Denial

The use of a tunnel can be denied to the

enemy effectively by the following method:
+ Pump smoke with a Mity Mite blower
into the tunnel to determine the location of tunnel
exits.
+ Place sacks of CS several feet inside
the tunnel.
+ Dig one to three holes, 4 feet deep and
5 feet back from and around each exit located.
Place 5 pounds of tamped explosive in each hole.

41
+ Connect all charges (at all exits) and
all sacks of CS with detonating cord.
+- Detonate all charges simultaneously.
This will seal the tunnel, trapping the CS inside.
Thus the use of the tunnel is denied the
enemy at a considerably less cost in explosives
than would be required to completely destroy it.

j. Tunnel Clearing and Injuries

It is essential that all Marines handling

explosives be familiar with their characteristics
including damage radius. Equally important is the
necessity for the small unit leader to properly
supervise the demolition of caves and tunnels.
In a period of one month, recently, three Marines
from one unit received injuries from their own
explosives while engaged in this type work. All
of the injuries were caused by a lack of knowledge
and awareness of the radius of injury associated
with various types of explosives.
Also, remember to include a safety radius
for possible secondary explosions.

k. Tactical Decisions

The close jungle and rugged terrain in many

areas of Vietnam have demonstrated the necessity
for quick tactical decisions on the part of small
unit leaders. Frequently, contact with the enemy
develops at ranges of less than 100 meters with

42
fleeting targets. A high volume of fire and rapid,
well-controlled maneuvering are the decisive
factors in these meeting engagements. If contact
continues, supporting arms should be delivered
on the target. This requires a positive com-
munication channel to an airborne controller
and/or a supporting artillery unit,
Shoot, move, and communicate is still the
best policy for the small unit leader.

1. Preconvoy Liaison

There is no substitute for personal liaison

and extensive discussion between the man re-
sponsible for convoy vehicles and the unit leader
providing convoy security. Many coordination
problems can be solved such as the time and

43
place where the security elements join the
convoy, radio frequencies and call signs, and
location of the security elements with the con-
voy. Conduct this face-to-face meeting as far
in advance of convoy departure time as possible.

m. Convoy Security
Experience with Rough Rider convoys using
engineer mine sweep support has demonstrated
that’ aerial observation of the routes of advance
and return is a prerequisite to effective security
for the convoy proper and the engineer support
element. While the convoy is staging for the re-
turn, this observation often lapses along the
intended return route. This enables enemy mining
agents to plant mines unobserved. Continuous
aerial observation of the convoy route should be
conducted if possible. This will hinder or pre-
vent enclmy mine activity along the convoy route
thus providing more effective security.

n. Encirclement
The Viet Cong are quick to locate and
exploit any weak points in our dispositions. During
operations to encircle a VC element, unit com-
manders must quickly prepare to realign their
forces to provide a continuous band of offensive
strength around the guerrillas. When entrapped
the VC will make repeated attempts to probe
encircling units, especially at night, to locate
an escape route. Aggressive patrolling, illumina-
tion, machinegun interdiction, artillery and

44
mortar concentrations, all will help to contain
the encircled force. In such circumstances, the
Viet Cong sometimes attempt to cache their
weapons and exfiltrate as members of the local
populace. In cases where this is suspected,
Popular Forces and interpreters are useful,
particularly if they are familiar with regional
accents and local characteristics.

o. Moving Targets

Frequently a moving or fleeting target is

observed and the forward observer directs a fire
mission on it. In most instances there is a delay
of several minutes between the initial request
and the first adjusting round. This delay, caused
by the necessity for clearance and computation,
can be negated if the forward observer will
estimate the projected location of the moving
target at the arrival time of the first round and
use this point as his target location for the
initial request.

p. Deception

The departure of patrols from a base area

is often difficult to conceal if it is under ob-
servation by local villagers, who can count the
number of Marines, follow them, and determine
their direction of travel. Suggested techniques
for patrols to employ, where movement under
observation is unavoidable, include:
+ Dispatching elements of a patrol at
periodic intervals, about every half hour in
different directions. Later the patrol can rally
in a sccurc area and con~inue its mission.

46
+ Two patrols can pass as one by com-
Mning and then separating when remote from
visual observation. One element can detach itself
and remain in ambush for a brief period to see
if it is being followed.
+ Strict security procedures are essential
when employing these deception techniques since
small patrols are particularly susceptible to
guerrilla ambush.

q. Two-Man Point

One battalion conducting search and destroy

operations in an area known to be heavily mined
and booby trapped successfully employed the fol-
lowing method to reduce casualties sustained by
mines and boobytraps.
The procedure employs two Marines as
point to reduce the possibility of detonating
camouflaged mines and booby traps. The first
Marine surveys the immediate area being
traversed for tripwires, lines, and punji pits,
while the second Marine observes forward and
to the sides as usual, This method proved most
successful in detecting camouflaged devices, and,
as a consequence, appreciably reduced friendly
casualties.

r. Spare the Point

When operating in a known mined area,

there is a possibility that enemy explosive devices

47
can detonate the fragmentation or WP grenades
carried by the man closest to the blast. The
point is likely to be that man; his grenades
should be temporarily carried by another patrol
member.

s. Searching and Clearing Populated Areas

in RVN

Even though some USMC units become

adept at searching villages, ethnic and environ-
mental reasons make ARVN units exceptionally
good at searching and clearing populated areas.
Whenever possible, ARVN units should be
used along with Marines when searching villages.
Attaching a platoon of ARVN to a Marine rifle
company can be a successful arrangement. The
three ARVN squads can then work directly with
three Marine rifle platoons. Thus, the individual
Marine can learn useful techniques. After several
of these operations, the rifle companies should
possess the capability to train new men in the
search techniques and procedures most success-
ful in RVN.

t. Pomlar Force Scouts

Recently, one unit in Vietnam operated in

a completely new area for about 3 weeks with
little success. After a month they established
contact with the village chief and Popular Force
personnel and began to build a rapport with them.

48
They suggested going on joint patrols and estab-
lishing joint ambushes. After a few weeks the
PF’s suggested an ambush site and three PF’s
and the village chief led a Marine squad to the
location. The result was 4 VC KIA and one
weapon captured. Since then over 50 percent of
the unit’s kills have been on joint patrols. One
PF per fire team was found to be ideal for patrol
organization.

u. Use of Popular Forces

It is common practice for the Viet Cong to

send Vietnamese civilians from VC hamlets and
villages to government controlled areas to obtain
supplies. These people will usually possess valid
identification cards, and will generally have no
difficulty in being cleared through a checkpoint
by Marines. One unit has achieved a greater

49
degree of success in preventing VC supply
procurement by using Popular Force personnel
with Marines at checkpoints. The Marines pro-
vide the necessary security while the Popular
Forces conduct the searches and check identifica-
tion; The Popular Forces can readily detect the
presence of strangers which has resulted on
many occasions in intercepting foodstuffs and
medicine destined for enemy forces.

v. Patrols Entering Villages

In relatively close terrain, Marines have
a tendency to select the easiest approach into a
village. They often use a trail or road and seldom
delay unless taken under fire. The VC are well
aware of this fact and frequently orient their
defenses down the main roads and trails leading
into the villages. A flank approach into villages
not only lends the element of surprise to the
patrol, but also circumvents the main enemy
defenses.

w. VC I-Iouses
Marine patrols in Vietnam have occasion-
ally encountered deserted huts and houses sur-
rounded by thorn and bramble fences. These
locations are considered off-limits by the vil-
lagers because they have been formerly occupied
by- the Viet Cong. The area surrounding the
houses is usually entrenched and contains punji
pits as well as signs with VC slogans. Exercise
caution when approaching these areas.

50
 x. Keep Going

If a patrol sustains a casualty from sniper

fire, continue to seek out the sniper aggressively,
Don’t let the entire patrol become involved in
treating the wounded and securing a landing zone
only to sustain another casualty from the same
sniper when the patrol once again moves forward.

y. Look Up

During two actions between North Vietnam-

ese and Marine forces, the enemy attempted an
ambush using a conventional U-shaped ambush
with one modification; enemy troops were posi-
tioned in trees overlooking the zone of fire and
were armed with automatic weapons and grenades.
Advance guards and point men must look upward
into trees and brush as well as forward and to
the flanks.

z. Combat Ti~s
+ Ensure separation of communication
capabilities so the probability of incoming rounds
destroying all communications is reduced to a
minimum.
+ The second in command at all echelons
should be prepared to assume command under
most adverse conditions; he should be positioned
so the odds of his becoming a casualty day or
night at the same time as the commander are
minimized.

51
+ Be continuously alert to enemy tactics
of trying to separate a unit, a point or a rear
element from the main force or body.
+ Rehearse every, repeat every, recon,
combat patrol or contemplated offensive action
whenever possible.
* Provide every patrol with the capa-
bility of calling in supporting fire.
+ If taken under mortar or artillery fire,
prepare to return fire within 30 seconds. This
capability requires at a minimum:
. Mortar positions that can be oc-
cupied while under fire.
● All personnel being capable of de-
termining direction from which mortars are

52
being fired (crater analysis) and a reporting
procedure for passing on such information im-
mediately.
+ Platoon commanders and company com-
manders should always be in a position to control
and maneuver all of their units and supporting
arms, For example, a platoon commander who
acts as squad leader or a point, is not a platoon
commander.
* When halted for any period of time, dig
in, improve holes, and cut into the sides of holes
so VT can be called in on the position if such
action becomes necessary.
+ When a Marine hits the deck, he should
immediately roll to either the left or right to
confuse the enemy as to his exact position.
+ When a unit halts at night, a change of
position should be made during first hours of
darkness.
+ When patrol bases are employed, pre-
pare alternate positions. Avoid staying in one
position more than one night.
+ Never occupy old positions (friendly or
enemy).
+ Emphasize to Marines that stopping to
render first aid while in the attack will only re-
sult in more casualties through loss of firepower
and momentum.
+ No area, regardless of past activities,
can be considered safe from possible enemy
attack.
+ Communications have always been a
lucrative source of intelligence. No matter what
method of communication is used, except runners,
we must assume that the enemy is listening.
Don’t shackle known enemy locations. Don’t dis-
close frequencies and call signs. Donft discuss/
disclose friendly locations and scheme of maneu-
ver. Conduct comprehensive communications se-
curity training especially at the company level.
+- Learn all you can about the customs of
the people.
+ Never sacrifice security for speed.
+ Practice fire discipline--shoot accu-
rately and follow fire commands quickly. Fire at
suspected enemy positions but don’t squander
your ammunition.
+ Listen to suggestions from others and
adopt them if they are sound.
+ Use frag orders when the situation
permits.
+ Don’t overwhelm men with the !lBig
Picture. ”
+ Keep abreast of the tactical situation
and keep your men informed.
-+ Set the example.
+ Protect ammunition from deterioration.
Use radio battery plastic covers and fuze cans
for this purpose.

54
+ Move through jungle in multiple col-
umns with all-around security using connecting
files.
+ Move on concealed routes whenever
possible.
+ Practice use of the compass, pacing
and terrain orientation on all movements.
+ Use arm and hand or any other silent
signals whenever possible.
+ Practice fire discipline.
-+ Keep weapons immediately available
for use. Maintain contact with the enemy once it
is gained.
+ Test fire weapons before each opera-
tion.
+ Consider combat efficiency over per-
sonal comfort.

####/i

3. DEFENSE

a. Tactical Security

Military history indicates that all success-

ful commanders have been governed in their
actions and decisions by several fundamental
principles. These are now known as the principles
of war and apply to the leader of a fire team as
well as the battalion commander. The extent and
manner of application of these principles have
always determined the success or failure of mili-
tary operations. While adherence to these

55
principles cannot guarantee success, failure to
apply them almost always leads to disaster.
Failure of a leader to apply the principle
of war called SECURITY in all his operations,
both while engaged in offensive as well as de-
fensive operations, will almost certainly lead to

56
complete and utter defeat. The majority of unit
leaders in Vietnam today are well versed in the
importance of security. Reports are replete with
instances of American units foiling Viet Cong
attempts to infiltrate or surprise their positions.
However, not all unit leaders have learned their
lesson in this respect. An examination of situa-
tion reports and afteraction reports reveal that
some American fighting men in Vietnam have
become battle statistics because they or their
leaders didn’t understand the importance of se-
curity.
All leaders in combat will normally incur
casualties at one time or another. The number of
casualties sustained is in direct relation to the
tempo of operations and the vagaries of combat.
Casualties incurred under these circumstances
reflect neither credit nor discredit on a leader.
They are the cold hard facts of war.
However, casualties suffered by a leader
who has been surprised by the enemy while in a
defensive position are normally unforgivable and
a useless waste of lives. The enemy, on occasion,
may outmaneuver you, may concentrate more
troops on the field of battle and may be more
mobile. A leader, especially a small unit leader,
might not have absolute control over such oc-
currences. He does, however, have control over
the security of his unit and when it is surprised
by the enemy, particularly in a defensive position,
he is guilty of committing an unpardonable crime

57
against his profession and the men who pay the
supreme price.
It is well to remember that security em-
braces all the measures taken by a unit to pro-
tect itself from observation, surprise, and an-
noyance by the enemy. It includes those measures
necessary to obtain early warning through the
employment of security detachments and to pre-
vent acts which might give information to the
enemy. To guard against surprise requires an
accurate estimate of enemy capabilities, adequate
security measures, effective reconnaissance, and
readiness for action on the part of all units.

b. Review of Defensive Principles

While continuous emphasis must be placed

on offensive operations if the war in Vietnam is

58
to be successfully concluded, the fact remains
that we must, of necessity, spend part of the
time in defensive positions. Whether we are
defending a large fixed installation such as the
airfield at Chu Lai, or establishing a night
perimeter during a search and destroy opera-
tion, certain basic principles and techniques
must be adhered to if Marine lives are to be
saved. The following principles and techniques
are not new but should be reviewed periodically:
+ The best defense is offensive action;
a series of outposts and ambush sites should be
established in depth at dusk or shortly after dark.
During daylight, saturation patrolling as well as
outposts should be employed,
+ Defensive positions must provide all-
around protection with the capability for rapidly
massing fires on any location around or within
the perimeter. Always “fire in” defensive con-
centrations, if possible. TIIis is important espe-
cially in temporary perimeters.
+ For fixed and semifixed installations,
barbed wire barriers (concertina, single- and
double-apron fence, tanglefoot) should be con-
structed around the perimeter of the installation
and around sensitive locations inside the perim-
eter. Although a good barrier plan is essential,
the internal security cannot depend solely on
the physical barriers placed around the installa-
tion.

59
+ Trenches should be dug in a zigzag
pattern between bunkers. Grenade sumps arc re-
quired in trenches.
+ Bunkers, by the nature of their fixed
positions, are most vulnerable to infiltration
attack, or attack by direct fire weapons. Bunkers
must be located at least 50 meters behind the
inner barrier wire to reduce the damage from
VC-emplaced Claymore mines and to prevent
handgrenades from reaching them from posi-
tions outside the wire. All bunkers should have
reinforced overhead cover capable of withstand-
ing the effects of mortar fire. They should be
camouflaged, if possible, to increase the problem
of identifying them at night. Bunkers should be
mutually supporting whenever possible.
+ Claymore mines, emplaced inside the
barrier wire for command detonation, are most
effective against personnel. Improvised flame
devices, such as the electrically detonated
“fougasse,” also are effective.
+ The M79 grenade launcher is effective
in covering dead space in final protective fires
close to the edge of the defensive perimeter. A
clear field of fire must be obtained to avoid
premature detonation caused by rounds striking
branches or limbs,
+ A well-coordinated illumination plan
tightly controlled by the commander must be
developed in order to prevent indiscriminate use

60
of illumination. Improper illumination may reveal
friendly forces and defensive positions to the
enemy.
+ Locate guard or reserve f o r c es
throughout the internal area to combat small unit
infiltrations. A plan to utilize reserve forces to
prevent or repel penetrations of the perimeter
must be developed.
+ Establish multiple means of communi-
cations within bunkers and internal security
posts.
+ There must be a minimum of movem-
ent inside the perimeter after dark. If fi?.1.r]g
of weapons or explosions of grenades OCC.VX ~r~~$de
the perimeter (not from protec.!tve b~!r~k.x::. ~~:

61.
firing pits), all personnel not in protective posi-
tions should “freeze” in a firing position. Anyone
running or moving about should be considered
enemy. Signals must be used to identify friendly
counterattack forces. After firing ceases, con-
duct a sweep inside the perimeter.
+ Disperse key personnel, weapons and
equipment in order to avoid excessive losses.
+ The chain of command within all units
must be well defined to preclude confusion re-
sulting from key personnel becoming casualties.
+ Emergency plans to restore communi-
cations, to provide med’ical aid and to ensure
uninterrupted defense of the area must be de-
veloped and rehearsed.
* Search civilian workers upon their
departure from the installation to prevent re-
moval of arms, ammunition or other property.
Areas where personnel were working must be
swept to remove marker signs emplaced to locate
bunkers, automatic weapons sites, or other sensi-
tive fixtures for unfriendly forces outside the
installation.
+ Establishment of hasty defensive per-
imeters during the conduct of other operations
requires consideration of the following:
Provide for ambush patrols and
early warning d e v i c es to cover avenues of

62
approach into the perimeter. Emplace the am-
bushes while moving into the area.
c Stop before dark to set up camp for
the night.
Halt on the most defensive terrain
●

available. During rest stops, ensure that desig-

nated guards are alert and outposts are placed.
● Consider the technique of stopping
an hour before last light, approximately 300-500
meters from the intended night base camp. Estab-
lish good local security, and then use this halt
for chow, minor first aid, weapons maintenance
or to accept a helicopter resupply. Send a patrol
to reconnoiter your intended base. When this
patrol locates suitable, defensible terrain for a
base and reconnoiters for defensive ambush and
OP/LP sites, the patrol sends back guides to the
main body, and also maintains surveillance of the
base area. After dark, the main body is guided
to the actual base, occupies assigned sectors of
the perimeter by units, and digs in quietly.
Ambushes and OP/LP’s are established in accord-
ance with previous daylight reconnaissance, to
include an ambush on the route used by the unit
to reach the actual base. For normal indirect
fire support planning for the actual base area,
plan concentrations for the first (temporary)
base, and likely approaches into that area.
+ The enemy will make every effort to
remove all casualties, weapons and documents
from the battlefield in order to prevent accurate

63
assessment of their losses. Use long range
automatic weapons fire combined with continuous
illumination of the area to keep the enemy from
“policing” the battlefield as they withdraw. Ca+
ualties left behind by the enemy are often booby-
trapped. Exercise extreme caution when searching
or moving enemy casualties.
+ Remove all trip flares and booby traps at
first light.
4- Do no~ disclose automatic weapon posi-
tions by firing when the enemy harasses with
sniper fire.

c. Defense of Isolated Positions

Recently a 105mm howitzer battery, situ-

ated in a relatively isolated location, was at-
tacked by a well-trained and armed force of

64
Viet Cong. The number of enemy has never been
determined other than that it was in excess of
50 men.
The attack started at 0155, during the
darkness of the moon with a mortar barrage on
the nearest unit. This unit was a 155mm howitzer
battery and was located about 1000 meters away.
There was no attack on this position and as it
was later determined, the objective of the Viet
Cong was to pin this unit down. Simultaneously,
the Viet Cong attacked the 105mm battery from
three directions. Two attacks came from the
south utilizing bangalore torpedoes to breach the
perimeter wire. Rocket launchers were used on
the bunkers near the breaches. The attack from
the north was accomplished in a silent manner,
breaching the wire with cutters. The attention
of the defenders was focused on the southern
forces and the northern forces was inside the
wire before it was discovered.
The northern force threw satchel charges
in the living quarters and sprayed the defenders
with automatic weapons fire. Both forces made
for the gun pits and succeeded in damaging two
howitzers plus destroying a ready ammunition
pit. It is estimated that as many as 40 Viet Cong
were inside the perimeter.
The defenders were aided by continuous
artillery illumination plus a flare ship. The 155mm
battery fired several rounds of direct fire. The
nearest infantry company had only a skeleton

65
force in the company command post. The re-
mainder of the company was deployed remotely
from the scene of the attack. A small force of
Viet Cong pinned down the company command
post with automatic weapons fire.
Contact was maintained with the Viet Cong
until daybreak (0555). Sixteen dead Viet Cong
were left in the position. Numerous grenades and
weapons were left behind. At approximately 0700,
an engineer road grader struck a mine which was
planted in the road between the battery position
and the nearest infantry battalion command post.
All wire lines of communication had been cut
during the first few minutes of the attack. It was
later discovered that these lines were cut in as
many as three different locations.
The following are some of the lessons
learne@ from the above experience:

Significant Points

+ The entire area of the attack had been

well reconnoitered. Specific locations of units,
roads, bunkers and other defenses had been pin-
pointed by the Viet Cong.
+ Wire lines of communication were cut
at terminal strips located near the perimeter
wire.
+ An attack was made from the south
with no attempt to be quiet. The main attack
from the north was extremely quiet.

66
.
+ Once the Viet Cong were inside the
wire, there was nothing to impede freedom of
movement throughout the entire battery area.
They could run directly to the gun pits, ammuni-
tion pits and other installations.
+ The best road available for use by a
counterattacking force was mined.
Conclusions
+ Periodically and without setting a pat-
tern, shift men on perimeter defenses from bunk-
ers to fighting holes. This should be done after
dark.
+ Perimeter fences should be high enough
to prevent their being crossed by means of
matting. Use a minimum of two fences around
the position so that the enemy must use at least
two demolition teams to effect a breach. Be sure
to stake down concertina to prevent its being
lifted.
+ When an attack is made in one direc-
tion and is detected, look to the rear for another
attack. Do not focus the defenses in one direc-
tion.
+ Compartmentalize the interior of posi-
tions by a maze of three-strand cattle fences.
Use ofiset entrances to gun pits and other vital
areas to slow down personnel trying to enter. An
attack similar to the one described was made on
a combination artillery and tank position at Cam
Lo in September 1966. The Viet Cong were able

67
to breach the perimeter wire, but were com-
pletely baffled by the compartmentation. As they
bunched up, the tanks and defenders were able
to inflict severe casualties.
\;

+ Usc dummy communications trunklines

in the position to confuse the Viet Cong. Place
all terminal strips well within the positions.
+ After an attack, beware of mines on
access roads to the position. Request a mine
sweep of all roads and trails.
+ Ensure that sufficient backup radios
are in position to ensure reliable communications
when the wire is cut.
+ Form a reaction force from personnel
located i.n the same area. Rehearse this force
frequently.

68
* Remember that any change in the de-
fense will act as a deterrent to the Viet Cong as
far as their mounting an attack. It must be pre-
sumed that the defenses have been scouted. Use
of a tank or Ontos in the position at random
periods is an excellent means of varying the de-
fenses.

+ Cover all perimeter wire by fire.

-+ Make extensive use of Claymore mines,
taking care to remove them at daybreak and to
vary their positions. Do not set a pattern. Never
place the Claymores beyond the perimeter wire
and where possible keep them under observation.

d. Night Positions
Aggressive offensive action requires speed
of maneuver, maximum utilization of available

69
time, and economy of force. The speed and ease
with which units can deploy into a nighttime
defensive perimeter are often hindered by the dense
foliage found in many regions of Vietnam. In
certain instances it is more advisable to consider
deploying for night positions in ambush fashion
rather than in perimeter form. An example of
an ambush which also fulfills the function of a
night defensive position is the “Yankee Forma-
tion” or “Y” ambush. Such a position employs
three legs running out from a central point with
a strong point at the end of each leg. Each of the
legs is capable of firing in either direction and
supporting the other two. Such a deployment is
one accomplished by having alternate individuals
within each leg cover sectors to the left or right
along the long axis of the leg. The center of the
“Y” where the three legs join is the control
point and the position of the unit leader. From
such a position he can control and maneuver his
unit most advantageously.
This formation is highly effective as an
ambush and as a defense against attack from any
direction. Such a formation can be easily altered
to conform to the terrain requirements and can
be utilized by a slmall-sized unit.
Furthermore, its triangular concept is
easily adaptable to the Marine organization. There
is a further advantage in such a formation. In
heavy foliage, units may deploy far more easily
than in a perimeter defense. Each ,leg is given
a general direction of deployment and need only

70
be tied in at the center. This curtails the prob-
lems of shifting lines or clearing additional lines
of communication to the center of a perimeter.
There is also less movement involved in deploy-
ing in such a manner.

e. Flash Observation Procedures

The increase in VC mortar, artillery and

rocket attacks has made it essential that all units
have effective countermortar, counterartillery,
and counterrocket plans. The success of counter-
fire plans is dependent largely on two factors:
the speed with which the enemy firing positions
can be located, and the speed with which this in-
formation can be passed to the FSCC.
Speedy resolution of these factors has
been accomplished in one area in RVN by the
establishment of a system of flash observation
posts. The observation posts are located on the
highest ground near the command bunker of each
perimeter section. Additional observation posts
are maintained at combat outposts and in the air-
strip control tower. Each OP is manned by a
sentry whose primary mission is to locate enemy
mortar, artillery and rocket positions. The loca-
tion of all the OP’S are plotted on a command
map in the battalion combat operations center.
When enemy muzzle flashes are sighted, polar
plots are reported to the COC by the reporting
observation posts. Once the enemy position is
pinpointed by graphic intersection from two or

71
more OP sightings, concentrated fire can he
placed on the target.
The following recommendations can assist
in establishing an effective counterfire plan and
are particularly valuable for units that defend
Iargc, semipermanent bases and installations
that are prime targets for VC attack:
-+- Establish flash OP’S in each sector of
the perimeter on high ground that commands the
best observation of the area. Observation towers
are excellent for this purpose and may also be
used for maintaining surveillance over the area,
and adjusting artillery fire.
-+ Plot the location of all OP’S on a map
in the COC and/or FSCC.
+ Brief all personnel manning flash OP’S
in proper communications procedures, use of
the lcnsatic compass, flash-bang method of range
estimation, and artillery fire request procedures.
-+- Relieve OP sentries at least every
2 hours and more often when the situation per-
mits.

f. Natural Camouflage Will Save Lives

Are you, as a unit commander, making full

use of individual and natural camouflage? Are
your men “making like a bush” in the field,
blending with the natural foliage, and breaking
their outlines against the sky? Give the matter

72
a little serious thought. Do you camouflage your
helmet and body?
Have you ever advised a Marine in winter
service uniform that if he had to walk on a high-
way at night to hold a white handkerchief in his
outboard hand so that car lights could spot and
avoid killing him? The same Marine in the jungle
or on patrol is going to present a white face,
arms and hands unless he properly camouflages
these parts with his green stain. His face, arms,
and hands can gleam enough against a green back-
ground to help the VC spot and kill him.
Marines are supposed to be pros but some
of the pictures coming out of Vietnam must make
our old adversaries the Japanese shudder in
horror. The Japanese used camouflage to full
advantage--leaves, vines or grass interwoven
73
on helmet and pack made the Japanese soldier
extremely difficult to see, particularly in de-
fensive positions. We must believe, however,
that the Viet Cong welcome all the obvious lapses
in camouflage discipline.
Natural camouflage; i.e., grass, leaves
or vines that will blend with the area in which
the unit is operating, will take only minutes to
apply and costs absolutely nothing. It is a battle-
tested fact, however, that its judicious use will
save lives, for it is difficult to shoot and kill
what you cannot seel
Pictures and *rv reports from Vietnam
strongly indicate the need for strict enforcement
of camouflage discipline at all echelons of com-
mand. Vehicles, tanks, helicopters, boats can
all be camouflaged; the variety and extent are
only limited by the intelligence and ingenuity of
the commander. Above all, the individual Marine
must be trained in the use of natural camouflage
which will save his life. It must become as
instinctive as wearing his dog tags.
Unit leader, ask yourself this question--
Do my men know how to camouflage a helmet,
or does the individual Marine keep his white
cigarette package up there for the Viet Cong to
draw a bead on.
Perhaps, if time permits, a simple demon-
stration might bring home the shocking truth. Put
a few salvaged helmets out 200 yards and let the
troops draw a bead on them. Count the hits.

74
Then use natural camouflage around the same
helmets, a la Japanese style, Mending with the
area. Now have the same troops fire and count
the hits. The results might be surprising!
There are those who advocate natural
camouflage only in night or defensive positions
on the assumption that “making like a bush”
will lessen the aggressive spirit necessary to
close and destroy the enemy. A little reasoning
and proper leadership should convince any Marine
that there is nothing ridiculous about using
natural camouflage. In fact, once discovered and
experienced, natural camouflage provides added
confidence that the individual is not sticking out
like a sore thumb for all to take a shot at!
Older Marines know that the battlefield is
a terribly lonely place for the younger Marine,
Natural camouflage properly utilized will help
him blend with his surroundings and make it
more difficult for the Viet Cong to shoot and kill
him. Natural camouflage can save his life! You
must do everything in your power as a Marine
leader to see that he uses natural camouflage
instinctively.
The following basic tips can assist in
making individual camouflage effective:
+ Break up the shape of the helmet with
leaves or twigs.
+ Tone down all visible skin areas with
face paint, burnt cork, or charcoal.

7.5
+- Attaching vegetation to clothing will
help if it blends with the background.
+ Remove [he shine from metal objects
with mud or face paint.
Below are a few basic tips that can assist
in camouflaging ecluiprnent and emplacements:
+ Avoid regular, geometric layouts of
vehicles, weapons and supplies.
+ Avoid activity, such as continued move-
ment of personnel and equipment over the same
routes, that can change the original appearance
of an area.
+- Conceal all vehicle tracks so that the
ground appears unmarked.
+ Eliminate the shine on all vehicles and
equipment.
-+- Use shadows and ensure that the sil-
houettes of emplacements and equipment are
broken.

g. Claymores for Night Defense

When employing the Claymore mine for

defense of night posi[ions, care must be taken to
ensure d~at the enemy does not have the opportunity
to locate the Claymores and turn them around
or remove them. Reconnoiter l~cations for the
Claymores in daylight, but do not actually put
them in place until it is too dark for the enemy
to observe your actions clearly. The wires of
the Claymore should be run back to the friendly
positions in a zigzag fashion and not along easily

76
discovered trails or open areas. By placing a
strip of white adhesive tape on the back of the
mine, the mine can be more easily kept under
observation.

h. The Key to Success

The best defense is a good offense. With..

out vigorous patrolling in a unit’s area of re-
sponsibility, even the best defense is vulnerable
to infiltration. Villagers who see Marines daily
feel a greater sense of security. Viet Cong have
difficulty in massing any larger units than a
squad, and night mass assaults are more vul-
nerable to detection when Marines patrol in-
cessantly.

‘7’7
 i. You and Your Shadow

The enemy in Vietnam habitually shadows

U.S. Forces. They assign observers to watch and
report on every movement and activity. This
is, why so much emphasis is placed upon varying
patrol times, patterns, and routes. When the
enemy perceives a pattern, he is afforded the
opportunity to strike under conditions of his own
choice. When your unit has been in a temporary
position for more than a few days, be especially
alert. Effective close-in patrolling will limit the
enemy’s observation of your position and activi-
ties. This will disrupt his habit of staying close
by for observation. Be aware of the fact that
whatever your unit does is being observed and
reported.

j. Fixed Illumination

Units in static defensive positions where

electrical power is available can develop an
excellent illumination system using salvaged
vehicle headlights. The silence and immediacy
in reaction time of an electrical lighting system
give no prior warning to the enemy. Lighting
should be directed towards possible avenues of
approach and may be rigged for adjustment by
guidewires from a bunker containing the on-and-
off switch, Ordnance-type illumination should be
kept available for emergency lighting situations
and as a positive backup for the electrical system.

78
 k. Bridge Security
Many of the bridges that have been de-
stroyed by the VC have been blown by satchel
charges attached to the bridge pilings below the
waterline. To guard against this, divers are
frequently used to check the pilings for possible
demolitions, A unique method of underwater
illumination using flares has proven effective.
A hand illumination flare (Signal Illuminating,
Ground, White Star Parachute M127A1) fired
straight down into the water next to the piling
will ignite at a depth of approximately 75 feet.
As it burns it will start to rise slowly to the
surface enabling the observer to check the piling
for demolitions from 18 to 20 feet below the
waterline to the surface.
##//////

79
4. AMBUSI-I TACTICS

a. Ambush Preparation

Ambushes that are conducted with imagi-

nation and skill are an effective means of inflict-
ing casualties on the enemy. Successful ambushes
require patience, endurance, perseverance, ag-
gressiveness, and a high degree of self- discipline
on the ,part of ambush team members. Experienced
ambush team leaders have noted a relationship
between the size of the ambush and the personal
attitude of the personnel comprising the ambush
unit. Members of a squad-size patrol usually are
alert and vigilant en route to and within the
ambush site. However, the average Marine ap-
pears to feel less responsibility and is more
relaxed when he is part of an ambush force
larger than a squad. This false sense of security
can result in carelessness and lax discipline
which may cause the ambush to fail. In addition
to the personal requirements, certain other fac-
tors are influential in [he success or failure of
am,bushes.
Most ambushes are set at night and duripg
early morning hours since dlese are the hours
during which the enemy is most active. Careful
consideration of intelligence information will
indicate best times for intercepting enemy move-
ment. The time factor also has counterintelligence
implications. Departure from and reentry into
friendly lines should be planned for a period when

80
the patrol will be least exposed to enemy surveil-
lance. The proper moment to spring an ambush
once the enemy is sighted must be thoroughly
understood by all members of the patrol. Pre-
maturely triggered ambushes yield fewer enemy
kills and can result in Marine casualties. The
first shot should be held until the patrol leader
is positive that the enemy is in the killing zone.
The assumption that the enemy will use
the obvious trails, roads and stream crossings
should be avoided. All available intelligence in-
formation should be collected on enemy routes
of movement to aid in the choice of ambush sites.
In many instances, the enemy avoids using obvious
routes in order to keep from walking through
likely ambush positions.
Noise, light and camouflage discipline have
an extremely important effect on the chances for
success of an ambush. A breach of any one of
these will jeopardize the success of the mission.
A noisy, careless Marine in an ambush site is
the only warning device the VC needs. The key
to a successful ambush is surprise.
The absence of stealth is a common error
and often leads to compromise of ambushes.
Every precaution must be taken to avoid being
observed by civilians, leaving signs, or giving
any other indication of the patrol’s presence
when moving to an ambush location. The site
should be reconnoitered in such a manner that
the intention to use the site for an ambush is not

81
disclosed. If the enemy is aware of the move-
ment to the ambush position, chances of success
are negligible.
Thorough consideration of the factors above
will increase the odds in favor of a successful
ambush. Supervision and discipline are the keys.

82
 b. Ambush Techniques

All too frequently ambushes are well laid,

properly planned, and correctly positioned, only
to fail because of an oversight on the part of the
ambush leader or one of his men. Some of the
common deficiencies are as follows:
+ Noise discipline--coughing, talking,
shifting about, clattering of equipment, etc.
+ Springing the ambush too early or with
a poor signal.
* Lack of sufficient firepower being
placed in the killing zone,
+ Failure to pursue by fire when the
enemy moves into the jungle.
+ Failure to quickly exploit and search the
immediate area for casualties.
+ Failure to establish a preplanned search
of the area.
+ Failure to boobytrap or block the op-
posite side of the trail.
+ Failure to block escape routes.
+ Failure of ambush leaders to use sup-
porting arms.

c. The SID Ambush

The seismic intrusion device (SID) is

adaptable in a remote ambush position for use
with either the Claymore directional mine or the
3.5-inch rocket. (See fig. 2-l.) When used in this
manner, the ambush site is chosen to take

83
maximum effect of the shock of these weapons.
A seismometer is positioned on the approaches
to the ambush site and another is placed in the
killing zone. Through careful positioning, this
second device will not be destroyed when the
mine or rocket explodes. The killing zone itself
can be covered by a Claymore mine or an
electrically detonated 3.5-inch rocket; the card-
board shipping tube makes an expedient rocket
launcher. Electrical ignition of the rocket is pos-
sible by separating the two wires covered with
white or clear colored plastic in the rocket
nozzle, then stripping off about 2 inches of insula-
tion and splicing them to the firing wire. A ten-
cap blasting machine or a battery of appropriate
voltage can provide the necessary charge.

84
 Fi,gtre 2-1

The ambush party is alerted when the

enemy passes either point A or B and enters the
killing zone. The ambush is triggered manually
when the enemy passes point C. Once the ambush
has been triggered, the ambush party can discon-
nect the seismometers and withdraw, recovering
the seismometers at a later time.

d. Ambush in or Around a Village

When an ambush is planned in the vicinity

of a village, units should consider making a
sweep prior to establishing the ambush. This will

85
enable the unit leader to reconnoiter the area and
at the same time leave the village with the im-
pression that the searchers are satisfied that
all of the enemy have withdrawn.
Recently, one rifle company was moving
through a ricefield area to a preselected ambush
site when it was sighted by local villagers. The
company immediately countermarched and swept
the.village. Villagers were questioned and houses
searched before the unit moved on, giving the
impression that it was apparently satisfied that
there were no VC in the area. After moving ap-
proximately 500 meters beyond the village the
unit stopped, deployed and waited. During the
sweep the commander had selected an ambush
site adjacent to the village. At 1830 he moved
an ambush patrol into the site and had them dig
positions. At 2000, two VC walked down the trail
from the village. The result was one confirmed
VC KIA and one probable.
This is a good example of the use of
ingenuity and imagination on the part of the com-
pany commander. Stealth was employed in moving
back to the ambush site and care was taken so no
weapons were laid on azimuths that could en-
danger the friendly villagers.

e. Watch the Rear

Frequently the Viet Cong follow a patrol,

waiting for the unit to make a mistake or for a

86
chance to ambush from the rear. There are three
recommended ways to counter this VC threat:
+ Drop a fire team or squad ambush on a
prearranged signal.
+ Circle back on the patrol route forcing
the VC to worry about his rear.
+ Alter direction of movement every few
hundred meters to confuse the enemy as to
location and direction of movement of the patrol.

f. The Point and Ambushes

The North Vietnamese Army’s tactic of

ambushing the point unit of a rifle company is
extremely effective, and unless immediate action
is taken by the friendly unit, heavy casualties
may result. If the enemy chooses to stand and
fight after springing an ambush, supporting arms

87
will usually be used by the Marines. If the enemy
retrears, this is normally the end of the en-
counter because of the extreme difficulty in con-
ducting a pursuit in dense jungle. In any event,
the point squad leader must be able to relay to
the company commander, via the platoon leader,
an accurate estimate of the situation. Fire
superiority must be gained as soon as possible
by the point element. Though this may appear
difficult, small arms fire, LAW’s, M- 79’s, and
handgrenades fired in the direction of the enemy
will usually do the job. By the time fire superiority
is gained, the platoon leader should be up front
communicating with the company commander
concerning his estimate of the situation. As mos~
ambushes of this nature take place at extremely
close ranges, the leading elements will have to
withdraw a considerable distance if supporting
arms are used.
Before moving into an area where ambush
is likely, it is a good idea to consider the follow-
ing:
+ Brief the point in detail of what actions
are to be taken upon ambush. Include details on
when you expect to commence the attack or with-
drawal in countering the ambush.
-+- Inform supporting arms of your route
and plan concentrations on likely trouble spots.
+ Always know the location of the point
so no time is lost in adjusting supporting arms.
+ H“ave a workable casualty evacuation
system.

88
+ Consider having the point reconnoiter
danger areas by fire. This usually causes NVA
units to flee or spring the ambush prematurely.

g. Vehicle Ambushes by the Viet Cong

In some areas the manner in which the

Viet Cong have conducted ambushes against small
vehicles has been fairly well standardized. The
first thing that the Viet Cong do is shoot at the
passenger side of the vehicle to hit the “shotgun.”
The driver is too busy with the vehicle to offer
much resistance, thus giving the Viet Cong time
to fire at him next. It has been found that the
windshield on the passenger side of the vehicle
has generally been in a raised position.
It is felt that the windshield on these ve-
hicles had been down, and the driver wearing
goggles, it would have minimized the chance of
ambush. Even if one is prepared to fire and is
alert in the vehicle, it is extremely difficult to
fire to the front with the windshield up. It is
awkward, and there is a natural tendency to be a
little hesitant about firing to the front directly
through the windshield. With the windshield down,
the ability to return fire to the front is not
hampered.

h. Be Flexible
Patrol reports from Vietnam have drawn
attention to a technique used by the Viet Cong to
determine the size and composition of patrols.

89
Local villagers are used to count the number of
men in a patrol both on departing and entering
friendly positions; the direction of the patrol’s
movement is also reported. When the patrol size
is reduced during the course of a patrol, the VC
deduce that an ambush party has been positioned
somewhere along their route.
A technique has been devised to make it
more difficult for the enemy to notice if patrol
elements have been dropped off at some inter-
mediate position. First, the ambush party is
dispersed throughout the larger patrol; the ambush
element keeps its radio antenna detached and is
equipped and armed similar to other patrol mem-
bers. The party detaches itself covertly from the
patrol when in the desired ambush site. Since
many ambushes are positioned after sundown, the
darkness and surrounding foliage hide their
maneuver from enemy observation. The next day
another patrol can drop off a different element
and pick up the other ambush party. Except for
the first time, the patrol size remains constant.
The old ambush party may move to an OP, and
the pickup patrol can force the enemy into open
ground or toward the OP site where they can be
brought under fire.

#####

90
5. MONSOON OPERATIONS

The effects of monsoon weather on combat

operations are so significant that they dominate
all aspects of both planning and operations. The
successful accomplishment of a mission will
depend upon the preparation of detailed primary
and alternate plans which are designed to ac-
complish missions under the most unfavorable
weather conditions and exploit short periods of
advantageous weather.
Normally, the primary plan will be based on
courses of action which can accomplish the mis-
sion in any weather. This should preclude reliance
on air support in any form. With the limitation
imposed by loss of a e r i a 1 lift, resupply,
MEDEVAC, reconnaissance, and observation, the

91
range and scope of the primary plan are reduced.
The staying power of a deployed unit becomes
an important consideration. The duration of an
operation is calculated on the unit’s ability to
sustain itself without resupply, to care for and
move casualties without evacuation, and to ac-
complish its mission without reinforcement. Thus,
plans for monsoon operations must allow for in-
creased combat loads and provide for the combat
power necessary to compensate for loss of
flexibility.
Time-space factors vary widely. For example,
a movement to the objective area may be made
in 15 minutes by helicopter in good weather,
5 hours by foot in marginal weather, and 24 hours
by foot in bad weather, which requires a circui-
tous route to avoid impossible terrain and ex-
tends the movement into darkness.
A more ambitious alternate plan must be pre-
pared which will capitalize on the use of air
support when weather conditions permit. De-
ploying units must be prepared to exploit the
advantage of brief periods of good weather during
any phase of the operation. In dense canopy or
other unfavorable terrain, ‘the location and availa-
bility of helicopter landing zones become a
vital concern. Deployed units may use possible
landing zones for tactical objectives, maintaining
their readiness to increase the range and scope
of their operations by keeping “one foot in an
LZ” a[ all timCS.

92
 In short, remember that planners of opera-
tions down to the small patrol level must be
constantly aware of the sudden and drastic
changes in streams, rivers, watersheds, lakes,
ditches, ricefields, and lowlands caused by the
heavy rainfall of the Southeast Asia monsoons.
The primary plan for combat operations during
the monsoon season should provide for the ac-
complishment of the mission under the limita-
tions of the most adverse weather. An alternate
plan should be available to provide for the ex-
tension of operations during any phase whenever
favorable weather permits.

#####

6. LAND NAVIGATION AND MOVEMENT

a. Maps in Vietnam

Units in Vietnam generally have excellent

1:50,000 maps of operational areas; however, it
must be remembered that at this scale little
detail can be given and only major terrair:
features are shown. Additionally, it is not un-
common to find smaller villages and areaa
using local names not agreeing with your map,
Check with your interpreter or ARVN troops to
avoid confusion. Map tips to remember include:
+ The G-M angle for Vietnam is not large
enough to be considered when planning a route.

93
+ In populated areas, pagodas, churches,
schools and bridges make good reference points
for checking location.
+ The key to your map is contained in
the marginal information. Study it thoroughly.
-+ Accuracy is essential when working
with the 1:50,000-scale map. Remember a 1.27-
inch square covers 1 square mile. Be correct.
Map errors cost lives.

b. Be a Map Expert

The majority of operations in Vietnam

are conducted by small units. Many of these op-
erations involve long hours of patrolling to col-
lect pieces of information which build a picture
of local guerrilla activities. It is essential that
the patrol leader have the ability to locate ac-
curately his position at any time, day or night.

94
Inaccurate location means inaccurate reporting,
possible disorientation of the unit, probability
of inadequate fire support, and compromise of
the unit’s mission.
Map reading and proficiency with the
compass are the bases for accurate location.
Continual use of the compass on patrols should
be standard practice. Frequent cuts (azimuths)
on known terrain features check the patrol’s
dead reckoning. Elapsed time and rate of move-
ment, combined with map inspection, can pro-
vide the patrol leader with a known position at
all times. Small units should make a practice of
locating themselves at least each half hour and
always when the unit halts. The assignment of
two or more two-man teams for this task will
allow a cross-check. Careful preplanned illumina-
tion missions can assist in patrol location. Day-
light reconnaissance of the patrol route, map
inspection, and close liaison with other patrol
leaders and the unit S-2 are sound practices for
patrol preparation.

c. Land Navigation

In the generally flat terrain of the Con

Thien area south of the DMZ, the hedgerows and
lack of reference points make it extremely dif-
ficult to navigate and determine location. Two

95
suggestions that may be employed in such areas
COlessen these difficulties are:
+ When possible conduct a helicopter
reconnaissance prior to entry into an area. This
should include as many small unit leaders as
feasible.
+ Artillery and m o r t a r illuminating
rounds fired during daylight hours can be used
to locate one’s position on the ground. This is
done by plotting a back azimuth from the point
of detonation. The point at which back azimuths,
from two widely separated rounds, intersect
should be one’s approximate location (illuminat-
ing rounds should be fired at given coordinates).

d. Cross-Country Movement in Rough Terrain

“The terrain was the greatest single limit-

ing factor in this operation. Ninety percent of
the area consisted of dense secondary under-
growth with a 60 to 100-foot canopy, the rest was
elephant grass up to 15-feet high. Trails had to
be hacked out, and machetes were a must. ” That
is a brief description of one Marine battalion’s
operating area, which also included precipitous
slopes and areas with drastic changes in eleva-
tion. Formations for extended periods were
restricted to columns abreast. In this way, if one
point element was taken under fire, there was
another platoon abreast of it to assist.

96
 In terrain and vegetation such as was en-
countered above, it is of paramount importance
to know the exact location of other units to avoid
firing on friendly troops. Constant radio contact
and a direction of’ march along a fixed azimuth
reduces the probability of contact developing
between friendly units. The point element should
always be well forward of the main body by about

97
 50 meters. The point will normally be the first
unit to be engaged and usually by ambush. If the
point is well forward, the enemy may be forced
to engage prematurely.

e. Jungle Navigation

Many area maps are prepared primarily

from photos. Thick jungle canopy may hide many
deep and narrow ravines thus preventing their
appearance on maps. These hidden features can
easily cause lengthy delays and detours. When
planning for cross-country movement through
the jungle, anticipate such delays and adjust your
time frame accordingly.

f. Night Movement

Movement at night and during periods of

reduced visibility in areas covered by jungle
canopy is extremely difficult. Direction is easily
lost, physical exertion is increased, and maxi-
mum small unit leadership is required to en-
force noise and light discipline. The following
items will aid in successful night movement:
-+ Personnel physically unable to com-
plete a night march should be evacuated or left
behind.
+ Night marches should be short and
over previously scouted trails. Use clearly de-
fined objectives and thoroughly brief all hands

98
on routes to be taken, azimuths, alternate routes,
and rendezvous areas.
+ Use guides at trail junctions to help
following units stay on course.
+ Reflective tape, if available, or plain
white adhesive tape worn on the rear of the helmet
should be used to help maintain contact. Lumi-
nous vegetable decay found on the jungle floor
makes a satisfactory substitute if tape is not
available.
+ Use the noise created by rain, wind,
or artillery to mask sounds of movement.
+ The period between moonrise and moon-
set on bright clear nights will often allow con-
ventional control methods.

g. March Discipline

Personnel recently arrived in a combat

environment have a tendency to relax their
march discipline when crossing streams and
during daylight periods when the column halts.
Strict control is necessary when a column crosses
a stream to limit the number of personnel re-
filling their canteens at any time. When column
control is lost, units become separated and
vulnerable to ambush. Captured enemy person-
nel have commented on the relatively slow reaction
by U.S. troops when fired on during march stops.
Security elements had not moved far enoughfrom

99
the main body and searched adequately to ensure
security.
Do not let down your guard at any time.

h. Deceptive Terrain

What often appears to be flat hard ground

in Vietnam often turns out to be just a hard
crust covering soft sand beneath. Vehicles of
all types will break through the crust and on
occasion will become mired. This situation exists
usually in areas where the water table is high,
Some indications of the existence of this condi-
tion are pools of water with no apparent source,
areas where patches of ground have sunk a foot
or two, and areas where streams appear to
begin.
Other points to remember are dlat soft
marshy ground often exists at the entrance to
draws tha~ lead toward high ground, and that
streams that have hard gravel beds might have
soft, spongy sand below.

i. Cutting Trails Through Bamboo

In jungle terrain, bamboo tree lines can

impose a difficult barrier to the movement of
foot troops. Experience has shown that the only
way to overcome such obstacles is to cut the
bamboo about 1 inch below or above the joint

100
of the stem. A cut in any other location simply
shatters the stem and delays clearing.

j. Silent Movement

It is possible for patrols and small units

to move through jungle and thickly vegetated

101
areas with comparative silence. Combat reports
emphasize the following points:
+ Move carefully and steadily--part the
undergrowth whenever possible rather than crush
it.
+ Avoid stepping on rotten wood, dry
leaves and sticks.
+ Use silent hand-and-arm signals.
+ Cut vegetation as a final resort. If
you decide to cut:
● Use a sharp machete or knife.
● Use a sawing motion rather than a
slash. It is just as fast and less tiring and noisy.

k. Tactical Movement Tips

Some measures that have proven of value

in minimizing the effect of enemy small arms
fire during tactical movement are listed below:
-+ Diversify patrol routes and formations;
avoid setting a pattern of movement.
+ Use covered routes of approach “when
possible.
+ When feasible, reconnoiter probable
sniper positions by fire.
+- Establish a covering base of fire before
crossing an open area, then “leapfrog” elements
across.
+ Immediately return enemy fire. Do not
allow the element to be pinned down.

102
+ Use a sniper team for counterharassing
fire and to hit long range targets of opportunity.
+ Have supporting arms observers travel
in close proximity to the unit commander.
+ Maintain established intervals at all
times.
* Be particularly cautious at first light.
+ Maintain assigned sectors of observa-
tion and fire.
+ When in full combat gear, ensure that
the armored vest is zipped or buttoned to the
neck.

#####

103
7. SNIPERS

a. Use Your Snipers

Infantry regiments and reconnaissance bat-

talions now have a specially trained and equipped
sniper unit capable of killlng enemy personnel
with single shots from concealed positions: In
the regiments there are three squads of five
two-man teams. The reconnaissance battalions
have a similar organization with four squads of
three two-man teams. Each platoon, in addition
to the platoon leader and platoon sergeant, has
a rifle team ccluipment armorer capable of
second echelon maintenance. The basic unit is
a team consisting of two men trained as both
snipers and observers. Each team is equipped
with one high-powered sniper rifle (Remington
40x7.62 nlnl) with telescopic sight (Redfield 3x9)
and a pair of wide-angled binoculars.
Team members are skilled in fieldcraft
and are all expert riflemen with superior marks-
manship qualities. Training qualifies them for
single-shot kills at 800 meters. Such feats have
adverse psychological effects on the enemy out
of proportion to the means used to attain them.
Contact the operations officer of the or-
ganization having control of the sniper platoon
for the method of employment best suited to
your situation.

104
 b. ——.
Employment —...of...-.-——r-—
Snipers

Daily employment of snipers varies with

the unit to which attached. Sniper teams are
normally attached to the battalions for a period
of approximately 2 w-eeks and then rotated back
to regiment to check weapon’s zero, to reze:ro
and to make any repairs or conduct maintenance
on the weapons and scopes which cannot be ac-
complished at battalion level. During the period
of attachment, snipers are under operational
control of the unit to which they are attached.
Employment will vary depending upon the mis-
sion of the ui~lt. Appropriate methods of em-
ployment for scout sniper teama are:
4“ As part ef a blocking force.
+ Outpost security (daylight hours).
+ As part of daylight patrols.
+ As part of daylight ambushes.
+ Long range covering fire for advancing
units.
Employment of sniper teams for patrols,
outpost security and as members of Mocking
forces constitute the most prevalent types of
employment in RVN.
The main capabilities of the sniper teams
are:
-+ The ability to provide accurate long
range precision fire upon enemy snipers, troops

105
in the open, automatic weapon emplacements
and mortar positions.
+ In suitable terrain, the denial to the
enemy of freedom of movement.
The principal limitations of sniper teams
arc:
+ The effectiveness of the sniper is
greatly reduced in heavy jungle growth, high
grass or during heavy rain.
-z- Snipers cannot react swiftly with a
high volume of fire. This dictates that the sniper
not be utilized in positions that require automatic
weapons such as on a point or flank position in a
unit.
-+ Snipers must work in teams in order
to observe the results of their shots and to be
able to quickly adjust subsequent rounds. One
man observes and calls adjustments of subsequent
rounds.

c. Extend Night Sniper Ranges

The sniper may find his night ranges

limited to 300 meters when using the infrared
weapon sight with the self-contained light source.
The same weapon and telescope assembly, when
used in coordination with the Xenon tank-mounted
searchlight, can extend the range to 800 meters.
A technique which has been used effectively is
to position the sniper in the loader’s seat in the

106
tank. The turret is traversed with the infrared
light turned on, allowing the sniper to keep his
weapon aligned with the light.
It takes just a short time to develop the
necessary coordination between tank commander
and sniper to illuminate possible targets, With
a properly zeroed rifle first-round hits are pos-
sible at maximum ranges.

d. Immediate Action to Counter Enemy

Snipers

When taken under fire by a sniper, person-

nel often fall to the ground and seek cover. It
cannot be overemphasized that the requirement
to bring fire to bear on the suspected sniper
location is as important as individual protection.
Immediate action drills and directing immediate,
rapid and accurate fire into the general location
of a sniper should be emphasized in training.
This includes grenade, 3.5-inch rocket, M79 and
60mm mortar fire.

e. Countering VC Sniper Tactics

One of the more common types of contact

with the VC is a sniping incident. The sniping
varies from a single sniper who fires a quick
round or two and then disappears, to a squad of
VC firing heavily for several minutes. Incidents
usually take place at ranges of 200 to 300 meters
or more. Snipers are well concealed and Marines
usually cannot see a target to engage. Large
107
search and destroy operations have Httlesuccess
In killing or capturing this type of VC guerrilla,
but well-planned and executed small unit patrols
carried out as indicated below have proven ef-
fWCiVe j,n coping with snipers:
-?J- An operational area is saturated with
squa.d.sized daylight combat patrols to become
f~mi]lar with the terrain and to make contact
with the enemy. Patrol leaders are thoroughly
debriefed and current information is kept on when
and. where patrols received fire. As soon as
several contacts have been made in a specific
area, one or more squad-sized patrols are sent
out during the hours of clarkness. They are posi-
tioned in fire team-sized 0P’s or Mocking posi-
tions where they will be able to cover those
positions from where sniper fire was previously
received.
-tw- After daylight, a combat patrol is sent
out to patrol through the same area to engage
the enemy. The fire team OP’S then engage any
VC observed moving into their normal sniping
positions to snipe at the combat patrol. If the
snipers are not first seen from the OP’S, the
01”s maintain their blocking positions while the
patrol physically pursues the snipers attempting
to maneuver them toward one of the OP’S or
blocking positions until they can be engaged.
“+- Over a 2-week period, the above tactics
produced several significant contacts resulting
in confirmed VC kills and capture of VC weapons,

108
including one with a high-power scope. To achieve
maximum effectiveness, patrol members must
be thoroughly familiar with the terrain and
all details of the patrol plan must be known and
understood by the OP/blocking positions and the
combat patrol. Patience, alertness, and firt=
discipline on the part of each Marine are req-
uisites.

#####

8. ARTILLERY
a. Artillery Support
The following information has been ext-
racted from a U.S. Army report on the employ-
ment of field artillery:
The mission assigned to artillery units, the
ammunition used, and the basic techniques of
employment are no different in Vietnam than
elsewhere in the world. Here, as in Korea,
artillery accounts for a large percentage of the
enemy casualties. Instances are known in which
the enemy actually has called off attacks on
friendly installations because of his fear of
artillery. There arc, however, refinements in
artillery techniques required by the special
circumstances of the fight against this enemy.
For example, special attention must be given
always to the reduction of casualties among
noncombatants who are often intermingled with
the enemy troops. Salient lessons learned en-
compass many local variations in normal artil-
lery employment procedures which increase the
effectiveness of fire support missions.

(1) Positioning of Artillery Units

+ Since the effectiveness of artillery

fire decreases as the number of firing elements
is reduced, artillery normally should not be
employed in less than battery-sized units. Three
suitable battery position layouts which may be
used arc the “triang’dar,” “hexagonal,” and
“star” formations. The advantage of such disposi-
tions is that a good dispersion pattern is main-
tained regardless of the direction of fire. The
large number of areas requiring artillery sup-
port may reduce the number of units which can
be massed on a single target; however, each fire
unit should have another fire unit within support-
ing range for mutual defense against ground

110
attack. Artillery must be disposed to provide
support for all deploying units at all times. A
direct support artillery battalion’s capability to
support multiple company/platoon-sized opera.
tions can be enhanced considerably through the
formation of a fourth, four-gun battery. Employ-
ing three four-gun batteries and a six-gun battery,
the battalion can provide adequate firepower to
support several small operations while still re-
taining the capability to mass the fires of two or
more batteries.
-+ Be prepared for the unexpected;
never assume artillery will not be needed. The
threat of an enemy attack from any direction is
constant. Artillery units should always be pre-
pared to fire in any direction from the firing
position.
+ The requirement for all-round fire
support necessitates a change in the normal
plotting chart procedures used in the FDC. Bat-
tery positions frequently are plotted at the center
of the chart, and the size of the chart is increased
on one or all four sides to permit maximum
range measurements for the weapon being em-
ployed. The 1: 50,000-scale firing chart normally
is used for medium and heavy artillery units.
A larger scale would be too large for a 6400 mil
firing capability.
+ Azimuth stakes should be positioned
around the gunpit revetment every 800 roils to
facilitate rapid change of direction and reduce the

111
possibility of firing in the wrong direction (3200
roils out). For the same reason, fire commands
include the desired azimuth of fire as their second
element.
+ Artillery units should also be pre-
pared for rapid movement to new areas by boats,
helicopters, transport airplanes, Ml 13’s or con-
ventional vehicles. Helicopter air movement has
the advantage of increasing the number of ac-
cessible firing positions while not requiring
secure ground routes.
+ The enemy considers artillery posi-
tions prime targets for mortar and ground attack.
Consistent with providing prompt fire support,
defensive positions with overhead protection
should be prepared and improved as time permits.
The FDC and ammunition should be revetted first
and the position continuously improved while
occupied. Defensive positions should be destroyed
upon departure, since the enemy occupy abandoned
positions and attempt to prevent our return. In
most cases, artillery security requires rein-
forcement of artillery position area defense
with infantry.

(2) Observation and Adjustment of Fire

+ Ground observation of artillery fire

is hampered by dense vegetation. To overcome
this limitation, units should take advantage of air
observers for adjustment of artillery fire. The
employment of WP, smoke, or a high airburst

112
on the first round often will assist the observer
ii) bringing subsequent rounds rapidly on target.
+ Ground and aerial observers often
can be employed effectively as a team. The ground
observer marks his position and gives directions
to the aerial observer, who subsequently adjusts
the fire.
+ A system has been developed for
rapid location of target areas using an alpha-
betical designation for each 1000-meter map
grid square within a unit’s sector of responsi-
bility. The system has been used to good ad-
vantage by some units.

(3) Coordination and Communication

-+ There is a great volume of air

traffic throughout Vietnam. Consequently, the
ability for close, rapid coordination must be
maintained with operational flight elements at
all times. In addition, each unit should have an
individual at the firing position watching” for
friendly aircraft along the gun-target line. Artil-
lery can be fired safely over air columns if the
fires are coordinated closely with the flight
leaders. One effective method of coordination is
to place an artillery forward observer with each
FAC to coordinate artillery firing during air-
strikes. This technique ensures that all elements
are informed of firing in progress and provides
immediate response for lifting or shifting of
fires.

113
+ Radio has been the primary means
of communication for the artillery. Experience
has indicated that most artillery units are em-
ployed beyond the normal rated range of their
FM radios. As a result, it is necessary frequently
to rely on continuous employment of FM airborne
radio relays and on use of AM radio communica-
tions in order to control artillery fires.
+- During field operations, aircraft
control and coordination may be obtained by
using an artillery advisory broadcast on a pre-
determined channel. The advisory consists of
essential information such as the artillery posi-
tion, direction of fire and impact area.

(4) Special Considerations

+ In addition to delivering destructive

fires on the enemy, artillery can be utilized to
iHuminate critical areas at night, to orient
friendly combat forces in dense undergrowth
areas, to flush the enemy from hidden locations,
to deny him escape routes, to deceive him as to
avenues of attack, to interdict suspected enemy
positions and for numerous other missions,
Harassing and interdiction (H&I) fires based on
an understanding of the current intelligence situa-
tion can be very effective in demoralizing the
enemy both day and night.
+ The selection of fuze action cannot
be dictated by terrain alone, as might be ex-
pected; rather, the fuze action that actually gives

114
the best results against each specific target
must be determined and selected. For example,
it has long been thought that the employment of
the VT fuze in the dense jungle area would be
ineffective. The enemy positions numerous
snipers high in the trees of the jungle canopy.
VT fuze action has been used to attack success-
fully this type of target.
+ Several methods have been de-
veloped for using artillery as navigational aids
to infantry units in dense jungle when the sky is
overcast or cannot be seen through the jungle
canopy. Two such methods are:
● To help a lost patrol generally
locate itself on a map, an artillery round is fired
at a location such as a gridline intersection near
the patrol. Several rounds may have to be fired
and the patrol may have to shift rounds based on
sound. When a round is, close enough to the patrol
for a definite sensing, the patrol can then de-
termine its general location on a map relative to
the coordinates fired by the artillery.
● To help a unit maintain its di-
rection of attack in heavy jungle, artillery may
be fired several hundred meters in front of the
unit, shifting to new targets in the direction of
march. The unit then “follows” the artillery to
the objective. This system is preplanned and
based on the infantry scheme of maneuver. The

115
concentrations are preplanned so that the artil-
lery forward observer with the infantry unit can
call for particular concentrations.

b. Revised Artillery
.-. —— Fire Request
. ..-. ——

The elements of the initial fire request

for supporting artiHery/mortar fires have been
revised, as have some of the terms used by the
forward observer. FM 6-40 has been revised to
incorporate these changes. The revisions are as
follows:

Terms

Direction Azimuth
Final protective fire Barrage
(FPF)
Check firing Cease firing

116
 Terms

Grid Coordinates
Target Concentration
Converge Converge sheaf
Cancel check firing Fire (cease fire)
Cancel at my command Fire when ready
Shot On the way
Repeat Repeat fire for effect
Platoon (battery) Salvo right (left)
right (left)
Adjust fire Will adjust

“Initial Fire Request

Observer identifica~ion Observer identification

Warning order Warning order
Location of target Location of target
Description of target Nature of target
Method of engagement Classification of fire
Method of fire and Type of adjustment
control Type of projectile
Fuze action
Control

Radiotelephone procedures h a v e been

changed to reduce the use of the word “over” and
to discontinue the use of the word “wait” as a
terminating word. Call signs will continue to be
eliminated after identities have been established
and when no confusion will result. A sample fire

117
mission illustrates the use of some of these new
terms:
Observer: Big Deal 15, this is Big Deal 25, Fire
Mission, over.
FDC : (Acknowledges initial call. )
Observer: Grid 123456, direction 2500, machine-
guns firing, time, adjust fire, over.
FDC : (All repeatbacks are terminated with
OUT. ) After order is issued, FDC
transmits; Battalion, Bravo, 3 rounds,
target BK 1035, over.
Observer: (Repeats FDC Transmission, termi-
nates with OUT. )
FDC : Shot, over.
Observer: Shot, out.

c. Artillery Support
Artillery employment in Vietnam demands
rapid response, adaptability, and preparation for
the unexpected. One Marine field artillery battery
in RVN was required to demonstrate all of these
qualities in a recent multinational operation.
The support which this battery provided was
comparable to the support normally expected
from an artillery battalion. The battery had to
deploy in three widely separated platoon ~sitions,
each with its own fire direction center and com-
munications system. Each howitzer was re-
quired to maintain a firing capability of 360
118
degrees. The battery fire direction center coordi-
nated all the reinforcing fires of both its own
platoons and a nearby Vietnamese Special Forces
artillery platoon. The initial movement and sub-
sequent resupply was accomplished on short
notice, and required the breakdown of the howit-
zers and ecluipment into helicopter transportable
packages.

This form of versatility is essential if

artillery units are to do their full share.

.1

Forward observers should be aware that

the artillery team must be kept constantly in.
formed of the tactical situation.
To lessen reaction time, the artillery for-
ward observer should notify the fire direction
119
center that contact is imminent or occurring.
This starts the wheels rolling for more timely
delivery of fires. The liaison officer, with this
warning order, can initiate a SAV. A- PLANE which
is a safety measure designed to prevent friendly
aircraft from flying into the airspace of the ar-
tillery projectiles. Without verification from
higher !leadquartcrs of receipt of the SAV-A-
PLANE. by friendly air, a fire mission cannot
be.” cleared unless the ground unit is heavily en-
gaged. Many critical minutes have been saved
in Vietnam by immediate FSCC clearance of a fire
mission due to the early submission of SAV-A-
PLANE. If the forward observer notifies the fire
direction center of a possible fire m@sion, a rough
azimuth of fire can be established and relayed to
the firing battery which can then shift guns to
support the infantry with a minimum of delay.

e. H&I Fires Are Effective

The daily thunder of artillery engaged in

harassing and interdiction missions is not without
its merits. Recent reports of extended patrol
operations commented that althougli no VC had
been engaged in their operating areas during
the patrolling, it was evident that they had re-
cently displaced. Also noted was the effect that
H&I fires had on the enemy; campsites had re-
ceived hits and near misses, supply caches were
destroyccl, trail systems and river crossing sites
were struck, forcing the VC to dislocate. Although

120
enemy casualties from H&I fires are seldom clis-
covered by friendly patrols, dried blood and dis-
carded dressings have been located, andvillagers
occasionally have reported VC carrying parties
moving their wounded to more secure locations.
Select target areas for H&I fires based on
the best intelligence of known and suspected enemy
activities.

f. Artillery Parapets
Artillery units have found that artillery
parapets should have at least a 60-degree slope.
This slope enables the parapet to withstand the
shock of heavy, continuous firing and does not
erode as rapidly during heavy rains. One method
that has worked satisfactorily is to build a step-
like arrangement of earthfilled ammo boxes which
are in turn covered with a layer of sandbags. This

121
provides a semipermanent structure which is
much easier to maintain.

g. Artillery Tips
+ Bring supporting arms to bear as
quickly as possible.
+ Positive contact with the enemy must
be followed by fast’ and aggressive action.
+ Plans to shift radio frequencies if cir-
cuits become inoperable must be made in advance.
+ Supply needs of an engaged unit must be
anticipated by supporting supply activities to
preclude unacceptable delays.
+ A subordinate who enjoys the confi-
dence of his seniors will perform better when he
knows about it.
+ The enemy knows and uses English
phrases; be wary, make positive identifications.
+ A unit should not operate in enemy
territory without plotting oncall fires along its
route or in defense of stationary positions. This
procedure enables the artillery to make a more
rapid response to requests for fire support.
+ Whenever a unit makes contact with
the enemy, one of its first reactions should be to
call for supporting artillery fire. The enemy
under artillery fire tends to be less aggressive
and is preoccupied with seeking cover rather
than fighting.

122
+ In areas where map resection is dif-
ficult, artillery can and should be used to get a
good location; particularly for night positions.
+ Defensive fires, to be effective, must be
plotted accurately and the unit the fires are to
protect must be sure of its location. If possible,
fire in at least one concentration.
+ All leaders must be capable of re-
questing and adjusting artillery and mortar fires.

h. SAV-A-PLANE
On all artillery fire missions, it is the re-
sponsibility of the battalion or regimental FSCC
to initiate the SAV-A- PLANE system. This is
accomplished by sending the following five ele-
ments to the Division FSCC:
+ Location of target
+ Location of unit firing
123
+ Time firing commenced
+- Time firing ceased
+ Maximum ordinate of the trajectory

#t’l ###

9. TRACKED VEHICLES

a. Indirect Tank Fire

The use of tanks in both a direct and in-
direct fire support role in Vietnam is not un-
common. Tanks which are used in an indirect
role may be able to position themselves to take
advantage of the fire direction capabilities of an
artillery battery. Here is a technique used with
success. First, tank commanders and unit leaders
should be familiar with FM 17-12 (Tank Gun-
nery). Inclined ramps arc constructed for each
tank; the artillery aiming circle is used to lay
each tank. Close check must be maintained be-
tween the tank azimuth indicator and a compass
to ensure that the tank guns and, the artillery
tubes are laid on the same azimuth. Compensa-
tion for the difference in target and tank altitude
is made by computing the angle of site. Cant of
the tank may be a problem since the vehicle is
usually ramped in one direction. Large errors
can be introduced when the gun is traversed per-
pendicular to the established direction of fire.
A safety margin should be added when firing from
this position in support of troop units.

124
 Tank gunners should be schooledon the im-
portance of accurate settings for their indirect
fire control systems,

b. Long Range Tank Fires

The Viet Cong do not normally move in
large groups during daylight hours. Thus, when
discovered, they are often able to disperse be-
fore artillery fire can be adjusted. On occasion,
the M-48A1 tank’s long range direct fire capability
has been used against the VC with excellent re-
sults. Tanks have been able to achieve first- or
second-round hits at ranges of 4000 meters.
Commanders should be alert to this capability.
Position tanks so they can be employed as
long range direct fire weapons when they are
available.

125
 c. Tank Operations

When tanks are operating in areas where

small streams and ricefields are found, each
tank should carry a dozen or more filled sand-
bags for use as emergency dunnage material.
When a tank bogs down while attempting to
climb out of a soft streambed or ricefield, the
filled sandbags can be used in constructing a
ramp.

d. Verification of Range Card Firing Data

During the monsoon season when tanks are

positioned in static firing positions, indirect
firing is conducted by using range card firing
data. However, a point to remember is that even
though the tank is not moved from its position,
the range card firing data can change from day
to day. The weight of the vehicle coupled with the
repeated recoil action of the main gun when fired
will cause the tank to shift position in the soft
ground. When this occurs, the elevation and
azimuth values obtained from the reference point
for various targets become erroneous. Remember
that the range card firing data must be verified
at least once each day during daylight hours by
laying the gun on the reference point to check the
established elevation and azimuth values. If an
error in either value is noted, a new range card
must be prepared.

126
 e. Tank Xenon Searchlights and Infantry Snip-
erscopes
Utilization of the tank xenon searchlight
has been recommended, but, so far, not utilized
to its fullest extent. Many positions maintained
by tank-infantry forces are necessarily static.
During night defensive operations, a sniper team
tied in with the tank’s TI phone can obtain up to
700 to 800 yards of visibility by using the snip-
erscope (without the IR backpack) in conjunction
with the tank’s xenon searchlight.
f. Tank Lights and A4 Skyhawk Aircraft
Searchlight beams from two Marine tanks
marked the ‘spot for two A4’s to successfully drop
their ordnance during a night mission in support
of a surrounded reconnaissance patrol in RVN.
The recon patrol was positioned in a small
defensive perimeter on a mountain near Dong
I-Is. The enemy was so close to the Marine posi-
tion that the airborne air controller had recom-
mended against making flare drops.
At the base of the mountain, more than a
mile away, two Marine tanks with xenon search-
lights cast steady beams on the NVA force posi-
tion.
The two Skyhawk pilots, using the crossed
beams as an aiming point, dropped their rockets
and bombs on the illuminated enemy with excel-
lent results. After several bombing runs the NVA
withdrew with their dead and wounded.

127
 The rccon personnel were lifted safely from
the position and returned to their base camp by
CH-46 helicopters.
Another example of the use of ingenuity,
resourcefulness and getting the maximum from
all supporting agencies.
g. Tank Cables
It is useful to keep one tow cable attached
to a’ front tow hook and one attached to the rear
tow hook when operating on soft ground. This
technique eliminates the need to dig down to a
tow hook in order to attach a cable when the
vehicle becomes mired. The length of the tow
cables normally allows the towing vehicle to
remain on solid ground. It was also found that
with a cable attached to a hook on each end of the
vehicle, two more could be easily carried in the
normal cable storage location.

128
 h. Tank and Ontos Firing Positions

Alternate firing positions for tanks and

Ontos become increasingly important when the
monsoon season restricts trafficability and de.
fensive tactics are employed more frequently,
Enemy recoilless rifle teams will often aim in on
a target during daylight and then fire the mission
at night. Movement of armor after dark to alter-
nate positions effectively counters such enemy
tactics.

i. Sandbags Aboard Tanks

Tanks often operate in areas known or sus-
pected to contain mines and/or boobytraps. At
times, tank crewmen must dismount from the
tank in such areas to repair or service the vehicle
and to prepare firing positions. Visual recon-
naissance of the ground area surrounding the
tank for evidence of mines or booby traps is ex-
tremely difficult from a position on the tank.
Filled sandbags carried on the tank can be
thrown to the ground by crewmen from the pro-
tection of the turret. A “stepping stone” patch
around the tank can be formed. The impact of the
sandbags might also detonate any mines or booby-
traps surrounding the vehicle.

j. Flame Tanks
Flame tanks have been valuable in expos-
ing and destroying VC caves, booby traps and forti-
fications. Cave entrances hidden in undergrowth

129
or hedgerows and camouflaged entrances to spider
traps have, on numerous occasions, beenexposeci
by burning. Additionally, some booby trapped areas
have been neutralized by burning. In one instance,
11 explosions resulted from firing one flame tank
load into a suspected booby trapped area.
k. LVTP
When using the LVTP - 5 for river opera-
tions, little or no protection from sniper fire is
afforded personnel riding on top of the vehicle.
By piling sandbags three high on each side of
the vehicle top, some protection is gained without
impairing the tactical response of the infantry
aboard. Overcrowding should be avoided to pre-
vent excessive casualties and allow adequate
maneuverability.
1. Protection for Ontos Drivers
Although the Ontos has the capability of
withstanding the effects of most antipersonnel
mines, it is extremely vulnerable to antitank
mines. The left front of the vehicle has little
capability to absorb the fragmentation and blast
of an antitank mine. Since the driver sits in the
left front, his only protection is the engine com-
partment immediately to his right. However,
sandbags placed on the deck in the driver’s com-
partment have proven to be an excellent expedi-
ent for absorbing the effects of antitank mines.
Recently, an Ontos was destroyed by an
antitank mine consisting of one 105mm HE round

130
131
10. INTELLIGENCE

a. Combat Intelligence

In an environment such as Vietnam, which

is characterized by small unit actions against
dispersed enemy units, successful combat opera.
tions are usually the result of responding quickly
to combat intelligence. Inherent in this quick
response is a knowledge of the terrain, including
the local villages, and the command and control
flexibility to exploit the knowledge gained. The
following illustrates a highly successful operation
based on quick reaction to intelligence on the
enemy’s movement.
An aerial observer spotted about 40 VC in
an area of known VC activity. Within 1 hour
of the initial report, elements of a nearby in-
fantry company moved to the area and an alert
force was landed by helicopter to assist them.
A VC returnee (Hoi Chanh) was instrumental in
pointing out enemy hiding places. During the next
4 hours, 19 VC were killed by Marine patrols. A
letter was recovered from one of the bodies which
announced a meeting of VC village cadre 3 days
hence in a village about 5 miles from the initial
engagement. A raiding force of an infantry com-
pany was landed at the village at the scheduled
meeting time of noon. They were met by mortar,
small arms, and machinegun fires in the LZ; the
battle raged throughout the village for several
hours. Result: 61 VC dead.

132
 b. Intelligence Notebooks
Inacounterguerrilla situation, theintelli-
gence workbook, as described in FM 30-5, can
be modified to accommodate the short notice de-
mands for a wide variety of information on a
large geographic area. One infantry battalion
which had been operating in the same area for
several months, found that by using a two-note-
book system, intelligence was quickly available
to patrol leaders and unit commanders. One note-
book contained information by subject (attacks,
fortifications, mining, etc. ) and the second note-
book cataloged information by subdivided areas
within the battalion’s assigned zone. The battalion
area and the area immediately adjacent to it
were divided on the basis of natural terrain sub-
divisions ~influenced by reported or experienced
enemy activity.
Such a system means -double bookkeeping
for the S-2 section but its worth far outweighs
the extra effort. The notebook organized by sub-
ject is useful in analyzing enemy patterns or
trends, while the area notebook presents a com-
plete picture of enemy activities within any par-
ticular region. Together these two sources pro-
vide the essentials of combat intelligence in an
accessible and usable form.

c. Retention of POW’s With a Sweeping Unit

While questioning a young, disillusioned VC
during an operation, an ITT unit realized that the

133
individual would be helpful in revealing the loca-
tion of booby traps, mines, and possible VC am-
bush sites. During the balance of the operation,
the VC revealed 30 booby traps and the location
of two, company-to-battalion-size VC ambushes.
Appropriate action was taken in all cases saving
many casualties.
If immediate and on-the-spot interrogation
shows a VC in willing to reveal information, he
s“hould bc retained with a sweep unit, preferably
at the battalion S-2 level, to assist in locating
enemy installations.

d. Enemy Captives
There is a belief among the VC and NVA
that common soldiers will be mistreated and
killed upon capture, while officers will be given
preferred treatment. For this reason, captives

134
often claim to be officers during initial inter-
rogation in order to avoid mistreatment.
While this type of deception becomes ob-
vious during the interrogation, it is often too
late to prevent false information from being dis-
seminated to higher headquarters in the form of
spot reports.
To avoid this, a quick evaluation of the
captive’s general military knowledge combined
with the interrogator’s estimate of his relative
intelligence will usually confirm his identity and
avoid unnecessary confusion.

e. Documents Found on Prisoners

When a prisoner of any importance is cap-
tured, documents are usually found on his person
or with his equipment. These documents are nec-
essary in checking a prisoner’s story and ascer-
taining the truth of what he says. Many times
these documents are inadvertently separated from
the prisoner prior to his interrogation.
The interrogating officer should check with
the capturing unit prior to commencing his in-
terrogation. If documents were not with the cap-
tive, determine if documents were captured. A
COpy Of the translation of the documents should
accompany the prisoner through the evacuation/
interrogation chain.

135
 f. Interrogation of Vietnamese Civilians
It has been noted that, although Vietnamese
civilians often possess information which could
be of use to Marines, such information is some-
times not freely offered. This does not neces-
sarily mean that they will refuse to divulge the
information when properly approached. Viet-
namese civilians will often provide useful infor-
mation when engaged in casual “conversation,
but often will not respond to formal type inter-
rogation. The “soft sell” approach, therefore, is
often best when seeking information from Viet-
namese civilians.
g. Followup Interrogation of Wounded Captives
Several interrogators have noticed that
wounded captives, when questioned on their ad-
mittance to a hospital, present false information
136
or confusing stories. After about a 48-hour period,
the subject becomes more cooperative. This situ-
ation is probably due to the indoctrination the VC
receive in regard to U.S. treatment of captives.
The captive expects harsh treatment or execution.
He has been told to lie. After proper medical
treatment, food, and humane care, the subject’s
attitude often changes. When a wounded captive
presents a confusing story, it is often beneficial
to reinterrogate the subject after a 48-hour delay.

h. Use of ITT and CI Teams

The use of ITT and CI teams with forward

units, especially during search and destroy op-
erations, often provides intelligence that can be
used immediately by the supported unit.

During a recent operation one of the par-

ticipating battalions attached its ITT and CI teams
to the forward companies where interrogation
could be accomplished immediately. Needless
to say, a great deal of valuable tactical intelli-
gence was received.

i. VC Tax Collectors and Couriers

The VC have been known to take advantage

of the average Marine’s tendency to be compas-
sionate and sympathetic toward those he regards
as less fortunate than himself. They have used
crippled children and other deformed individuals
as tax collectors and couriers.

137
 When conducting searches, attention must
be paid to cripples and deformed individuals as
well as to healthy persons.

j. Identification of Enemy Weapons

The correct identification and prompt,

accurate reporting of enemy weapons which have
been captured is valuable combat intelligence.
This knowledge can assist a unit commander in
determining enemy strength and mission; with it
he can take prompt action to maneuver against
the enemy. Learn the design features and the
names of the various items of enemy weapons
and equipment so that you can identify and report
them accurately.

138
 k. Counterintelligence
After 2 years of counterintelligence opera-
tions in South Vietnam, the following general
conclusions are considered valid for guidance in
future operations:
+ Counterintelligence teams must be in-
tegrated into all tactical operations. Counterin-
telligence is an essential ingredient in County
Fair, search and destroy, and sweep operations,
and should not be considered a function separate
and distinct from tactical operations.
+ A more aggressive and imaginative
collection effort can provide sound intelligence
on which to base tactical operations, Several re-
cent operations conducted on the basis of intelli-
gence collect ed through counterintelligence
sources have resulted in the capture of key in-
frastructure personnel. The counterintelligence
team has proven to be the best source of intelli-
gence on the VC infrastructure--the priority in-
telligence target.
-+ The counterinsurgency environment re-
quires an intensification of the normal counter-
intelligence effort. Two additional teams have
been provided III MAF to augment the normal
counterintelligence support capability.
+ The counterintelligence team has proven
to be a flexible and’ adaptable organization. Al-
though normally organized into three-man sub-
teams, the CI team has effectively employed two-
man subteams in Vietnam. Additionally, each of
139
the operating a r e as (TAOR’S) POs es unique
counterintelligence/security problems. The in-
herent flexibility of the CI team organization has
permitted rapid adaptation to the environment
and threat.

To exploit the counterintelligence potential

in the Vietnam environment, a reorientation of
counterintelligence training is b e i n g accom-
plished. The following comments are provided
for guidance in training CI personnel for Vietnam
assignments:

+ Cross-training, or at least close famil-

iarity with order of battle, combat intelligence
procedures, and positive collection operations
is essential.

+ Increased interrogation training is rec-

ommcndcd, both with and without an interpreter.

+ Coordination with other agencies, par-

ticularly the IT teams, is essential. Counter-
intelligence personnel must be familiar with the
activities and responsibilities of the IT teams,
civil affairs units and RD teams.

+ Teams must be familiar with the nature,

purpose, and modus operandi of the Viet Cong
infrastructure. This is the priority counterin-
telligence target.

+ Language training is highly desirable.

140
 1. Ralliers and the MEDCAP
.— —.

MEDCAPS in secure areas provided ex.

cellent points at which ralliers can make contact
with allied forces either in person or though an
intermediary. They are also a good place to have
ralliers stationed to point out the VC. MEDCAP
activities should be exploited by intelligence per-
sonnel and used to disseminate Chieu Hoi infor-
mation.

#####

11. DOGS IN 111MAF

a. Scout/Sentry Dogs
Scout dog teams and sentry dog teams have
been employed in Vietnam by Marines since
April 1966. There is a basic difference in their

141
employment. The scout dog alerts on scent and
sound and usually does not attack; whereas the
sentry dog, which also alerts by scent and sound,
can be released to attack an intruder.
Scout dog teams are employed in opera-
tions such as combat patrols and ambushes,
search and clear operations, and to a limited
degree, as listening posts. During patrolling ac-
tions, the scout dog is usually employed with
the point element to detect enemy personnel,
equipment, and tunnels. En route to an ambush
site, the scout dog assists in providing security,
and, on arrival at the site, provides warning of
approaching personnel. During village searches,
the dog’s keen sense of smell has proven invalu-
able.
Scout dogs should not be used during the
initial search of a village because they will be
distracted by normal village activity. After the
initial search, villagers should be removed to an
area downwind from the village, and the dog
team allowed to conduct a systematic search.
When the dog alerts, the handler interprets the
alert as to direction and distance and pa~ses this
information to the patrol leader. Dogs will tire
after several hours of activity. For this reason,
two dog teams should be used, with one team
working while the other rests. The team should
be rotated about every 2 hours.
Sentry dog teams are ideally suited for
manning sentry posts, since detection of intruders

142
is greatly increased by the dog’s sense of smell
and hearing. Sentry dog team posts should be
isolated, and traffic in and around the post
strictly controlled. This will keep the dog from
continually alerting and becoming unduly fatigued.
When the sentry dog alerts, the handler can
either release the dog or request assistance.

b. Employment
. . of Scout DOES

Scout dogs have proven to be a valuable

asset when properly employed; however, it must
be remembered that they lose their effectiveness
when tired. Hot weather and rugged terrain re-
quire the dogs to have frequent breaks and suffi-
cient water. Additional guides for the employment
of scout dogs are:

+ The dogs’ keen sense of smell and

hearing will often provide early warning of the
enemy when employed with night ambush patrols.
+ Keep the dog and your interpreters
separated as the dog does not distinguish between
friendly and enemy Vietnamese.
+ If either dog or handler becomes a
casualty, evacuate both on the same helicopter.
+ Use scout dogs to augment security:
early warning; detect infiltrators, tunnels, and
devices.
+ Ensure dog smell every member of
patrol.

143
+ Use clog on point whenever possible.
+ Move dog to rear if speed is essential,
if wind is blowing from the rear, or if dog is dis-
interested.
+ Provide security for dog teams.
+ Keep dog behind assault elements in
the attack.
+ Brief patrols on proper utilization of
scout dog teams prior to operations.
C. Scout Dogs
During a recent operation in Vietnam, one
Marine unit used scout dogs with particular suc-
cess. A combat patrol with a scout dog team at-
tached fired at four Viet Cong who fled into a
nearby hamlet. The patrol pursued into the hamlet
and conducted a detailed search. During the
search the scout dogs found two VC hiding in a
tunnel and flushed another from a nearby tree
line. Results were two Viet Cong dead and one
captured.
If employed properly with qualified han-
dlers, scout dogs can be a real asset to many
types of combat operations. Dogs have a keen
sense of smell and excellent hearing. However,
when employing them it is well to remember that
they become tired much faster than a Marine.
d. Scout Dogs Bite
Scout dog handlers continually advise Ma-
rines to stay away from the valuable but highly
144
12. THE C0M131N13L) ACTION COMPANY

The information presented below has been

extracted from an FMF Pac order which presents
not only a clear insight into the organization and
functions of the combined action company, but
also the importance of this Marine innovation to
ultimate victory in Vietnam.

a. Background
By mutual agreement between the Com-
manding General, III Marine Amphibious Force
and the Commanding General of I Corps Tactical
Zone, Marine units have been integrated with
Popular Force units within certain villages and
hamlets to assist in providing security and paci-
fication measures.
The combined action company has been
organized to provide a sufficient force to occupy
and control areas uncovered by the forward move-
ment of the U.S. Marfne and ARVN units and to
assist in revolutionary development efforts within
these areas. It has been found that Popular Force
units native to the area, assisted by U.S. Marines,
form a unit ideally suited to the task of providing
security co hamlets and villages in cleared or
semicleared areas. The CAC is afforded the aid
of U.S. Marine Corps and ARVN supporting arms
in the accomplishment of its mission. The coordi-
nation of activities is the responsibility of the
commander of the area of responsibility in which
the CAC is located.

146
 b. Organization
A combined action unit consists of two
elements, PF and USMC, integrated into a single
operational entity. Organization follows the PF
structure in which the platoon normally is the
largest tactical unit. The combined action company
is organized to supervise a grouping of platoons,
and is capable of supporting up to 12 platoons.
The Marine element of a combined action pla-
toon consists of one Marine rifle squad and one
U.S. Navy corpsman, which augments and rein-
forces the PF platoon composed of three rifle
squads and a platoon headquarters.

c. Concept of Operation
The combined ‘action units are used in
cleared and semicleared areas to provide security
in villages and hamlets and to provide training
for Popular Forces. Combined action platoons
are provided the capability to call for and adjust
supporting arms. Secondary missions are to con-
duct civic action and gather intelligence for CAC
and other friendly forces operating in the area,
and to provide other appropriate assistance to
Vietnamese and U.S. officials in furtherance of
Revolutionary development activities. With the
advent of the 1967 Revolutionary Development
Plan, actions by U.S. civilian and military units,
other than CAC, will extend into more and more
hamlets. As the only U.S. representative physi-
cally present on a continuing basis, and conver-
sant with many facets of life in the hamlet, the

147
USMC squad leader is in effect the U.S. repre-
sentative for revolutionary development activities
in his hamlet and is expected to so function. This
relationship has been agreed to by regional of-
ficials of the Office of Civil Operations.
d. Location
Combined action platoons (CAP) are posi-
tioned at critical locations determined by mutual
agreement between the local Marine commander,
as approved by the Commanding General con-
cerned, and appropriate district chiefs.
e. Tasks
Appropriate tasks for the combined action
companies are as follows:
+ Motivate, instill pride, patriotism and
aggressiveness in Popular Forces.
+ Conduct day and night patrols and am-
bushes in assigned areas.
+ Conduct training in general military
subjects, leadership and language for all personnel
of the. combined action platoon to increase tile
proficiency of PF elements so that Marine ele-
ments may ultimately be withdrawn and PF ele-
ments may continue to perform in a proficient
manner.
+ Conduct combined operations with ARVN
and U.S. Marine Corps units in coordination with
the district chief and the Marine TAOR commander
within the CAC platoon area of responsibility.

148
-P Marine squad leaders in individual CAC
platoons function as U.S. revolutionary develop-
ment representatives for the hamlet which they
serve.
-+ Establish an intelligence apparatus in
and about the hamlet in which located, in con-
junction with local indigenous, ARVN and civilian
representatives. Ensure that information gathered
is made available promptly and on a regular
basis to the intelligence center at district level
as well as to the headquarters to which respon-
sible.

f. Command

Command of combined action companies

is the responsibility of the commanding general
of the command in whose area of operation the
unit is located.
Operational control of each CAC unit is
specified by the commanding general/command-
ing officer concerned if delegated below division/
task force/FLC level.
Command, less OPCON, is exercised at
division/task force command level, using the ad-
ministrative subunit assets which have been pro-
vided for this purpose. Certain administrative
functions (e.g., provision of rations, transportation,
and local supply of consumables) may be dele-
gated to subordinate operational commanders,
provided these responsibilities are specifically
set forth.

149
 Commanding generals ensure that a con-
tinuing system of command monitoring and in-
spection of CAC units is in force. Monthly reports
are submitted.
The III MAF Combined Action Company
Programs Officer, a member of the staff of the
Commanding General, III MAF, conducts frequent
and informal staff visits to various CAC units
throughout the I CT2, and keeps the commanding
general continually informed on all pertinent
matters pertaining to the status of the CAC pro-
gram.
Command relationships within the CAC
platoons are on a coordination and cooperation
basis. The USMC squad leader does not command
the PF element of the platoon, nor does the PF
platoon leader command the Marines. Neither has
authority to discipline members of the other com-
ponent. Offenses by Marines will be handled
through normal command channels, and incidents
involving PF soldiers will be reported to the dis-
trict chief.

g. Administration and Supply

The Marine element of the CAC is admin-

istered and supported through Marine channels
although it lives in conjunction with its PF
counterparts. Shelter and living accommodations,
which are not available from village sources,
are provided from Marine assets. Commanders
provide centralized administration and’ supply

150
support in order to relieve tactical battalions
and regiments of this responsibility.

Personnel assigned to CAC units must

meet the following criteria:
+ Preferably with 2 months in country
and a minimum of 6 months remaining on current
tour.
+ Be a mature, motivated Marine and be
highly recommended by his commanding officer
for duty with CAC. Selection of the squad leader
receives special attention because of the impor-
tance of his function.

h. Nature of the Popular Force Soldier

The PF soldier is the lowest paid soldier
in the ARVN. He must augment his pay by working
part of the time in or near the hamlet/village
where he is located in order to provide the basic
living essentials for his family. This fact must
be taken into account in assigning duties and con-
ducting combined activities. Commanders can
assist the PF soldier by ensuring the delivery of
the PF food supplement (provided by USAID)
through the district chiefs. This food supplement
may be further increased from Marine sources
where possible. In addition, when organic assets
permit, supplies such as cots, shelter and other
appropriate equipment can be shared with the PF
platoon.

#####

151
13. KIT CARSON SCOUTS

a. —
General

In July 1966 former VC were first used to

WOrk with Marine units on small unit tactical
operations, County Fairs and psychological op-
erations. It was soon recognized that their
knowledge of the VC “Modus Operandi’’ was in-
valuable in assisting tactical units in identifying
VC with whom they formerly served. For example,
one ex-VC identified over 30 enemy in 2 months
while employed in the role of a scout with a Ma.
rine unit. In October a pilot group was hired (three
teams of two men each) on a permanet basis to
live and work with units of the First Marine Di-
vision. These returnees were named “Kit Carson
scouts” by the Commanding General, 1st Marine

152
Division, after the famous guide of the 19th cen-
tury. The program proved so successful that the
CC, 1st MarDiv immediately requested that it be
expanded to provide two scouts for each rifle com-
pany.

The scouts have been most successful when

employed in their former areas of operation. They
are invaluable in identifying the enemy, a problem
that has always plagued commanders in a counter-
insurgency environment. There is no substitute for
their knowledge of the terrain and the tactics and
techniques employed by their former comrades.
The program has yielded substantial re-
sults. The scouts have assisted Marine units in
all types of operations ranging from major unit
actions to the interrogation of Viet Cong suspects.
Thus far, there has not been a single in-
stance in which a scout has turned against a
friendly unit or attempted to lead it into an am.
bush. However, as the program is expanded, the
possibility of the VC being able to insert an agent
is increased. Caution, therefore, must always
be used when employing the Kit Carson Scouts,
and a highly selective screening process and a
detailed training schedule must be established.

b. Method of Employing Kit Carson Scouts

The various methods of Kit Carson Scout
employment available to the industrious unit
commander is limited only by his imagination.

153
Experience has indicated that effective tech-
niques of employment become more numerous
as the scout becomes accustomed to the hosting
unit. For this reason, the scout should be per-
mitted to become as familiar as possible with a
particular unit when he is initially placed in the
field. As he begins to feel at home and grows
more accustomed to Marine living conditions,
customs and equipment, his talents can be em-
ployed with various units in a command.
A scout is normally assigned to a unit
operating in an area in which he is familiar with
the terrain, population and VC. Remember this:
It is the key to getting an effective return from
the scout. The information and knowledge that the
new scout brings to his first unit will be rela-
tively fresh and may be the most important con-
tribution that he will be able to make. It doesn’t
take long for enemy intelligence to determine this
man is helping the Marines and the scout’s in-
formation must be exploited before the VC have
time to relocate hiding places and personnel to
new locations.
A scout should have a few days to get
acquainted with his new unit, weapon, and per-
sonal equipment. The Marine(s) assigned to look
after the scouts play a very important part in the
success of future operations. They must be se-
lected accordingly. It may be necessary for the
Marine(s) to literally live with the scouts and
therefore it should be a voluntary assignment.

154
The more the scouts fell a part of the unit, the
better they will produce.
The scout should have a thorough briefing
on the importance of his selection and new assign-
ment.
As the scouts become familiar with the
Marines assigned to work with them, along with
the interpreter (a most important individual),
they should be put to work without delay in order
to take advantage of their knowledge of the enemy
while it is still current. Operations and patrols
should be planned around this information. A
common mistake observed regarding scout em-
ployment in the past has been the tendency to
place the scouts on the routine patrols without
considering the type of knowledge of the enemy
they possess. Personnel should be constantly
aware of the language barrier and the scouts
oriental custom of being hesitant to criticize.
A patrol leader may be making mistakes and
passing up excellent opportunities in the eyes of
the scouts. In extreme cases, a new scout may
simply walk along with the patrol and remain
silent rather than make recommendations and
have the patrol leader lose face. This is fairly
easy to guard against and can usually be overcome
by frequently questioning him about the area,
trails and people encountered on patrols. He must
be made to realize the importance of reporting
information promptly and ~inting out mistakes
of Marines when observed.

155
 The recommendations contained herein are
not meant to encourage Marines to become over-
reliant on the scout although he must be listened
to and relied upon to be effectively utilized. The
possibility always exists that a VC agent could
enter the program and eventually be selected as
a Kit Carson Scout. Complacency could be costly
and discretion must be used at all times.
The following are recommendations for the
utilization of Kit Carson Scouts which have proven
effective in the past:
+- Assist in search operations for the de-
tection of VC by facial recognition. There is no
substitution for this method of positive identifi-
cation.
-&- Assist in search operations for VC
equipment and supplies. The scouts know many
techniques used by the emeny to conceal their
supplies and equipment.
-t- Assist in the control and identification
of the population. Returnees can be used to speak
to the population to gain support of the GVN. Their
personal story of defecting will add considerable
credibility to what they are saying.
+ Assist in the location of caves and tun-
nels.
+ Assist in the exploitation of other re-
turnees. When a person rallies under the Chieu
Hoi program, it is important that a returnee
speak to him as soon as possible to strengthen

156
his decision of defecting. New returnees with
“hot” information may be persuaded to accom-
pany a scout into the field on short operations to
seize an important objective.
+ Assist in guiding Marine units through
VC controlled areas or over rough terrain.

#####

14. RIVERINE OPERATION

The following is information taken from a
combat afteraction report written by a Marine
officer serving as a battalion advisor with the
Vietnamese Marine Corps. The operation took
place in the Rung Sat Special Zone (RSSZ), a
large mangrove swamp area, which is located
astride the main shipping channel between Saigon
and the South China Sea. NHA BE, which is men-
tioned several times in this report, is the loca-
tion of the headcluarters of the special zone.
The Vietnamese Marine battalion was as-
signed a TAOR of 200 square miles in the eastern
portion of the Rung Sat and included terrain west
and south of the main shipping channel.
The RSSZ is an area of dense mangrove
swamps ‘interspersed with nipa palm groves. In-
numerable rivers, streams and small canals
crisscross the area. These are the principal
lines of communication for civilians, enemy and
friendly units. Some canals are manmade and are
utilized to cross the Rung Sat. Normal elevation
in the area is 1 meter or less above high water.
The highest point in the TAOR is a 10-meter high
hill or rock outcropping.
Until mid-June, vegetation in the TAOR was
dense and provided excellent concealment for in-
dividuals, boats and positions. Defoliation in late
May and early June provided excellent results and
removed foliage in areas of many bunker com-
plexes and camp areas. In nipa palm groves, de-
foliation had little effect except to whiten the
palm. In the mangrove areas, the leaves fell
away thus revealing campsites underneath. Es-
pecially effective was the defoliation of the area
west of the main channel. Some 30 bunker and
camp complexes were discovered in an area of
20 square kilometers and was undoubtedly a large
guerrilla base camp complex.

158
 The tidal range in the TAOR is approxi-
mately 12 feet, with two highs and two lows each
day. At low tide many small streams are dry and
larger rivers and streams present high, steep
banks, The rapid currents during filling and re-
ceding tides make small streams dangerous for
troop crossings and difficult for small boats. At
high tide it is virtually impossible to move rapidly
by foot. Individuals in ambushes placed along the
streams often found themselves waist deep in
water for at least half of the ambush period. This
constant exposure of weapons to damp and wet
conditions caused considerable corrosion and rust
problems.
The weather during the period varied from
late dry season weather to early monsoon weather.
During the dry season, many areas dried quickly
with a dry crust of several inches of firm terrain.
A significant fact involved drying after the tides
receded. The edges of trench lines, bunker tops
and lips of [oxholes stood out dis~inctly from the
air and contributed greatly to the discovery of
many Viet Cong positions. With the advent of the
rainy season, the combination of tides and daily
rains inundated the area of all times, At the time
the battalion departed, the terrain remained satu-
rated with the combination of rain and tidal
activity. Intelligence on VC units and positions
was available to the battalion from various
sources; but aerial observation provided the
primary information which was acted upon. In
most cases accuracy was excellent and a large
number of targets was identified.
159
 a. Intelligence
The Viet Cong units operating in the Rung
Sat Special Zone are under the command of a
military and political headquarters, the T- 10. The
Rung Sat is referred to as Military Region 10
and was designated such in August 1966. Under
direct control of the Central Office of South Viet-
nam (COSVN), the highest Viet Cong headquar-
ters in South Vietnam, the T-10 directs the ac-
tivities of some eight main force companies. Each
has a heavy weapons platoon of .S0 caliber
machincyyns and 57mm recoilless rifles. In
addit{.on, the companies possess water mine,
demolition, communication, and assorted small
arms capabilities. Mortar capability is unknown
and no mortar activity took place during the op-
eration. In support of the main force units, seven
local force guerrilla platoons and district and

160
village infrastructure exist. Due to extensive op-
erations in the Rung Sat by U.S. Army, Viet-
namese Marine, Regional and Popular Force
units, the Viet Cong operated in small, decen-
tralized units of three to ten guerrillas, In addi-
tion to these sapper squads, whose mission is to
interdict traffic on the main shipping channel
(LONG TAU), tax collectors, food collectors, and
logistic elements were continuously operating
within the TAOR. The VC maintained the ability
to mass by using a system of tower stations which
will be discussed in detail below,
(1) Tactics. In the Rung Sat, the Viet
Cong attempt~ieve two missions: First,
to interdict shipping and traffic on the main chan-
nel and second, to ensure that at least three
Free World force battalions operate in the Rung
Sat, thus denying their availability to other Corps
zones, By utilizing small elements to harass and
raid at opportune moments, a relatively small
force is maintaining enough activity to require
the battalions to operate in this area. However,
interdiction of the main shipping channel has not
been successful for sometime, though on several
occasions river patrol boats (P BR’s) and mine-
sweepers were attacked while carrying out their
security missions. The Viet Cong ambush is
usually a well-timed and coordinated attack of
short duration (15 to 30 seconds) with escape by
sampan and dispersion before sufficient reaction
forces can be introduced. The ambush site gen-
erally consists of four foxholes. The first fox-
hole contains a recoilless rifle, the second an
161
activator for a command-detonated mine,
the third an automatic weapon, and the
fourth a group of riflemen. Many of these
four-foxhole positions were observed
throughout the Rung Sat during the
operation. The Viet Cong utilized a
simple early warning system. Near each
active camp located in the TAOR was a
tree platform or tower. on 10 occasions
VC were observed either in the towers or
dropping from them and running into the
neatiest dense area. These towers are
located across the Rung Sat and
undoubtedly serve to signal elements
crossing the Rung Sat between adjacent
provinces as well as providing early
warning and unit massing capability.

b. Mission of the Vietnamese Marine Bat-

talion
+ To prevent interdiction of the main
;hipping channel by continuous patrol and am-
bush activity in areas adjacentto the river.
+ To conduct operations and search out
guerrilla elements, and campsites located in the
TAOR.
-k- To provide security for the villageof
Tam Tho Hiepand the battalion CP.

c. Execution
The Vietnamese Marines located theirCP
at the village of Tam Tho Hiep. This village is on
!ligh ground and supported the artillery positions
and boating requirements, as well asthebattalion

162
command post. The central location of this village
greatly facilitated artillery support for Viet-
namese and U.S. units as well as providing an LZ
for the medical evacuation of personnel.
During the 70-day operation, continuous
company level operations involving saturation
patrolling and selective ambushes were conducted.

163
These operations were highly successful in locat-
ing guerrilla camps and bunker complexes. In
conjunction with the ground operations, extensive
aerial observation missions were also conducted.
Supporting arms included air, naval gunfire and
artillery.
Two companies were inserted by River
Assault Group-22 (RAG) for 2 to 3 days into as-
signeci. sectors, while the remaining two companies
established a reserve and provided CP and village
security positions. Platoons operated from patrol
bases with squad patrols and ambushes predomi-
nating. Reaction platoons in each company had
swimmer support boats (SSB’S) available for rapid
reaction. The operating companies assumed an
area of responsibility of approximately 10 to 12
square kilometers. One helicopter was attached
to the battalion each day and was used extensively
in air reconnaissance missions and for medical
evacuations.
This operation in the Rung Sat was es-
sentially counterguerrilla in nature, and conducted
on a decentralized basis with emphasis upon
riverine capabilities. The lack of Viet Cong
mobility due to difficult terrain forced their
elements to disperse into small units until such
times as swift attacks could be planned and con-
ducted. This factor made it possible for the bat-
talion to decentralize and operate on platoon and
squad level. Former operations in which bat-
talions or companies moved in one or two columns
through dense vegetation and deep water or mud,

164
wasted considerable time and effort. Encircle-
ment and block and sweep operations are still
valid techniques and are used by nearly every
unit of company- or battalion-size. The following
page describes a technique utilized by this bat-
talion. Briefly the technique is based upon area
saturation and quick reaction. Companies are
inserted by RAG units into two sectors, each of
5 to 6 square kilometers. Platoons are decen-
tralized into 6 or 8 subsectors with one platoon
designated a reaction force at the company CP.
The platoons in patrol bases have two to three
SSB’S for use of their reaction forces. The addi-
tional member of the battalion team, and probably
most important, is the air observer in the com-
mand and control helicopter. Also available was
a VlqMC spotter and F/O (XO of the battalion)
who directed the troop units to targets located by
the helicopter. By making a series of low-level
searches of the sectors, actual camp and bunker
complexes were located as well as suspect
areas. Once located, the air observer and VNMC
spotter mark the target continuously with smoke
while mobile squads in SSB’S move to the loca-
tion. Reaction elements were used to block or
assist in attacking the camps. In some cases
helicopter gunships were used to cover the C/C
ship during low-level reconnaissance in partic.
ularly difficult areas. The VNMC officer con-
tinually directed the movement of the ground
troops by giving them compass azimuths from
their locations to the enemy, or by pointing out
streams to follow to the target area. With this

165
technique, 16 active Vict Cong camps were dis-
covered and destroyed. Each camp contained
equipment and VC were usually obsertied running
from the area. It is virtually impossible to block
and contain VC in this terrain even on company
level because of the early warning capability
they possess-- the towers and warning shots.
Covering and marking the camp with the heli-
copter forced VC to abandon the camp when it
was discovered, but ambushes established near
the captured camps resulted in five VC KIA. In
each case these were sapper teams moving back
into the area to set mines and booby traps as the
contents of the sampans proved. The great amount
of time saved by ground units using the technique
of reacting to aerial spotting was the prime rea-
son for its use. For troop units to patrol the very
swampy areas with no actual objective except to
patrol is unproductive. The air observer has ex-
cellent surveillance at low level and virtually
every camp or bunker complex located was dis-
covered after passes over the site. In some cases
highly suspect thickets or dense areas were
pointed out to ground units for their patrols. To
support this technique, RAG boats with direct fire
capability, helicopter gunships, and artillery
spotted by the A/O were available and utilized.
Movement to and from company sectors offered
little difficulty and companies were inserted and
extracted every 2 or 3 days in order to maintain
troop physical strength and endurance. In con-
junction with the technique described, company
sectors were varied in different areas of the

166
TAOR and emphasis was placed upon patrolling
and ambushing primary Viec Cong crossing areas
and routes.

d. Summary
During the operation a total of 49 Viet Cong
harboring sites were located. Generally, the sites
were a camp with buildings (tin roof and frame
sides) and thatch shelters, a bunker or several
bunkers with foxholes and trench lines, or a
small peripheral campsite with a warning tower
and one or two small shelters and a bunker, Only
three camps were discovered by ground patrols
without the assistance of an air observer. The
remainder were located as a result of aerial
reconnaissance in and around the TAOR. Eight
suspected areas were searched out by the A/O
based upon intelligence information provided by a
variety of intelligence sources. These were fired
upon by artillery and naval gunfire. During the
period seven VC were killed (2 probable) and 25
suspects were detained and subsecluently released.
A total of 21 active sites were destroyed with
a total of 118 shelters, 18 bunkers and one
medical aid station being either burned or de-
stroyed by ground units and supporting arms.
Arms and equipment captured or destroyed in-
cluded four rifles, 18 sampans, one outboard
motor, 73 booby traps, 23 grenades, 19 mines
and in excess of 5000 rounds of assorted small-
arms ammunition. Rice, sugar, salt, rubber

167
boots, water jars and cooking utensils were also
confiscated during the operation.

e. Analysis

This riverine operation was characterized

by C1OSC cooperation and coordination between
ground, air, naval, and supporting arms units.
This, coupled with excellent intelligence and
rapid reaction to the information provided, enabled
the units to accomplish all three missions with
the minimum of forces. The results prove the
validity of such techniques in the delta and provide
a basis for future operations in similar terrain.

###i#/l

168
15. WEAPONS AND MUNITIONS

a. M-16 Rifle

The M-16 rifle has the following unique

features:
-+- The simplicity of design and fewer
functional parts than other shoulder weapons en-
sure better reliability,
+ The straight-line construction coupled
with the 5. 56mm cartridge (cal. 223) reduces
recoil and increases controllability in automatic
fire.
+ The weight of the weapon is noticeably
less than other service rifles (the M-16 weighs
7 pounds loaded). Part of this reduction in weight
is realized by the stamped aluminum of the lower
receiver, the molded plastic stock which includes
the straight-line recoil system, and the molded
plastic handguards and pistol grip.
+ Another feature is the break-open shot-
gun design which permits quick, easy access to
the receiver group.
-+ The feature which has the most dra-
matic appeal is the muzzle velocity (3200 fps)
which, translated into layman’s language, means
killing power. As a comparison, the muzzle
velocity of the M-16 is 390 percent greater than
the .45 caliber pistol (830 fps), and 12 percent
greater than the M-14 rifle (2750 fps).

169
 b. Care and Cleaning of the M-16 Rifle
+ Clean the chamber, locking lugs and locking
recess with chamber brush and bore cleaner at
the earliest opportune moment after firing. If the
correct chamber brush is not available, an M- 14,
M-60, or .45 caliber pistol brush can be used as
a field expedient. The chamber should be wiped
dry with patches and given a light coat of oil for
storage or left dry for immediate firing.

170
* Clean the bolt carrier key with a bore
brush preferably a us e d one) and bore cleaner
as soon as possible after firing. The carrier
key should be cleaned daily and lubricated inside
with one drop of oil (PL Special).
● Disassemble all bolt and carrier parts
from the bolt carrier and clean and inspect as
soon as possible after firing. Clean with bore
cleaner, wipe dry, and oil with two drops of semi-
fluid lubricating oil (LSA) on the bolt rings.
Add a light coat of oil (3 drops on a patch) to all
surfaces of the bolt and the bolt carrier.
NOTE: FOR FIELD USE, DO Norr APPLY OIL
‘ro SURFACES OF THE BOLT AND CARRIER.
MERELY APPLY LUBRIPLATE TO SLIDING
CONTACT SURFACES, HAMMER CAM SURFACE
(ON BOTTOM OF CARRIER) AND BOLT CAM
PIN,
+ Clean the end of the gas tube inside the
upper receiver at the earliest opportunity after
firing. Use bore cleaner and a worn bore brush
attached to a section of cleaning rod.
-+ Clean the lower receiver as well as pos-
sible without disassembling it; use bore cleaner,
brush and patches. Wipe dry and apply light coat
of oil.
NOTE: FOR FIELD USE, DO NOT APPLY OIL
INS[D13 LOWER RECEIVER: MERELY PUT ONE
DROP OF OIL AT EACH END OF THE HAMMER,
TRIGGER, TAKEDOWN AND PIVOT PINS. LU-
BRICATE THE SELECTOR AS REQUIRED.

171
+ Keep the outside of the weapon dry.
+ Clean and lightly lubricate the action
spring and guide when required.
+ Never pour oil into any part of the rifle.
+ Clean the magazines and loaded ammunition
each time the rifle is cleaned but DO NOT OIL
THE MAGAZINES OR AMMUNITION.
The most critical areas in cleaning the
M-16 are:
-+ Chamber and locking recess.
4- Bolt and bolt carrier: Carrier key,
bolt face, locking lugs, extractor claw, bolt
rings and shoulders,
+ Magazines and loaded ammunition.
Load a maximum of 18 rounds in the
magazine.
Never leave a round chambered for longer
than necessary: Rounds left in the chamber for
excessive periods can fail to extract, particularly
if the weapon has been fired just prior’ to camb-
ering the round.
Wipe magazines and ammunition as soon
as possible after rains, river crossing, or ex-
posure to dust and dirt.
Never tape magazines together.
Each man armed with the M-16A1 rifle
should carry his issue cleaning gear.

172
 COMMONMALFUNC’I’1ONS:
[,[{EvENT1ON ANDC~R[~ECTION

REPORTED PREVENTION/
MALFUNCTION CAUSES CORRECTION

Failure to Dirty chamber; Clean the cham-

extract* dirty or corroded ber and ammu-
ammunition; nition; replace
faulty extractor defective parts
or extractor
spring
Failure to Overloaded, Inspect maga-
feed dirty or un- zines for clean-
serviceable liness and serv-
magazines iceability; load
not more than 18
rounds
Failure to Buildup of dirt Check for proper
fire or carbon on the assembly of the
firing pin bolt and carrier;
shoulders: im- clean the firing
proper assembly pin; replace am-
of the bolt and munition
bolt carrier;
faulty ammuni-
tion
Inoperative Lack of lubrica- Lubricate as re-
tion quired
*NOTE: Failure to extract is most often the result of a
dirty chamber or ammunition. Inspection of the cartridge
case, however, many indicate a faulty extractor or a weak
extractor spring. A faulty extractor will often fail to grasp
the cartridge rim concentrically and a weak spring will
permit the extractor claw to ride over the rim. In either
instance, the cartridge rim is usually marked by the ex-
tractor claw in such a manner as to permit identification
of the problem.
173
 c. Added Firepower
Two powerful mobile and versat~le U.S.
Army weapons are being employed in Marine
areas in Vietnam. These are the twin 40mm
carriage-mounted cannon, and the four, caliber
.50 machincguns mounted in a turret on a wheeled
vehicle. These dual-purpose guns are employed
in a ground support role and are available for air
defense should the requirement arise. In a
ground support role both weapons can be used
cffec[ively for convoy escort and perimeter de-
fense. For convoy escort the weapons are usually
dispersed throughout the convoy with one near
the front and another at the rear of the column.
The convoy alert force will usually have weapons
positioned nearby in case of ambush.
These guns have proven effective for the
protection of command posts, engineer working
parties, and in defense of fixed installations.
Their high rates of fire (40mm - 200 rds,/min.,
cal. .50 - 2000 rds/min. ) provide an unparalleled
shock effect. For air defense the guns can use
fire control information employing the parent
battalion’s radar system. Direct and indirect fire
can be employed.

174
 d. Machinegun Laying

The proper employment of one or a com-

bination of several field expedient methods will
ensure more effective employment of the M-60
machinegun in engaging preselected targets.
The notched stake or tree crotch technique
is used with the biped-mounted MC to engage
preselected targets within a sector or to define
the sector limits. This method is effective in all
conditions of visibility and requires a minimum
of additional material. The horizontal log method
is used with either the biped- or tripod-mounted
machinegun to mark sector limits and provide a
sector of grazing fire.

175
 e. 3.5-Inch Rocket Launcher
In recent operations, close combat has been
frequent and fierce. Utilization of supporting arms
was not always feasible against enemy automatic
weapon positions and strong points due to the
closeness of friendly troops. An immediately
available and highly effective source of firepower
was the 3.5-inch rocket launcher.
f. Rocket
— Safety
Frequently in RVN, 3.5-inch rocket rounds
are carried lashed to a packboard in such a man-
ner that the bore-riding safety clip is apt to be
torn off by a vine or branch. This clip should be
secured to the round with a strip of adhesive-type
tape to prevent its loss and the possible inadver-
tent arming.

176
 g. Protection for 3.5-Inch Rockets
When operating in the rain or damp weather,
the 3.5- inch rocket rounds should be kept in their
canisters until required for use. During the mon-
soon season this is particularly important, as was
evidenced on a recent operation when it was nec-
essary to destroy 17 rounds because dampness
had rendered them unreliable. It is better to spend
a few extra seconds preparing a round that can be
counted on than having a number of unreliable
rounds immediately available.

h. Secure Those Grenades

The explosive power of a fragmentation
grenade can generate great respect in the in-
dividual Marine, particularly if he is on the re-
ceiving end. This should be all the more reason
to carry grenades firmly affixed to the person.
The grenade pouch is provided for just this
reason. Recently, while patrolling through a
small hamlet, a Vietnamese boy grabbed a
grenade which was hanging by the safety lever
from a Marine’s cartridge belt and attempted to
escape with it. The child was quickly apprehended
along with another boy. They stated that they had
been instructed by the local VC cadre to steal
the grenade. The two boys then led a patrol to a
nearby cave where a VC food cache was dis-
covered.
Every possible source of enemy munitions
must be strictly controlled.

177
 i. All-Around Mortar Fire
Mortar crews in Vietnam are frequently
required to fire missions beyond the usual 3200
roils covcragc. An additional set of aiming stakes
3200 roils to the rear of the front set of stakes
easily accommodates this situation. All that is
needed to shift fires is to swing the tube and
biped legs to the rear, align the sight and begin
firing. Practice this technique during training
and be proficient at it before you use it in com-
bat.

]. All Purpose Demolition Kit

The continuing demand for a capability to
destroy enemy explosive devices, caves, and
fortified positions has led to the development of
a demolition kit for squad use.

178
 Demolition training for members of the
squad can be accomplished through the technical
services of an engineer unit. Four men in addition
to the squad !eader should be trained to use these
demolitions.
The kit can be carried in a haversack or in
the cloth carrying bag in which plastic explosive
is packaged. There is sufficient room in the latter
by removing one of the blocks of plastic explosive.
These are the suggested components for the unit
demolition kit:
+ Seven 2+-pound blocks of composition 4.
+ One pair of blasting cap crimpers.
+ Ten to fifteen feet of time fuze.
+ Five to seven Ml fuze lighters.
+ Ten Ml nonelectric blasting caps with
protective container (carried separately).
+ Twenty to thirty feet of detonating cord.
k. Carrying 60mm Mortar Ammo

When a shortage of 60mm mortar pouches

exists, an empty M-37 demolition bag can be used
as a field expedient. Seven 60mm rounds and
demolition bag weigh approximately 35 pounds.
One bag can be worn crosslmdy with the strap
across the right shoulder and the bag riding on
the left hip. When carrying two, they can be tied
together by the carrying straps and worn with
straps running across each shoulder with one
bag on the chest and the other on the back.

179
.,. ,

1. ~raccr Rounds

During periods of darkness or reduced

visibility, tracers are useful to mark targets
and adjust fires. Team leaders can carry one
full magazine of tracer rounds for marking
purposes. Individual accuracy is improved when

180
a few tracer rounds are included in rifle maga.
zincs to see the strike of the round in darkness.
Remember, the long red finger of that tracer
points right back to the place where it started,
so use it wisely.

m. Starlight Scope Iiandling

The starlight scope increases the ability
of the individual Marine to accomplish night com-
bat surveillance and enables him to direct aimed
fire during night operations. The scope can be
hand held or mounted on the M-14, M-16, or M-60.
Usable range and target detection is dependent
upon terrain, vegetation, atmospheric conditions,
and light levels existent at the time of employ-
ment.
This scope can withstand rugged environ-
mental conditions but, like other optical equip-
ment, must be handled with care to avoid damage
to the lenses, adjustment knobs, power switch,
etc. Caution must be taken to prevent high in-
tensity light from being shown directly into the
objective lens. High intensity light can seriously
damage the scope. Always keep the lens cap on
the objective lens when operating in daylight
conditions.
The starlight scope is an important piece
of your equipment. Take good care of it. For
organizational and direct support maintenance
instructions refer to TM 11-1090-268-13 dated
July 1967.

181
 n. O-Chlorobenenealmalononitrile
More commonly known as tear gas or CS
by Marines who have stumbled out of a gas cham-
ber; the gas produces immediate, effective and
very incapacitating results. CS causes burning of
the eyes, a heavy flow of tears, coughing, diffi-
cult breathing, closing of the eyes, tightness in the
chest, dizziness, and other uncomfortable side
effects. Heavy concentrations may cause nausea
and vomiting. The immediate onset of the above
can prevent affected personnel from taking appro-
priate action to counteract these effects.
CS can bc dispensed by grenades, blowers,
or launched cartridges. Descriptions of the vari-
ous means available for disseminating CS are
shown below:
+ Grenade, Hand, Riot, CN 1, M25A2.
Normally used to control riots. The radius of
burst (visible cloud agent) is approximately 5
meters, but fragments of the plastic grenade
occasionally fly as far as 25 meters. Effective
quantities of the agent may be carried as far as
70 to 9S meters downwind. The average Marine
can throw this grenade approximately 50 meters.
+ Grenade, Hand, CS, M7A2/M7A3.’ This
grenade is an irritant agent, special purpose
munition used to control riots, mobs, and other
disturbances. It may also be used to simulate
casualty agents during training of personnel. The
irritant is emitted from this grenade for 15 to 35
seconds and provides a greater volume of agent

182
than the M25A2. If persistent results are desired,
this grenade is preferred over the M25A2.
+ Launcher, 35mm Ctg, 16-Tube E8. The
E8 launcher is capable of firing 64 E23 cartridges
utilizing 16 tubes. The launcher tubes are ar-
ranged in a rectangular pattern with the tubes
positioned to give a wide impact pattern on the
target. The typical agent cloud generated when
fired from a firmly emplaced launcher at a 40-
degree elevation will be rectangular in shape
and will cover 30 meters in the target area. The
duration of agent dissemination is 10 to 15 sec-
onds after the cartridge lands in the target area.
-+ Mity Mite Blower. The Mity Mite is a
lightweight, gasoline-operated blower which can
be used in a variety of ways. When used with
chemical agents it will:
●
Force the evacuation of unmasked
personnel from a tunnel system by blowing riot
control agent into the tunnel. (Use the Grenade,
Hand, CS, M7A2/M7A3. )
● Discourage reentry into a tunnel by
contaminating it with a powdered riot control
agent.

#####

183
16. U.S. ARMY BATTALION COMMANDER
The following observations concern the ex-
periences of a U.S. Army battalion commander
operating in the III Corps Tactical Zone of Viet-
nam. They are published to acquaint Marines
with the problems encoun~crecl by one battalion
commander and to demonstrate his method of
operating in the jungle terrain of War Zones C
and D.

a. Intelligence
“Good intelligence is the real key to suc-
cess in Vietnam. This is particularly true at the
battalion level. There is no place in Vietnam that
a U.S. infantry battalion cannot go, with almost
complete freedom, as long as it is within range
of its supporting weapons. The trick then is de-
termining where to go in order to deal the VC a

184
blow. This is the job of combat intelligence. In
WW II or Korea (even though the destruction of
enemy forces was the primary mission) it was
very closely tied to seizure of terrain. In Viet-
nam, the VC very seldom place any importance
on terrain unless it contains a supply or base
complex. The primary purpose of combat in-
telligence therefore is to locate the enemy. This
we are doing with only a fair amount of success.
There are many ways to improve upon this. Most
of these (agents , electronic means, etc. ) are not
within the capability or scope of an infantry unit.
The one thing which can be done at this level is
to ensure rapid, free, and complete exchange of
information. This is not being done (sometimes
even within the battalions of a brigade) fast
enough.
“If a battalion is on a pacification mission,
the need for intelligence is paramount. Not only
must they know where the VC units are, but they
must be able to identify, by name, the local
guerrillas who are the members of the cadre or
infrastructure. In guerrilla warfare, it is almost
impossible to separate tactical military intelli-
gence from political intelligence, but the problem
is the same. Everyone (ARVN, National Police
and U. S.) must have access to all available in-
formation. There is a risk of a security leak
under these conditions, but this risk is less serious
than no exchange of information at all.

185
 “C)[iI intelligence personnel are surpris -
ii~gl) WC1l trained considering the lack of em-
pi]asis placed on combat intelligence in peace
~irnem This does not present a real problem. The
probleYII is that we don’t exchange information
up, down, and crosswise quickly enough to be-
come useful to the recipient. ”

b. St~crvision
.-. -———
“The big problem in the operation field is
the individual soldier. Our training centers do an
excellent job of training individual soldiers, how-
Cvc!r, this same soldier will become lax, in-
d~ffercnt, and slovenly unless he is forcefully
and skillfully led. ‘1’his leadership must be exer-
cised constantly. Soldiers in combat tend to be-
come lazy. ‘l’hey spend many hours waiting, or
Ii~erely doing nothing. “~his leads them to form
bad habits which are fatal when under fire. A
soldier will fail to dig, disperse, or tu clean his
weapon unless l]e is required to do so; even
though he knows such a failure could well lead to
his death.
“IL is not that soldiers don’t know what to
do, or what is right or wrong. It is that they fail
co do these things unless made to do so. Our
junior leaders, both officer and NCO, don’t prac-
tice the military adage of checking on everything.
%me of this is caused by the mistaken idea that
!!x)kirlg after the men means to be easy on them.
Allowing men to ride, when for safety’s sake
they should walk, and letting them dig prone
shelters rather than fighting holeq are but a few
examples of this. In the main, a soldier will, (h
only what is required of him. If junior leaders
don’t check, the men will not perform properly.
It has been said, with a great deal of insight into
the problem, that if we could get every man to do
three things every day we would have no problems.
The first of tl~ese is to djg. The second is m
keep clean-- not only himself, but his we’’pnn., and
his area. The third is to stay alert. This inclll:les
keeping spread out, keeping scouts or securitv
out at all times, and staying off of well-used mails,
Constant application of these three rules would.
solve the vast majority of the troubles ini]lf~ntmy
units in Vietnam. ”
 c. Health
“A major health problem that a unit com-
mander, within a battalion, must concern himself
with is skin disease. Ringworm, skin rashes,
immersion foot, and infections caused by thorn
or bamboo scratches cause loss of time and dis-
ability if not treated at once. This is particularly
true during the rainy season.
“Time lost due to skin disease can be kept
to a minimum if the commanders are alert. Squad
leaders and fire team leaders must check every
day to ensure that men wash and shave, that they
change their socks, dry their feet and that minor
cuts and scratches are treated. If this is not done,
infection is almost certain to set in, and a man is
lost for several days or weeks. ”

#/####

188
Chapter III: NATURE OF THE ENEMY

1. THE ENEMY
a. The Individual
You will encounter a variety of enemy
troops, ranging from the poorly trained and

1.89
equipped hamlet guerrilla to the well-trained,
indoctrinated, and equipped North Vietnamese
soldier. In any case, he is an elusive and de-
termined foe. He must endure many hardships,
and he is often very dedicated. He is an expert in
the arts of camouflage, deception, and ambush.
He is a hardy and ruthless fighter, but he is not
invincible.
The enemy is considered in three general
categories:
+- The local hamlet, village, or district
guerrilla is poorly educated and trained. He may
be armed with a few grenades, an old French or
German rifle, or a captured U.S. weapon. Al-
though he may only be a part-time soldier, he is
an important part of the VC effort, The local
guerrilla knows the people and the terrain. He
controls the local populace and supports VC
units operating in his area. He may serve the
VC as a porter, guide, or trail watcher; he may
maintain a local cache and prepare village
fortifications, or provide an early warning screen
for regular units; he may conduct acts of ter-
rorism, harassment, or sabotage; and he may
serve as an intelligence agent.
+ The Main Force Viet Cong is a full-
time soldier. He may have gained combat ex-
perience against French, ARVN, or U.S. forces,
or he may be a recent recruit from the local
forces. I-Ie is usually well-trained and equipped.
I-lc is outfitted with his weapon, a few grenades,
a pack, a tubular shaped sack of rice which he
190
slings across his shoulder, a hammock, a set or
two of black pajamas, and a pair of rubber
sandals. He carries a modern and effective
ChiCom copy of a Russian family of weapons
(SKS carbine, AK-47 assault rifle, RDP LMG,
and RPG-2 rocket launcher). The carbine, as-
sault rifle and light machinegun all use a stand-
ard 7.62mm cartridge.
+ The North Vietnamese soldier has, in
most cases, been carefully indoctrinated and.
trained before his long march into South Vietnam.
He has been provided a simple, but lightweight
and well-adapted set of equipment, including khaki
uniforms, a sun helmet, standard load bearing
equipment, a plastic canteen, canvas rubber-
soled shoes, and rubber sandals. He also carries
a modern and effective ChiCom copy of a Russian
family of weapons (SKS carbine, AK-47 assault
rifle, RPD LMG, and RPG-2 rocket launcher).
He has normally trained and infiltrated with his
unit into South Vietnam.

b. Military Organization
The highest enemy military headquarters in
the Republic of Vietnam is the Central Office,
South Vietnam (COSVN), which receives instruc-
tions from Hanoi. COSVN has overall respon-
sibility for VC military operations in RVN and
exercises direct control over certain units. Six
VC military regions are subordinate to COSVN.
The military region is a political headquarters
with a closely integrated military component

191
which directs military operations of subordinate
units. At provincial and district levels, the VC
political and military structure closely parallels
that of the Government of South Vietnam. Each VC
political headquarters at province, district, vil-
lage, and hamlet levels includes a military com-
ponent which exercises control over Viet Cong
military units assigned to its area of jurisdic-
tion. This organization technique subordinates the
military to the political and promotes unity of
effort. The VC organization is patterned after that
used in Vietnam.
North Vietnamese Army and Main Force
VC units are (organized into squads, platoons,
companies, battalions, regiments and divisions.
All these units follow the “triangular” concept;
i.e., three squads per platoon, three platoons per
company, etc.
+ The squad includes 10 men orgaaized
into three cells. The first cell consists of the
squad leader and three other men. The remain-
ing six personnel are organized into two cells of
three men each. The assistant squad leader is
the leader of one of these, and the senior mem-
ber leads the third cell. The squad is armed with
carbines, assault rifles, and handgrenades.
+ The rifle platoon has three rifle squads
and a weapons squad. The weapons squad is
equipped with light machineguns.
+ The rifle company has a strength of
60 to 130 men and includes three rifle platoons

192
and a weapons platoon. The weapons platoon is
armed with the 60mm mortar, 57mm RR, and
light machineguns.
+ Each battalion (300 to 600 men) has
three or four rifle companies, a heavy weapons
company, and special purpose platoons (signal,
engineer, reconnaissance). The heavy weapons
company employs the $lmm or 82mm mortar,
the 57mm RR, and heavy machineguns.
+ A typical regiment (1400 to 2000 men).
consists of two to four rifle battalions, a heavy
weapons battalion, and special purpose com-
panies (antiaircraft, signal, engineer, reconnais-
sance, and medical). The heavy weapons baKalion
employs 81mm or 82mm mortars, 75mm recoil-
less rifles, and heavy machineguns.
+ The enemy is beginning to use division
level headquarters, conducting multiregimental
operations.
+ The enemy is employing artillery
rockets (Soviet 122mm and 190mm) in attacks by
fire in support of some ground operations.
Limited use of artillery (up to 152mm) is being
made in certain areas, normally along the DMZ
or from sanctuaries in Laos.
-+ Local force units are usually encoun-
tered in squad and platoon strength. However,
local force companies and battalions are known
to exist and operate in many areas.
-i- Military units vary considerably in
strength and equipment, depending upon subordi-
nation, location, health rate, availability of food
and recruits, degree of VC control and results of
recent engagements with FWMAF forces.

c. Tactics and Techniques

(1) General
+ The basic tactical code of the VC is
“When the enemy advances, withdraw; ‘when he
defends, harass; when he is tired, attack; when
he withdraws, pursue. ” Emphasis is placed upon
speed, security, surprise, and deception. The
VC exhibit great skill in making the mostof their
enemy’s weaknesses.
+ Enemy operations are planned in de-
tail and are based upon careful reconnaissance
and collection of intelligence. Troops are prepared
194
for a mission with detailed rehearsals, including
the use of mockups, sand tables, and similar ter-
rain. Once a plan has been prepared and rehearsed,
the VC seem reluctant to depart from it. A certain
inflexibility is apparent in many VC operations,
but on some occasions, VC forces have shown
themselves to be capable of improvisation.
+ The VC are very cautious and attempt
to determine in detail the size, disposition, and
direction of movement of their opponents before
engaging them. They would rather let an op-
portunity slip by than act hastily without proper
intelligence and preparation. For this reason, a
meeting engagement, which usually does not pro-
vide a marked advantage to the VC, is avoided
at all costs, However, should such an action
take place, they are taught to “Be the first to
deploy troops to critical terrain, be the first to
open fire, be the first to assault. ” The purpose
of this aggressive action is to seize the initiative
and to delay and disorganize the enemy by causing
him to deploy radidly under fire. During the
resultant confusion, the VC break contact and
withdraw.
+ Local Viet Cong forces tend to operate
near roads and villages where they may control
the local populace, and assist the regular units
which cannot so easily avoid detection. Main
force and NVA units normally move and establish
bases in more remote areas, usually along
natural lines of drift, such as trails, streambeds,
and valleys. They take maximum advantage of

195
heavily vegetated terrain which provides them
concealment from aerial observation. They move
deep into difficult terrain, such as high moun-
tain ranges, only when pressed by our forces.
+ The VC will normally make use of
every opportunity to harass, to delay, and dis-
organize our forces through the use of snipers,
mines, boobytraps, probing attacks, etc. They
will usually attempt to disengage and withdraw
when faced with superior firepower, or when they
no longer enjoy an advantage. In contrast, NVA
units may defend tenaciously, or vigorously press
an attack, even in the face of overwhelming U.S.
firepower. They frequently attempt to employ
“close embrace” tactics, or engagements at very
close range, to prevent our use of supporting
fires. They often disengage and withdraw only
after suffering severe losses.

(2) Offensive Tactics

+ An important VC offensive tactic is the
raid. It may be conducted by units from squad
to regimental size, and is most often executed
during the hours of darkness. Two basic types of
VC raids have been noted. The surprise raid is
the most common. Security and speed are key
considerations in this type of action because the
VC raiding party may have less numerical
strength than the defending force. The power
raid is one in which the VC employ overwhelming
strength and firepower in order to annihilate a
defending unit. The time the raid begins may be

196
a clue to its nature. Raids begun after 0200
hours are rarely power raids.
+ The ambush is one of the most effec-
tive VC offensive tactics. Ambushes are normally
established along roads, trails, streams, and
other natural routes of movement. Enemy force
patterns are studied in detail, and then ambushes
are established along regularly traveled routes.
VC ambushes are usually short, violent actions
followed by a rapid withdrawal. Frequently the
VC have established ambushes behind friendly
patrols after they left their patrol bases. When
the patrol retraced their routes, they were caught
in ambushes when patrol members were tired
and security was lax.
+ The “lure and ambush” is a commonly
used VC tactic. The basic principle is to draw
the attention of friendly forces and lure them
into prepared ambushes. Many variations of this
tactic have been noted. Some of the variations
are as follows:
. The VC have attacked an outpost or
vulnerable unit and then attempted to ambush
relief forces at nearby landing zones or along
principal avenues of approach,
● Withdrawing VC units have at-
tempted to lead friendly forces into the ambushes
of other VC units.
● Snipers have drawn the attention of
friendly units and enticed them into ambushes.

197
 . The VC have mortared friendly base
camps and then ambushed friendly forces in
search of mortar positions.
● The VC have used some of the above
methods to entice friendly units into heavily
booby trapped or mined areas.
+ Harassment is a basic tactic of VC
guerrillas. Sniper activity and probes are used
to demoralize, confuse, and mislead friendly
forces. Diversionary harassing attacks have been
used to draw friendly forces away from vulner-
able VC installations.
+ The VC are experts at infiltration. They
have infiltrated friendly positions during periods
of reduced visibility and adverse weather, often
combining the infiltration with a feint or ruse.
Frequently they have infiltrated friendly posi-
tions disguised as local civilians. Objects of VC
infiltration are sabotage, assassination, demoral-
ization of friendly troops, collection of intelli-
gence, and disorganization of friendly units.
Rapid deterioration of organized defenses and
many accidental casualties have been caused by
these infiltration tactics.
+ The VC have been known to follow a
friendly unit to a helicopter or truck pickup
point. They then launch an attack as the last units
are leaving, and when departing troops are most
vulnerable and least prepared mentally to react
quickly.

198
 (3) Defensive Techniques
The Viet Cong avoid defense because
they cannot withstand friendly firepower. How-
ever, they may defend vulnerable units, bases,
and installations for short periods of time.
The Viet Cong prepare extensive de-
fensive positions throughout their operational
areas, If surprised by friendly forces, they will,
if possible, withdraw to a previously prepared
position and defend until they can break out, most
probably during the hours of darkness. VC posi-
tions are characterized by defense in depth,
mutual support, overhead cover and maximum
use of natural cover and concealment. Defenses
are oriented along trails and other obvious
avenues of approach. Booby traps are often in-
corporated in the defenses, particularly in VC
base areas.
As. a reaction to friendly heliborne
operations, the VC have prepared defensive
positions at the edges of prominent landing zones
in their operational areas. In some instances
they have remained covered in a second line of
fortifications several hundred yards from the
landing zone while friendly artillery and T.ac Air
prepared the landing zone. When the prepara-
tion ended, the VC moved forward to defend at
the edge of the landing zone, and then with-
drew to the second line of trenches when neces-
sary.

199
 (4) Withdrawal Techniques—
The Viet Cong include a withdrawal plan
with every offensive and defensive plan. As soon
as the situation becomes unfavorable to their
forces, they withdraw rapidly along preplanned,
concealed escape routes. They often break down
into small groups and withdraw along the same
route they used in their approach.
During the withdrawal, the VC make
extensive use of rearguard personnel whose
mission is to delay the pursuing friendly force
until withdrawal of the VC main force is ac-
complished, Ambushes designed to slow friendly
forces are also frequently employed.
A typical withdrawal technique used by
small VC forces in danger of an unfavorable,
close-range contact is to drop their packs and
run. Friendly forces have been inclined to slow
their pursuit in order to inspect the packs.
The VC may also evade capture by
hiding or by blending in with the local populace.
Hiding places used by the VC are almost linlit-
lcss, although underground locations appear to be
the favorite. Underground means of hiding troops
and equipment range from simple “spider holes”
to elaborate, reinforced rooms. From the sur-
face, these underground installations are most
difficult to detect. Critical points are entrances
and exits, which are usually concealed in gardens,
animal pens, under piles of straw or clung, in or
under structures, and in riverbanks.

200
 Extensive and inge~liously constructed
underground tunnel systems are c}ne of the unique
features of underground ]~iding places. Most are
constructed in such a manner thar they permit
short term underground ha bitatioi~. They are
usually built in a zigzag, mlllti]. evel fOl”iN With
ventilation holes at various inte~-va”ls. ~his type
of constructiotl may provide protection from
grenades or disc~ve~y+ Wljcn cornered tinder-
ground by f~ienclly forces, the VC w~ll often eject
a grenade from one of these holes and attempt
to escape thruugll an<jtl;erexi[ during d]e resulting
shock and smoke.

d. Booby traps and Mines

—
Booby traps are favorite devices of the VC.
Grenades, spike traps, poison arrows, unexploded
ordnance (duds), and a variety of other means are

201
employed to harass, slowdown, confuse, and kill
friendly forces. The forms of these weapons are
limited only by the imagination of the designer.
1300bytraps have most often been used
along trails, in moats and entrances to villages,
in gaps. in fences or thick brush, at fording sites,
at bypasses to obstacles, in doorways, and on
abandoned bodies, weapons, and equipment.
Grenades are commonly used as booby-
traps because they are lightweight, easy to carry
and conceal, and readily adaptable. They are
frequently put in trees or bushes along trails
friendly forces arc expected to use, with trip-
wires strung across the pathway.
Spiked foot and mantraps are common
types of booby traps found throughout Vietnam.
The spikes may be sharpened bamboo sticks, or
they may be barbed wood or metal spikes em-
placed in wooden, concrete or metal blocks. The
spiked devices are placed in holes along routes
of movement, and carefully camouflaged to pre-
vent detection, or they may be placed in rows on
top of the ground.
The VC also employ crude but effective
tripwire type devices along trails and paths which
release arrows, bamboo whips, and other ‘swing-
ing, barbed, club-type objects. Barbs are often
dipped in poison to compound casualty effects.
Antipersonnel and antitank mines are used
extensively in VC operations. They may be of the

202
crude homemade variety or they may be similar
to those in the U.S. inventory. When AT mines
are employed, they are used exclusively on roads
and trails capable of carrying vehicular traffic.
The VC have not been known to mix AT and AP
mines in their minefield. However, AP mines
are employed on defensive terrain nearby so that
personnel taking to the high ground to protect a
disabled vehicle are then subjected to the AP
mines and booby traps. AP mines are used to de-
fend entrances to VC underground hiding places
and along trails.
AT mines are placed in hollowed-out
places on bridges or in holes which have been
dug in roads. In order to make the hole difficult
to discover, the VC may scatter dirt across
the road for several hundred meters or dig
several dummy holes for deception or for mine
employment at a later date. Water buffalo dung
has also been used for camouflage. Shoulders
along roads are often mined, and occasionally the
VC tunnel in from the shoulders to plant elec-
trically controlled mines directly in the center of
the road. This latter practice permits “selective
targeting” of vehicular traffic. On some occasions
the VC have buried wire leading to a road, but
have not emplaced a mine. When friendly troops
failed to discover the wire, the VC then emplaced
the mine and destroyed the next target of their
choosing.

203
 e. Miscellaneous
.——
- Observations
— ..—
The VC are very nonchalant in areas they
believe are safe. They travel almost exclusively
on trails, and security is very lax. When they

204

-.
know enemy units have moved into an area, they
shift from the major trails to low terrain, stream-
beds, etc.
Although the VC are accustomed to moving
along trails at night and conducting well-rehearsed
night attacks or probes in familiar terrain, they
are not experienced in night combat and are often
surprised and confused when engaged unexpectedly
by friendly forces at night,
Typical signs of enemy presence are dead
foliage which may be camouflage for a trap, tied
down brush which may be a firing lane for a
defensive or ambush position and villages which
have been recently abandoned by women and
children.
Enemy caches are usually at convenient
locations, beside secondary trails, etc. Typical
hiding places for VC equipment are rafters,
thatched roofs, rice or rice bags, haystacks,
dung piles, and wells.
Local guerrillas prefer to live in villages
with their families at night. Movement of guer-
rillas out of villages at dawn and into villages
at dark is a pattern in many areas.
The VC attempt to locate distinguishing
features of friendly forces when engaged. They
will fire most often upon personnel distinguished
by radio antennas or back packs, insignia or rank,
or automatic weapons with bipeds. They will con-

205
centrate fires upon anyone who appears to be giving
commands.

In preparation for an engagement, the VC

will prestock the battle area and rally points with
resupplies of ammunition, medical supplies and
equipment.
The VC often prepare covert mortar firing
positions for use without a base plate, An angled
(preaimecl). cylindrical hole is dug at the mortar
position. During the attack, the VC move forward
to the hole, emplace the mortar tube, fire the
desired number of rounds, and then hide the tube
~t another location, or withdraw with the tube.
The VC often use a creeping pattern in
support of ground attacks. In other words, the
mortar rounds fall very closely in front of the
advancing troops.
The VC are experienced in breaching un-
observed wire which has not been supplemented
with detection devices.
As an adjunct to their operations orders,
the VC prepare elaborate plans to insure the re-
covery of dead, wounded, weapons, ammunition,
and equipment from the battlefield.

206
2. NVA/VC REGISTRATION TECHNIQUE
It has been recently noted that NVA/VC have
been registering their mortars prior to an in-
fantry attack. The registration normally consists
of one round near a specific position. For example,
on a recent date one round hit 50 meters from an
81mm mortar position at 1700. This was fol-
lowed at approximately 2400 by a combined
infantry/mortar attack in which the 81mm mortar
position received 20 rounds of mortar fire.
If at all possible, friendly positions subjected
to this tactic should be moved prior to any pos-
sible infantry/mortar attack. Where relocation is
not possible, the defensive posture should be
strengthened through the appropriate means.

#####
207
3. ENEMY I~ORTIFICATIONS
Recently discovered North Vietnamese Army
bunker systems and field fortifications were char-
acterized by their excellent concealment and
narrow fields of fire. Most of the bunkers could
not be detected until Marines were within 10 to 30
feet of the fortification. The lack of a wide field
of fire from the bunkers was partially compen-
sated for by numerous spider traps which were
positioned to protect the bunker systems:. The
principal direction of fire from the bunker was
invariably along trails and avenues of approach
that would afford each movement to attacking
Marine forces.
The avoidance of obvious avenues of approach
can negate planned enemy fires, achieve surprise,
and render the fields less destructive.

208
4. ENEMY EMPLOYMENT OF RPG-2ANTI-
TANK ROCKET LAUNCHERS

Recent encounters between our tanks and the

enemy armed with RPG-2 rocket launchers have
indicated an established pattern of employment.
As the tank approaches a hidden antitank posi-
tion, the crew’s attention is diverted by auto-
matic weapons fire. The natural instinct of the tank
commander and gunner Is to traverse the turret
toward the automatic weapons and engage them
with the coaxial machinegun or main gun, With “
the turret turned, for example, to 2 or 3 o’clock,
the RI?G-2 antitank man inevitably will get off a
shot from 10 to 11 o’clock on the turret’s flat
side.
Tank commanders and gunners should be
alert to this feint and not bring all weapons to
bear on one area. It is recommended that the
tank commander counter the small arms and
automatic fire with his .50 caliber machinegun.
The gunner should remain alert to fire the coaxial
machinegun or main gun with canister in the other
direction from ranges of 30 to 300 meters. In-
fantry working in close support should be briefed
on this problem and should be prepared to main-
tain frontal fire for short range or long range
protection.

##{{##

209
The team (5 men) and the cell (3 men) are
trained as snipers by an organized unit with which
they operate. Snipers have used the K-44 rifle
(7.62mm Mosin Nayant) with scope attached.
This is a bolt-action rifle with a 5-round maga-
zine: Maximum effective range with the scope is
1400 lmeters, and the maximum horizontal range
is 3500 meters. Trained snipers employ mines
and other explosive devices to cause casualties;
to channel friendly troop movements and to
facilitate their own withdrawal. Snipers may
engage at distances between 50 to 600 meters
depending on the terrain. The snipers are usually
deployed so as to permit the friendly force to be
engaged initially from head on, and then from the
flanks and rear. The initial fire is usually aimed
at the point element in an effort to fix the friendly
unit’s attention toward its front.
Remaining snipers are concealed in pre-
determined positions along the route of friendly
advance. The flank and rear snipers’ principal
targets are the unit commander andmencarrylng
automatic weapons and radios. Enemy snipers
usually do not fire more than about 5 rounds,
with most casualties resulting from the first 2
or 3 rounds. Trained snipers will normally main-
tain contact with a target by withdrawing along
preplanned routes paralleling the route of ad-
vance of the friendly column. Firing is con-
tinued from predetermined positions.
Much of the fire reported as sniper fire can
be attributed to local guerrillas. Such fire can be

211
distinguished by its larger expenditure of am-
munition and the shorter ranges invo~bed. It is
also usually less accurate. The local’ guerrilla
operates independently, with a sector of respon-
sibility rather than as part of a team.
The basic tactic of enemy snipers should be
studied to determine the most effective means of
countering them. Unit commanders should bear in
mind that harassing or sniper fire can be ex-
tremely effective, and can slow or even halt the
friendly advance,

# # # # #

6. VC WARNING DEVICE

The Viet Cong have devised many ways to

provide warning and protection from approaching
patrols. One method is to place large piles of
cut tree branches on trails approaching villages.
These brush piles extend completely across the
trail, and are from 3 to 6 feet in width, with
heights up to 4 feet. Removal of these obstacles
is difficult without creating noise which will alert
the enemy; movement around them is just as
difficult, The patrol leader must be prepared to
expend as much time as is necessary to move
around the branches or to quietly remove them
to avoid detection,
The Viet Cong also have used a number of
warning signals to alert their forces of the ap-
proach of friendly patrols. Warning devices have

212
included blinking lights, drumbeating and small
arms fire. In one area VC sympathizers were
instructed to remove and wave their hats when
Marine patrols approached. All unit leaders should
take note of any unusual occurrences which could
alert the enemy of the presence of Marine patrols,
Marine security patrols in one hamlet area
noticed a marked lack of contact at night with
the Viet Cong. In discussing this with a hamlet
official, the Vietnamese attributed it to a warning
system that certain viHagers use to advertise
patrol movements. A single light in a house window
meant that patrols were in the area; two lights
meant all clear, The houses displaying these
lights are situated on the edge of the hamlet near
an open field where the signal could be seen
from any of several paths leading toward the
hamlet.

#####

7, VC TRICKS
Rock throwing can be harassing, and even
dangerous, when it is used as a deception meas-
ure. The VC have frequently thrown rocks at
Marine positions at night to harass and distract
the sentries. The enemy has been known to in-
clude a grenade in a barrage of stones. The best
protection against such a tactic is to be alert and
have a well-preps red position including protec-
tive wire beyond grenade range. Treat any such
incident as just what it is--potentially dangerous,

213
 The Viet Cong do not limit themsel’{es to the
use of explosive devices when attempting to harass
u. s. troops. During a recent operation by a
Marine unit, a discarded VC pack was cautiously
examined. It contained no explosives, but some-
thing just as deadly -- a bamboo viper. The snake
was killed and that unit learned a new enemy in-
vocation.

#####

8. VC DECEPTION
Deception in all forms is practiced by the
Viet Cong. The following example illustrates an
attempt by the VC to halt naval gunfire bombard-
ments. A naval gunfire airborne spotter had di-
rected fire missions on a known VC base area;
the missions had been properly cleared, and the
gunfire was on target. The following morning a
214
sampan approached the gunfire ship. Several
elderly Vietnamese were on board displaying
national flags and holding up papers. Two of them
were taken aboard the ship, and the local district
chief and advisory personnel were flown aboard
to aid in interpreting. The papers were requests
to the ship not to fire on the hamlets near the
coast. This was an obvious deception as the two
hamlets were known to be VC controlled andused
as enemy bases. Both hamlets had long been a
source of trouble for patrols. The VC” forced
the local village elders to present false com-
plaints about civilian casualties due to gunfire,
In this case, both hamlets had long been vacated
by those people who were not VC or VC sympa-
thizers. The villagers were advised subsequently
by the district chief that firing would not be
necessary near these villages if the people made
the VC leave.
Deceptions are P commonplace tactic of the
guerrilla. Each seemingly valid request must be
investigated to determine whether some form of
deception is being attempted and how best to
counter it.

215
9. VC ATTACKS
An analysis of combat reports of Viet Cong
attacks against U.S. and other friendly fixed posi-
tions shows the intensity and duration of the at-
tacks have varied widely. As has been emphasized
before, the VC thoroughly prepare for such at-
tacks. This preparation is not without indicators
if you know where they are to be found. For
instance, adult men rather than children have
herded cattle near friendly positions one or more
days prior to the attack. The familiar patterfis of
neighboring village routine are noticeably altered;
fewer people attend market days; more or fewer
persons are observed riding the local bus;
the general attitude of the villagers is less warm
and conversations more circumspect; the village
chief is not available for daily liaison visits.

216
 Members of the local populace can be VC
sympathizers and, although they appear to be
engaged in routine activities, they can actually
be supporting the Viet Cong with an action such ,
as one noted by an alert Marine patrol. During
movement near a small hamlet, one patrol ob-
served a group of villagers who all appeared to
have one stiff arm, while the other arm was
normal. When the group was questioned and
searched, they were all found to have a weapon
concealed in their sleeve. All indicators such as
these can be arrows pointing to potential trouble
spots, Counterinsurgency, like good police work,
means lots of routine legwork and continuous
evaluation of evidence and circumstances.
“rhe intensity and short duration of attacks
m,ean that every minute is critical in reducing
casualties. Reconnaissance and tight local secur-
ity are good preventive measures; well dug in
positions save lives,

##tii#f/

10. VC COUNTER AMBUSH TECHNIQUE

One ambush technique utilized by the VC is to
preposition an automatic weapon approximately
100 to 150 meters from a known or probable
USMC ambush site, Prearranged left and right
lateral limits are then selected. These limits
are usually natural terrain features that are easily
identified (trees, boulders or houses). Two en-
veloping elements consisting of two or three VC,

217
usually armed with grenades, are then dis-
patched.
The enveloping element moves out and takes
positions at the prearranged left and right lateral
limits, at which time the VC automatic weapon
delivers. well dispersed fire over the entire
probable ambush site or several sites. Marines
who immediately return fire give away their
positions. The VC automatic weapon ceases fire
at this. time enabling envelopment units to move
in undetected and saturate the ambush site with
grenades.
It is, therefore, well to remember not to im-
mediately return fire when a friendly ambush
site receives a large volume of fire from a
relatively great distance. Keep under cover and
stay alert to respond to the situation as it de-
velops.

## fff#/f

11, VIET CONG RIVER-CROSSING

TECHNIQUES
Conversations with Popular Forces personnel
reveal that the Viet Cong, in heavily patrolled
areas, do not always use boats as a means of
crossing rivers. In areas where rivers are rather
wide, the Viet Cong will tie or strap their weapons
across their backs, inflate an easily obtainable
plastic bag and float slowly across with only their
heads showing. To mark the point where the indi-
vidual is to land, the Viet Cong have used the

218
technique of placing a simple bicycle taillight
reflector mounted on a bamboo stick at the
desired landing point. On moonlit nights, the
reflector provides adequate light for navigation
purposes. Tinfoil has also been used as a means
of providing an unattended navigation light.

#####

12. VIET CONG MEDICINE

The following account of Viet Cong medical
practices was written by Captain Arthur Mason
Ahearn, MC, USA, and first printed in the March
1966 edition of Military Medicine. Captain Ahearn
was a member of the 5th Special Forces Group
(ABN) in Vietnam and served as the surgeon to a
“C” detachment in I Corps.

a. Introduction
Any discussion of Viet Cong facilities and
activities is subject to strict security control.
Much of the documented information on Viet Cong
medicine is at present classified and cannot be
printed. What follows is a combination of the
author’s personal experience, informal reports
from colleagues, and information from unclas-
sified reports. It is hoped that it will serve as
an enlightening, if brief, introduction to some of
the medical practices of our enemy in Vietnam.

219
 h. Personnel and Training
Physicians are, of course, quite scarce.
Prior. to the Geneva Partition of 1954, the French
trained many of the doctors now practicing with
the Communists in both North and South Vietnam.
Now they must train their own, relying upon their
own resources and upon technical assistance from
nations sympathetic to them. The Viet Cong have
augmented their shortage by establishing a 12-
month ‘school for “medical officers” in a safe
area hidden in the jungles. Candidates have com-
pleted basic aid cycles and have served with
troops in the field. In the school they are taught
the structure and function of the organ systems,
basic diagnosis and treatment, and traumatic
surgery. The program is quite similar to that
studied by the U.S. Army Special Forces Medic,
It would appear that the instruction is largely
didactic with little emphasis upon practical work
or student contribution.
Nurses, midwives, aids, cooks, and bearers
also fit into the medical organization. In addition
to their professional training, these workers are
so impressed with the patriotic aspects of tend-
ing and comforting their fallen comrades that
they bring an amazing zeal to the bedside.

c. Battlefield Practices
The guerrilla is quite concerned about his
wounded. Outnumbered as he is, he can less afford
his losses than can his conventional opponent.
Moreover, wounded and dead constitute important
sources of intelligence which he little cares to
give his enemy. Accordingly, the Viet Cong make
every effort to retrieve their casualties. In many
areas they attack with one leg wrapped in a
length of vine. This permits the soldier to be
dragged hastily from the field should he fall. A
hook similar to that used by stevedores has also
been used on dead and seriously wounded soldiers.
This is inserted under the chin and serves as
another dragging device. Viet Cong medics brave
defending fire during attack lulls to extricate
wounded and dead from wire entanglements, In
some areas U.S, soldiers have been surprised to
note that when one Viet Cong is hit, his two adja-
cent comrades quit the fight and assist him to the
rear. It must be remembered that the Viet Cong
usually attack in vastly superior force.
It is evident that some triage isperformed
on the battlefield. Although no eyewitness accounts
of dispatch have reached the author, there are
numerous reports of Viet Cong dead bearing
serious body cavity wounds, who also have neat
gunshot wounds of the head.
Individual aid kits usually contain a
dressing, chloroquine tablets, an antibiotic
powder, and a handful of herbs for a stimulating
tea. Unit level aid kits contain surgical instru-
ments, frequently Chinese, and assorted anti-
biotics, vitamins, and stimulants, usually niketh-
amide preparations, Medicines are almost always

221
in parenteral form due to the Vietnamese pref-
erence for the intravenous route. This preference
reflects the French influence.

Following a sustained attack, defenders

always find an area used by the Viet Cong as a
forward aid station. Discarded items indicate that
the treatment here is limited to dressings, life-
saving procedures, and administration of anti-
biotics. ”-No use of plasma expanders has been
reported,

d. Forward I-Iospitals
Specific information on numbers, locations,
and organization of forward hospitals is, of
course, classified, However, it is safe to state
that many forward hospitals do exist in Viet Cong
safe areas. Here definitive treatment must be
administered.
The patient is prepared for surgery with a
stimulant --again usually nikethamide. Anesthesia
is by a combination of intravenous iaduction
agents and local infiltration. The dripping of
procaine on exposed tissue has been described.
There is no cvidcncc of inhalation equipment, and
only rarely is the use of open-drop ether reported,
Descriptions of debridement indicate that
the Viet Cong have a full knowledge of ballistic
injuries. Surgeons have described several tech-
niques of intestinal anastomosis. Although the
danger of infection is great, some orthopedic
cases are handled with internal fixation devices.
However, amputation is frequently the treatment
of choice.
Captured equipment indicates that routine
laboratory procedures on blood, urine, stool, and
smears are available at these hospitals.
It should be noted that some definitive
treatment is received by Viet Cong in hospitals
of the South Vietnamese civil government. The
guerrilla’s technique of blending in with the
civilian population makes it possible for him to
feign refugee status and to secure treatment in
the hospitals of his enemy.
e. Evacuation
Evacuation to the rear proceeds backwards
up the “Ho Chi Minh Trail. ” In the delta, the
sampan affords easy transportation and ready
concealment, In flatlands, a favorite conveyance
is a litter mounted between two bicycles. In jungle
and mountainous areas, transportation is via
human and animal bearers. The trail is con-
structed in a similar manner to the mission
highways of old with way stations spaced a day’s
journey apart. Members of the local population are
frecluently Impressed into service between two
of these way stations carrying supplies forward
and wounded backward. Doubtless, many a Viet
Cong has enjoyed the dubious luxury of an elephant
ambulance.

223
 ‘“ !2Q!E
The Viet Cong secure their pharmaceuti-
cals through several channels. Their own supply
system is one of these. Another is the black
market in South Vietnam. In Danang, a 250 milli-
gram tetracycline tablet sells for 28 piasters or
about 23’ cents. Another channel is that of the
legitimate South Vietnamese drug market, Most
items sold by prescription only in the United
States can- be purchased openly in Vietnamese
drug stores. Tifomycine (Chloramphenicol) is
featured in display windows, and highway bill-
boards sport advertisements of antihelminthics
complete with attractive illustrations of the
parasites. This ready access alarms officials
who are concerned with resources control.
In addition to western pharmaceuticals,
the Viet Cong employ a battery of herbs and
native medicines. A medical missionary working
in a Montagnard area has reported that he
suspects the Viet Cong of using a crude digitalis
preparation to poison their enemies, due to the
slow pulse, vomiting, and cardiac irregularities
of the victims.
g. Other Practices
The Viet Cong employ the same oriental
techniques as do their noncommunist country-
men. Needles and bits of glass are used to prick
the skin in a pattern determined by the nature of
the malady. Glass bottles are heated and applied
to the skin so that the suction generated as the

224
contained air cools may draw the evil agents
from the body.
h. Conclusion
In summary, the tendency to downgrade
the extent and effectiveness of the Viet Cong
medical operation should be avoided. Although it
is true that in many aspects Viet Cong medicine
is at a level parallel with American medicine
during our Civil War, it is believed that if the
full truth were known, all would be amazed at
the quality of medical care they are able to give
their sick and wounded.

#t# ###

13. OVERT VIET CONG MEETINGS

Patrols operating in or around villages should
be particularly aware of any gatherings of Viet-
namese males during day or night. These gather-
ings should be thoroughly investigated and if
feasible, the group leader brought in for formal
interrogation.
Recent Viet Cong meetings have been held
during broad daylight in villages by the use of
simple card games or local village games.
Americans, unfamiliar with the language, may
walk right by a group of Vietnamese supposedly
engaged in a friendly game, but who are actually
planning an attack on friendly positions.

#####

225
14. VIET CONG RICE RATION
Just how much rice do the VC need each day
to have enough strength to pull a trigger or to
pull some of his old harassing tricks? Did you
ever wonder how much rice he consumes per
day? Some interesting figures have been provided
recently by II FFORCEV which provide a good
idea of how much we hurt the VC when we capture
and extract his vital rice caches.
Recent military operations have had an impact
on limiting VC capabilities. A newspaper article
indicated that the rice captured in Operation
Cedar Falls, which at that time amounted to
3,170 tons, was “enough to feed a Viet Cong
battalion for a year. ” This quantity of rice was in
fact enough to feed more than 20 battalions
(500 hungry men each) for a year.
The VC rice ration varies according to the
area he is in and the type of work that he does.
In certain areas where rice is abundant, his daily
ration may amount to a full kilogram (2.2 Ibs),
but this is unusual. From a review of numerous
captured VC documents we find that a normal rice
ration per “man usually runs between 700 grams
in garrison to 750 gra]ms in combat. This rice
ration is augmented by fruit, vegetables, some
fish or meat and a small amount of money for
local food purchases. In remote mountain regions,
the rice ration often is reduced. Manioc and other
rice substitutes are used to make up perhaps 50
percent of the authorized ration.
The VC evidently do not appreciate how hard
their administrative personnel work because the
ration of these personnel is only 600 grams of
rice per day. On the other hand, artillery troops
are authorized up to 875 grams in combat.

227
 Here are a few figures on rice that will help
you estimate how badly you hurt the Viet Cong
when you carted off his rice. The VC figure that
one ton of rice will feed 40.4 men for a month.
We recommend that the figure of 1 1/2 pounds of
rice per man per day be used in computing the
impact of rice captured from the Viet Cong. In
estimating total weight of rice captured, units
should use the figures 50 pounds per cubic foot
for milled rice and 35 pounds per cubic foot for
paddy (unmilled) rice.

/#####/#

228
15. VC TOPOGRAPHICAL AND MILITARY
SYMBOLS

The following is a listing of commonly used

Viet Cong symbols as compiled from agent re-
ports, interrogation reports and captured docu-
ments which have been received from American
and Vietnamese agencies:

UNITS

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

N IU30RNE

1NFANTRY
UNIT

m ENOINEER
UNIT

El SIONN,
UNIT

El MILITARY
MEDICAL
SERVICE
UmT

JUNl(
FORCE

MORTAR
UNIT

ILLMIBLC
. PROBMLY
ARTILLERY
UNIT

El -P31D UNIT

229
 PERSONNEL

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

o SQUAD MEMSER

SQUAD
LEADER

ASSISTANT SQUAD LSADER

MATDON LFADER

A ASSISTANT
PLATOON LEADER

COMPANY
COW.IANDER

A CONPANY
F.XSCUTIVE
OFFICISR

A COUPANY PE7TY
OFFICER

DEPUTY
CONPANY
PE1’TV OFFICER

6 BATTALION
COHMANOSR

(5 REGIMENTAL COM4ANDER

DIVI
S1ONCIX44ANDCR

230
 EQUIPMENT

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

CARGO TRUCK

ANMORSD CAR

o TANN

I SHIP

HELICOPTER

TACT ICAL SYMDOLS

PLATOON IN ATCACK POSITION

CONPANY
1N A~ACK POSITXON

BATIXLION
INATTACK
POSITION

PLATOON IN TKE AWANCS

C@lPANY
IN ml! AWAKE

231
13ASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

DATTALION IN IIIE AWANCE

PLA’lceN III mm Awmms

(mochanizod)

CWPANY IN TNE AWAJ4CS

(mechanimd)

BATI’ALION IM TM* AWANCS

(mmchmizod)

SQUAO CONSAT FORHATI ON

1,
II > PLATOON COMSAT FORMATION

C(X.IPANYCONSAT FOPMATION

TRUCK COlL9AT FORMATION

00

II II
o 0 > CONVOY MWEJ4SNT

COWOY WI TN ARTILLERY
00 —>

COWOY WI TN TANxS

232
BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

BATTLS POSITION

PRONO 0? ATTACK

HALT

urnioMuAx.
4

ATTACK CJUCICSD

-4- A17’ACKCHCCXSD AND POIUXtDm

Usmomn

DXSSCTIDN
0? WITUDSAUAL

+
W N AITAcK ?ORCS

SSCCNMRY AIYAu TO-

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

MD TEAM

-& RAIDUNIT

o M,. OBJECTIVE

—— t —. IMMEMATE
MISSION

——— * _ PFUORXTY
MISSION
——— —_

MISSIONOF’” TNE IMY

(II RSASSWLYAREA

234
 TRACKED VEHICLE SYMBOLS

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

LIGHT TANK
a

o MEDIUM
TANK

● tlEAVY
TANK
o
&
SELF-PROPSLLED
TANK
o ●

FLAW3TNRONSS
TANK

FLAIL TANK

ANPHI
81OUS
TANx
o

COMPANY
CCWiANDSR,
S TANK

BATTALIoN
~DSRm S TAHX

RffiIY4ENTAL
CCUMXNDER
1S TAtJX

6’ DIVISION COWAN DER*S TANK

235
BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

v-o COMBAT
FORMATION

(Y-o PLATM)N
INCLOSE
FORMATION

v-o PLATOON
ININITIAL
FORMATION

(x) PLATOON
1NCOMBAT
FOIWATION

w-o CONPANY
INCOt43AT
FONJ4ATI
ON

w) nAllhLION
INCOMIAT
FORMATIOR

LANDING
ZONES

PA
RATRoQP
DROPZONE
~@

HELICO~ER
LANoING
ZONE

236
 FORTIFICATIONS AND EMPLACEMENTS

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

@ SOUARS INDIVI WAL SMPLACW~

la
WASNI
M CELL

BUNKT,R

19 OUAPD ms’r

CCHUNICATI
ON TRSNCN
UNDCIW3ROUND
~NICATIONTRSNCN
COM3AT
TscNalEs

lNTIMRuPTkD
CWgAT
T~sg

237
 OBSTACLES

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

BARKIER
FENCE

+-%,. nilOllm MMWD FENCE

CONCFJITINA

w 4- SINGLE
STRAND
BARS
EDWISE

-x— DDUnLE
STmNv
LIARDED WIRE

TNRE~ ORNORE
STRANDS
OFLIARDED
WI
RZ

MTEOROPENING
IN-l?

NOOD
POLE
FENCE

INTERLACED
TREE
FCNCE

LATTICE NODOEN
FENCE

J- .?..*
●
r-l n
LJ u 4 WOOEU FENCE

FORTIFIED HARLST

- ANTIASSAIJLT ‘i’RENCNUI’lW SPIKSS

238
BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

0 Ill
SPIKE PIT

SPIKE FISLD

Pumn TRAP

0 00
0:0 ANTITANK
MINEFIELD

0:
●
00
“*O
0. ~“. COMEINED
MINEFIELD

Y
LANE
THROUGH
MINEFIELD
 TRAIL SYMBOLS

BASIC SIGN VARIAZ’ZC);: MEANING

---+ TOSTAST
● muon mls WAY
QUICKLY

SLCM.Y

Tumc Lxn
‘nJPM SIarr
(y& + moss W4STACLS
WWJ1, WATEII

<
DIVIW. INTO Tnlt-uecuPs
UNITE INTO OUR
OSWP

L RlmJSN
SACK ZUCMW
&-zL._ lluswAYYow
AMK!L 100METERS TOcutP
+ CAMPlffiAREA

@ CAMF RICIIT
lIERS
A P*S ToENTER CAMP
A AA MNGER (PRmMLY Urlm+s
TO UYJIY
CAM.)
BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

SAPSTY
>>>

SNEMY IN AO/ANCC
><

SNCOIJNTSRSD
OPPOSITION
HSRS
><

PROHIBITED
SOAD
x

WAIT
HEMFORTSW
B

TNISWAY
TOTWC
RWSR

m LSTTER INTRSIZ

I 5 MfXCRS
TOLEITCR

m WATER
FALLS
100 MEIZRS

241
 GROUP SYMBOLS

BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

PRo.VC
PEOPLE

AGEUI’S AND
CADRS

FARMERS ASSOCIATION

COt41UNI
STPARTT
M=EBS

EI,XMENTS
INPflISONED
BY‘lliEVC

EL~TS UNDER
SURVEILLANCE

FAMILIES WIO.CNNEED BRAINNAENINO

SUSPSCTS

242
 TERRAIN SYMBOLS

BASIC SIGN VARIATION

NIDN
NxbL

HDuIrrNll
POSSST
DUISE
POSU3T
SPASSC
PcRus?
JUWL.R

.--= s-x
S2-t _-.-c
=-=.:=

1-
E3 lllIN?OREST
NITW
HKAVY
~

***
0 DRY
SICCPI
SLD

FlJ30DCD
RICZFI
~D

BUSH
 BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

4 ISOLATED TREE

—- LAJ7GE
RIVER

STREAN

~.-. --- -..

, LIRY
STREAM

FORM
NGPLACE
I

__ e.-.-> /
= - .0
—.
.-”
—- RIVER
WITl{
RocKS
ONM)T’ToM

‘!
FERRY
\

SPEEO AND DIREcTION

OFF-

244
BASIC SIGN VARIATION MEANING

RIVER WI ‘Ill SN4~ SHOM9

RIVER 5* ltIOS AND 4)4 DEEP

#####

245
 Chapter IV: AVIATION

The following operating procedures, tactics

and pilot techniques are currently being employed
by Marine helicopter units in the Republic of
Vietnam:

1. THE HELICOPTERBORNE ASSAULT

a. Planning and Coordination
The planning for a major helicopterborne
assault should be detailed, timely and effected
concurrently by all participating units. Failure
to achieve positive coordination or to provide
for the smallest detail or to commence early
planning will inevitably reduce the probability of
success. While certain overall aspects of plan-
ning and coordination must, of necessity, be

247
accomplished at the Division/Wing level, the
responsibility for detailed planning should be
passed as soon as possible to Lhe unit com -
manders who will execute the assault.

b. The Loading Phase

‘rhe size of the loading zone, in terms of
the number of helicopters that can be landed
safely therein, is critical to t!le success of the
entire operation, A single zone, free of obstacles
and with a large capacity for helicopters and
troops, is preferred and will greatly simplify
and facilitate the loading plan.
The key personnel in the loading zone are
the loadmasters from the helicopter unit and the
troop unit, all of whom must be thoroughly
knowledgeable concerning the loading plan. The
loading plan should be designed to provide the
loading sequence that supports the ground scheme
of maneuver, provide troop unit integrity, and
maintain or provide for the flight integrity of the
helicopter formations.
The loading zone will normally be or-
ganized with loading spots for the number of
helicopters which constitute one wave, with des-
ignated points for formation of troops into heli-
teams located abeam the helicopter spots, and
with specified areas for staged cargo, Some
flexibility in setting up the zone must be al-
lowed in the event of a major shift in wind di-
rection.

248
 A conference between the helicopter unit
loadrnaster (an officer or senior SNCO) and the
troop loadmaster, one or more hours prior to the
start of the loading, is always advisable. Invari-
ably, one of the biggest problems in maintain-
ing the sequence in the loading plan is that the
final troop count and amount of cargo may differ
considerably from the planning figures.
Many last minute problems in loading can be
resolved by providing the loadmaster with an FM
radio capability for communication with heli-
copter flight leaders. This FM frequency should
not be the same frequency used in the landing
zone (LZ). Use of this frequency by the heli-
copter pilots to report discrepancies in loading,
to report “loaded and ready” for takeoff, etc.,
will expedite the loading operation.

c. The En Route Phase

If the loading zone will accommodate the
entire flight of helicopters, the flight leader will
usually remain in the loading zone until the pre-
calculated takeoff time in order to arrive at the
LZ precisely at “L” hour without making any
delaying turns or orbits. Frequently the loading
zone will be in an area within range of sniper
fire. In this case, the helicopters will climb
over known safe areas or execute a spiraling
climb over the loading zone and effect the
rendezvous at 1500 feet above ground level (AGL)
or higher.

249
 The en route flight formation is always
free cruise, tactical, with at least two rotor
diameters separation between aircraft in the same
division. The cardinal rule is never to fly di-
rectly behind another aircraft except momentarily
while sliding in a turn. Many of the enemy
gunners are poor marksmen; i.e., they have a
tendency to aim directly at the. helicopter;

250
therefore, if the wingman flies a position behind
the leader at a distance of one rotor diameter,
he may receive ground fire aimed at the leader.
Whether to use three plane formation or four
plane formation has been a matter of squadron
preference. The number of troops to be lifted,
the size of the zones and other factors frequently
dictate the formation to be employed.
Weather permitting, the usual en route
altitude for transport helicopter flights in the
Vietnam environment where there is largely ,30
caliber fire, is 2500 feet AGL. In locations which
are reported to offer .50 caliber opposing fire,
the normal en route altitude is 5000 feet AGL. In
locations which are reported to offer larger
caliber antiaircraft weapons in opposition, the
preferred flight altitude is approximately 100
feet AGL, in defilade whenever possible.
d, The Approach Phase
As soon as possible after the first wave
has effected a rendezvous, the flight leader
establishes communications with the TAC(A)
(Tactical Air Controller Airborne) or HC(A)
(Helicopter Controller Airborne) who will provide
such pertinent information to the flight leader
as wind direction, weather, enemy situation, etc.,
at the LZ. Based on the provided information,
the flight leader will decide on the direction and
type of approach and will so inform the TAC(A).
At the predesignated initial point (1P), the
flight leader will report his arrival to the (TAC(A).

251
If the gunships have not effected rendezvous prior
to the arrival of the flight at the 1P, they should
join up at this point in abeam positions on both
sides of the transports. At approximately 2000 to
3000 meters from the LZ, the flight leaders
should request that the TAC(A) mark the LZ
with a smoke rocket or grenade. Timely marking
of the LZ is critical. A late mark, caused by the
TAC(A) being out of position, can cause unneces-
sary delay and orbits of large formations of
helicopters at a most inopportune time. If the
TAC(A) leads the flight into the LZ, the flight
leader should stay well behind in order to plan
and fly his own approach.
In a helicopterborne assault, the preferred
approach to the LZ is a high speed letdown (for
maximum rate of descent) and a right-hand turn
into the LZ, which will allow the flight leader to
keep the LZ in full view during the entire ap-
proach. A 900 right turn into the LZ makes it
easier for all helicopters in the flight to make
the approach without steep turns or radical
maneuvers; however, a 180° right turn gives the
flight leader a good look at the zone as he arrives
abeam the zone and commences the approach. A
straight-in approach is frequently used to effect
the initial landing in minimum space and time,
although the descent is somewhat more difficult to
judge and wingmen have a tendency to hold their
stepped-up position which may cause them to
land beyond the leader. A spiraling approach in
formation is considered the least desirable foran

252
assault landing involving large helicopter forma-
tions and should be used only if the flight arrives
over the zone and the leader is forced to set up an
orbit because he cannot locate the exact area of
the landing zone. A spiraling approach in forma-
tion cannot be effectively supported by gun-
ships; consequently, in this case the gunships
establish independent patterns around the LZ, An
approach using a left-hand turn is employed
when the enemy situation dictates or may be
employed on subsequent approaches to the same
LZ in order to introduce a variable into the
flight pattern.
e. Suppressing Fire in the LZ
Scheduled helilift of troops into unsecure
LZ’s carries with it the requirement for thorough
prep by fixed-wing aircraft or artillery bombard-
ment. Experience has shown that in spite of
adequate prep, the transport helicopters inbound
to the I.Z’s arc frequently fired on from locations
nearby. On scheduled strikes, helicopter gunners
take under fire any enemy positions adjacent to
the LZ; i.e., tree lines, trenches, bunkers, etc.
The helicopters land in an inverted ‘IV” forma-
tion to permit the outboard gunners to fire at
targets of opportunity. This tactic is permissible
only on the first wave. Gunners must be thoroughly
briefed on the proximity of friendly troops and
the location of adjacent LZ’S into which simul-
taneous landings may be taking place. (See fig.
4-l. )

253
 f. In the LZ
Frequently the LZ terrain will dictate the
exact landing spots. If there are no terrain re-
strictions, the helicopters norxmally land in regu-
lar flight formation with comfortable lateral
separation.
Troop debarkation occurs quickly and all
helicopters are taking off within a few seconds
in proper order. Only under the most unusual
circumstances would a helicopter take off prior
to the aircraft ahead. Those circumstances are
that the aircraft ahead has been obviously de-
layed and the LZ is receiving enemy fire.
It is highly advisable to arrange for
designated troops landed in the first wave to place
high visibility panels in the LZ as markings for

254
subsequent helicopter waves or, if one pre-
designated aircraft from each division pops a
smoke grenade in the landing zone as it departs,
the zone will be continually marked for the
succeeding waves of helicopters.

HELICOPTERLANDING
DIAGRAM

//

moo?
Iii
M[MSNT

Figure 4-1

255
 g. Departure From the LZ

Although the departure route is always pre-

planned and prebriefed, frequently last second
changes arc dictated by the enemy situation in
the vicinity of the zone. The flight leader should
announce via radio any changes to the briefed
departure for the benefit of his flight, escorting
gunships and the TAC(A). In order to reduce the
likelihood of a conflict between approach and
climbout patterns, the turn after takeoff normally
should be opposite in direction to that of the ap-
proach turn.
On the takeoff and high-power climbout,
the flight will avoid, if possible, flying over
villages, riverbanks, tree lines and high terrain
any of which could conceal enemy positions. While
below 1000 feet AGL, the flight leader should
256
execute abrupt changes of heading (10° to 20°) at
irregular intervals while climbing. Normally the
flight will not be able to join up on climbout until
a reasonably safe altitude (above 1000 feet AGL)
is reached and the flight leader reduces power
and executes a rendezvous turn, although mem-
bers of the flight will attempt to close in every
turn.

#####

2. HELICOPTER RETRACTION
a. Planning
The tentative plan for retraction of troop
units should be accomplished as a part of the
planning for the helicopterborne assault. The
final planning for a troop retraction should be as
detailed and as well coordinated as the planning
for the assault; too frequently this is notrealized
because of the exigencies of the battle situation,
and inevitably the difficulties encountered in the
troop retraction will reflect the planning de-
ficiencies.
The selection of a suitable large area for
the LZ is of paramount importance. It must not
have any avenues of approach such as villages
which offer concealment; it must not be on or
near a river unless the other side of the river
is occupied by a friendly force; it must not be
near dominating terrain unless that terrain is oc-
cupied by a friendly force.

257
 b. The Loading Phase
All aspects of the loading phase for a
hclicopterborne assault also apply in the heli-
copterborne retraction, the important difference
being that the loading zone may be only tempo-
rarily secure or perhaps never secure from
direct enemy fire.
The major problem in a troop retraction
is that of providing security for the LZ as the
troop units are withdrawn. Although this is the
ground commander’s responsibility, the heli-
copter commander has a direct personal interest
in the plan for an orderly withdrawal of the troops
from the 12. For this reason a personal con-
ference between the ground commander and the
helicopter commander prior to commencing the
retraction is advisable. In addition to LZ security,

258
two critical items which must be discussed during
this brief conference are the provision for FM
radio communications between the loadmasters
and flight leaders and an accurate troop count.

c. The Final Wave

The crucial phase of the troop retraction
is the formation and expeditious departure of the
last wave of helicopters. Keeping in mind that
the enemy will recognize this moment as the
golden opportunity to strike a decisive blow
against our reduced force, the number of heli-
copters in the last wave must be tailored to lift
out the sizable force required to secure the LZ
until the last minute, Conversely, the size of the
security force must be tailored to the helicopter
availability. In either case, the security force
is lifted out as a unit in the last wave. During
this crucial phase it is imperative that ade-
quately armed helicopter and fixed wing support
be on station.
d. The Emergency Evacuation
In all helicopter evacuations under emer-
gency conditions, the possibility of PANIC exists.
This possibility is greater when such an opera-
tion is to be conducted under enemy fire and must
be anticipated whenever possible. After the deci-
sion has been made to conduct an emergency
evacuation, the planning must include an analysis
to determine the likelihood of an uncontrolled
situation in the pickup zone and to determine
control measures in such an eventuality to prevent

259
swamping of the helicopters. If the emergency
evacuation involves Vietnamese personnel, civil-
ian or military, the problem is compounded
severely by the language barrier between pas-
sengers and helicopter crews and by the lack of
passenger indoctrination in helicopter operations.
The loadmaster personnel usually furnished by a
helicopter unit to direct the loading of pas-
sengers and cargo in a retraction will be quickly
overwhelmed when a panic situation occurs.
Whenever an e m c rge nc y retraction/
evacuation mission is assigned wherein the pos-
sibility exists that a panic situation may develop
during the loading phase, the helicopter com-
mander will take the following action:
+ Analyze the known factors and anticipate
the likelihood of an uncontrollable situation.

260
* Provide increased numbers of load-
masters organized and equipped as deemed ap-
propriate.
+ Attempt to establish direct liaison and/
or communications with the leaders of personnel
to be evacuated.
+ Provide interpreters, if required.
+ Provide aircraft equipped with a loud-
speaker system and Vietnamese speaking per-
sonnel, if appropriate,
Instruct helicopter crews and load-
masters in the application of tl]e following meas-
ures to be taken progressively in a step-by-
step manner commensurate with the degree of
severity of the mob action encountered:
+ Control the number of passengers by
blocking entrance to the helicopter.
+ Employment of physical force.
+ Hover the helicopter or takeoff and
remain airborne until order has been restored.
+ Use of tear gas or other riot control
agents.
+ Use of rifle butts or riot clubs.
+ Fire over the heads of the mob or into
the ground in front of the mob.

261
+ ~hen all of the foregoing either have
failed or are impossible to execute, fire at the
leaders of the mob aiming low in an effort to
stop rather than kill them.

####if

3. RECC)NNAISSANCE PARTY INSERTION AND

EXTRACTION
a. Recon Insertion Procedures
A reconnaissance patrol or party insertion
consists of a one-wave troop landing in an isolated
area from which the reconnaissance will be
initiated. The object is to introduce the patrol
into the area as surreptitiously as possible and to
complete the insertion in the shortest time

262
possible before any enemy forces can react,
Normally the flight leader bases his preflight
planning on the information given in the frag
order and the intelligence provided at the squadron
level. A brief conference covering the following
points between the patrol leader and the flight
leader at the pickup site is always beneficial in
finalizing the flight leader’s plan of action:
Confirm FM frequency and call signs
for air-ground communications,
Confirm LZ location,
Gonfirm number of troops.
Emergency procedure in the event the
patrol receives fire immediately after landing--
usually immediate extraction. The patrol leader
should ride in the flight leader’s helicopter in
case further conferring becomes necessary.
If armed helicopter support has been ,pro-
vided, it is advisable to have the gunships pre-
cede the transport flight to the proposed LZ
by a few minutes, the purpose being to check the
LZ for signs of enemy activity, and to estimate
and relay the capacity of the LZ, After takeoff
from the LZ, empty helicopters will climb over
the zone in such a manner as to provide some
fire support, if required, to landing aircraft.
When the latter becomes airborne, the empty
helicopters proceed to a designated “empty circle”
and hold a safe altitude until the last helicopter
is clear of the LZ.

263
 If the patrol insertion is made in a moun-
tainous area where wind ,direction and velocity
are more critical and more difficult to estimate
from natural indicators, the flight leader will
normally drop a smoke grenade prior to the
first landing in the interest of flight safety even
though it may increase the probability that the
patrol insertion will be detected by the enemy.
The most critical period for a helicopter-
borne patrol is during and immediately after its
insertion into the operating area. Because of
voids in knowledge of the enemy situation, it is
during this time that the patrol is most likely to
encounter unexpected enemy resistance. Fixed-
wing aircraft assistance or emergency helicopter
extraction may be necessary during this period.
After departure from the LZ, the helicopters
should remain on the patrol net frequency until
they return to base,
b. Improving LZ’S
Effective operations require a positive LZ
improvement program. Continuous efforts are re-
quired to develop new LZ’S that can be utilized
for reconnaissance insertions and extractions,
communication sites, and observation posts. One
method of LZ improvement that htts proven suc-
cessful is the use of daisy cutter bombs dropped
from fixed-wing aircraft.
The daisy cutter utilizes an extender on the
normal fuze, which causes the bomb to detonate
up to 36 inches from the ground, This, above-the-

264
ground detonation produces a shearing effect
which aids in the clearing of LZ’S. Ivlultiple
bombing runs over an area of medium vegetation
will normally clear an LZ large enough to ac-
commodate one CH-46. In heavy canopy, the use
of daisy cutters will not completely clear an LZ,
but the fragments will cut away sufficient vegeta -
tion to enable a support team to rappel in, Once
the support team has landed, they can then pre-
pare a zone that is adequate for helicopter
landings.

c. Extraction Procedures
A recon patrol or party extraction con-
sists of a onewave helicopter recovery at the
completion of the reconnaissance mission or in
some instances when the patrol’s position has
become or is expected to become untenable.

265
 Prior to commencing the extraction, it is im-
portant to verify the number of troops involved.

With rare exceptions, the patrol to be

extracted has FM radio communications and is
expecting the helicopters at the scheduled time;
thercf ore, location of the patrol is seldom a
problem. The patrol normally pops a smoke
grenacic as soon as the helicopters arrive in the
general area. If the landing zone will accommodate
the entire flight, all aircraft land, load, and de-
part together. Otherwise, the land, load, and take-
off cycle is repeated expeditiously while providing
mutual fire support by flying low cover for each
other insofar as possible. Mutual fire support
will be unnecessary if the extraction is being
supported by gunships.
f# # {/ # #

266
4. COMBA-r RESUPPLY BY HELICOPTER

a. Forward Support Area Operations

The helicopter support team (HST) con-
cept of employment set forth in FMFM 4-3,
section 8 is valid in the counterinsurgent en-
vironment subject to some modifications. Pri-
marily, the difference is in the location of the
LZ at which the HST performs the shore party
function for the helicopterborne assault force. The
HST is not a part of the assault force but
establishes its support organization at a logistic
support area (LSA) or at a beach support area
near the battle zone but in a relatively secure
area. From this forward support area the heli -
copterborne assault force receives its logistical
support by helicopter under positive control of
the aviation element of the HST, which includes
the landing zone control team with appropriate
communications and an aviation refueling section
(TAFDS unit). Normally, helicopter maintenance
support is not provided at the forward support
area.
One of the major problems encountered in
the operation of helicopters at forward support
areas has been the ingestion of sand and dirt
into fuel and lubricating systems. In spite of ad-
ditional precautions, such as more frequent filter
changes, this ingestion of fine particles of sand
and dust has caused many engine failures and other
malfunctions. Occasionally, a grassy area can be

267
 Since tile CH-53A helicopter began opera-
tions in RVN, internal movement of cargo to
forward combat. areas has been extensive. When

268
the external method of cargo movement was used
In support of ground operations, results lndlcated
that over relatively short distances (less than 50
miles) external cargo movement is much more
desirable and efficient. Additionally:
Twice as much cargo per hour was
moved externally as was move internally, or the
same a mount of cargo was moved twice the
distance when handled externally.
The average ground time lost in the
pickup/drop zones was a minimum of 15 minutes
for each zone when loaded/off-loaded by hand
compared to less than 2 minutes in either zone
when externally loaded.
The efficiency of the aircrew and the
loading/off-loading working party decreases
greatly in proportion to the amount of cargo to
be handled. This results in increased ground time
which can be relieved by using external vice
internal lift and by presaging cargo in cargo
nets,
It is apparent that when two or more
aircraft are used, external cargo movement will
greatly reduce pickup/drop zone congestion and
virtually eliminate the need for one aircraft to
orbit, which is often the case, while the other
loads/unloads.
Due to the lack of adequate mechanized
loading equipment, it has been found that internally
moved cargo must often be hand-loaded/unloaded.
“rhis usually requires a 20 to 25 man working
269
party per aircraft in both the pickup/drop zones.
lZxternal cargo handling eliminates the need for
large working parties for cargo handling, thus
making more men available for other tasks.
c, Selecting Helo LZ’s
Field units often choose a small helicopter
zone for resupply near their positions rather than
a larger zone a slight distance away. The larger
zones have the advantage of affording the re-
supply helicopters a short roll-on landing, thereby
increasing the payload. Consult a Forward Air
Controller when selecting these landing zones;
he can assist in a choice which will satisfy the
needs of the supported unit and the helicopters.
d. Assignment Procedures
The technique of assigning specifically
designated helicopters for logistic support of
infantry units has proven itself to be highly
successful. Two variations are employed:
With a battalion in a fast-moving situa-
tion, covering difficult terrain, two helicopters
can be assigned in direct support of the battalion
for medical evacuation, resupply, evacuation of
prisoners and equipment, and displacement of
Marine personnel, supplies and equipment.
For battalions in relatively static situa-
tions, logistic support can be provided by assigning
direct support helicopters to the shore party
group commander, there in providing the means
for delivery and pickup.

270
 e. Internal and External Loads
Some cargo items have the weights clearly
marked or are familiar items which have known
weights. The weight in many instances must be
estimated, as accurately as possible. The crew
chief should keep pencil and pad handy so that
mistakes caused by mental arithmetic can be
eliminated.
The procedures for external loads in the
combat environment are unchanged except that it
is more important to join up the flight at least
in twos or threes for mutual safety on the en
route flight.
f. Outpost Resupply (ARVN)
This type of ARVN resupply mission is
from a support base, which frequently is not as
secure as one would prefer, to an ARVN outpost
which is secure for a radius of 1000 meters or
less, It usually involves transporting supplies
of rice, ammunition, fish oils, wheat, lumber, wire
and/or soliders with wives, children, dogs, house-
hold goods, etc. For this mission the helicopter
unit always provides a loadmaster; nevertheless,
if there is no American or Australian advisor
or English speaking ARVN officer to help with
control and coordination, some difficulties must
be anticipated.

271
 g. Pilot Procedures and Techniques

On combat resupply mission, either in

support of a ground operation or in support of
mountain outposts, a great variety of situations
and conditions can be encountered. Therefore,
the Ilclicoptcr pilots must be flexible, versatile,
and alert for the unexpected.
If a fixed-wing attack escort has beenpro-
vidccl, the establishment of communications and
the rendezvous with the escort should be ef-
fectecl at the time and place designated in the
frag order. En route to the I.’Z, the helicopter
commander will brief the flight leader of the at-
tack escort on the pertinent aspects of the mission
which will include the locations of known enemy
positions from which fire may be expected. I)ur-
ing critical periods of the flight, the helicopter

272
commander should inform the attack escort leader
when the “assault wave pattern” is considered ap-
propriate.
Although the normal en route altitude for
resupply missions is 2500 or 3000 feet, when flying
over mountainous terrain the altitude should be
increased to provide an appropriate margin of
safety from small arms fire. The flight leaders
will always endeavor to avoid known “hot” areas
where enemy fire has been frequently received.
In the counterinsurgent environment helicopter
pilots should refrain from the stateside practices
of departing on course while climbing at low
altitude and of commencing a letdown at some
distance from the destination, thereby placing
the aircraft in a low and slow condition well out-
side of the field boundary. The safer procedures
are:
+ To effect a spiraling climb after take-
off over the most secure area to an altitude above
1000 feet AGL prior to proceeding on course.
+ To execute a spiraling approach singly
or in formation from en route altitude. Some
pilots prefer to letdown en route to 1500 feet
AGL over the point of intended landing, thereby
always flying the spiraling approach through the
same vertical airspace on every approach to re-
duce the probability of errors in judgment. The
airspeed maintained in the spiraling approach

273
may be varied as required to achieve the result
desired; i.e., a slower airspeed of 60 knots
produces a tighter spiral keeping the helicopter
as close as possible to the secure landing area;
whereas, a higher airspeed of 100 knots produces
a substantial increase in rate of descent but also
a much wider spiral.
Landings at mountaintop outposts
usually require a percision approach to a small
cleared area which rarely accommodate more
than two aircraft. Although personnel at the out-
post are supposed to mark the landing spot with a
smoke grenade, frecluently they do not, Since wind
information in a mountainous area is critically
important to the landing of a helicopter, the
flight leader will drop his own smoke grenade on
a low pass over the site prior to approaching
for a landing if there is no other positive indica-
tion of wind condition at the site. Pliots should
be aware that the wind direction at the base of a
mountain may be significantly different from the
wind direction at the top of the mountain.

#####

274
5. MEDICAL EVACUATION BY HELICOPTER
a. General
Of’ the diverse missions performed by
helicopter, the evacuation of battlefield casualties
ranks in several aspects as the most significant.
Such categorization is reflected in the fact that
regardless of demands upon helicopter avail-
ability to perform other missions, there will al-
ways be helicopters set aside for the sole pur-
pose of responding to requests from casualty
evacuation. Further, the aviation elements con-
cerned with the execution of ME DEVAC missions
regard suc!~ activities as the ultimate of the
various categories of air support rendered. As a
result, cognizant command and control agencies
authorize ME DEVAC missions under conditions
which would normally cancel missions of another
nature.
275
 Under these circumstances it is inevitable
that attrition of helicopters and crews engaged in
ME DEVAC missions will be higher than associated
with other missions. Current 1st MAW statistics
indicate that while ME DEVAC missions account
for but 7.5 percent of total helicopter missions,
such missions account for 32 percent of the total
crew casualties resulting from enemy fire.
There is probably no action which may be
taken to reduce the hazard level ~f MEDEVAC
missions to the general level of overall heli-
copter operations. It is necessary, however, that
every effort he made to minimize the associated
attrition ratm. ‘1’his necessity touches directly
upon the ground commander for it is he WI]O
declares the requirement for ME DEVAC and it is
he who does or does not undertake facilitating
preparatory and supporting actions.
To this end, continuing command attention
is dirccred to tllc following Inal ters:
The determination as to whether the
ME DEVAC is to be classified and passed through
air request channels as routine, priority oremer-
gency rests with the ground commander on the
scene. The following general classification
criteria are used:
Emergency. Critical wound, injury
or illness, judged to require immediate evacua-
tion as a matter of life or death.

276
 Priority.
—— Serious wound, injury or
illness judged to require early hospitalization
hut not requiring immediate evacuation as a matter
of life or death.
Routine. Wound, injury or illness of a
minor nature which requires the attention of
other than locally available medical resources.
This classification will additionally be normally
applied for evacuation of deceased personnel
and for transfer of patients between medical
facilities.
Since the call foremergency MEDEVAC
may cntall and/or inspire cxtraorclinary risk ac-
ceptance on the part of dle participating helic-
opter crew, full and continuing attention is di-
rected to the following:
It is not practical to provide a com-
plete listing of wouncls/injuries/a iln]ents which do
or do not cons~jtute cause for emergency evacua-
tion. In general, aInbLIlatory patlcnts will posltlvcly
not be so classified; personnel with penetrating
wounds of the head and body cavities or who have
suffered loss of an extremity will be.
An emergency MEDEVAC takes
precedence over all others. The commander
calling an emergency must do so with full reali-
zation that his action may cause a significant de-
lay in the evacuation of other wounded Marines.

This consideration plus attendant

risk factors dictates that the determination to call

277
for emergency evacuation be invariably derived
from a totally honest appraisal of that professional .
or lay medical evaluation and advice which is
available on the scene or through rapid com-
munication channels.
Overall considerations and facilitating
actions to be taken by the ground commander:
It serves no purpose to call a heli-
copter into an environment in which it cannot
sufiive. The security of the LZ from which the
evacuation is to be made must be evaluated and’
if not secure:
The evacuation must be moved
to a reasonably secure area or, if this is not
feasible:
+ The LZ must be made secure
while the evacuation is in progress by applica-
tion of that suppressive fire available to the
ground commander in the immediate area or by
artillery fire or by fixed-wing cover and/or by a
combination of the three.
The medical evacuation helicopter
will normally be accompanied by armed heli-
copter escort. Such escort is effective for sup-
pressing localized small arms fire but cannot
outduel mulzisource automatic weapons fire and/
or concentrations of small arms fire. With
present armament, and armed UH-l E maybe shot
out of the sky by a .50 caliber machinegun be-
fore it can bring its own weapons to hear. Within

278
a hostile environment with which it can contend,
the armed helo escort is most effective if the
pilot is aware of the LZ situation and enemy
positions prior to arrival. It is accordingly es-
sentjal that the supported unit make every effort
to establish radio contact and exchange pertinent
info Lmation with the aircraft before it approaches
the LZ, ..The frequency for this purpose must be
specified in the MEDEVAC request.
An adequate and mutually acceptable
landing site should exist. In this matter, the sup-
ported unit is expected to advise the pilot with
respect to prospective pickup point, but the ulti-
mate choice must be made by the pilot who must
base his decision not only on ground dispositions
and situation, but also on the capabilities of his
aircraft under the prevailing flight conditions.
If terrain or vegetation conditions
are such that an adequate landing site neither
exists nor can be cleared by reasonable effort and
it is impossible to move the casualty overland to a
more suitable area, then and only then will the
evacuation be accomplished by hoist. This mode
is particularly hazardous because:
The helicopter is totally vulner-
able to any degree of enemy fire while main-
taining the necessary stationary hover.
Any degree of pendulum motion
may result in fouling the hoist if the operation is
being attempted through a jungle canopy. In this
regard, extreme care must be taken by personnel

279
 .-

.Ml$aiib?i
on the ground to ensure that the hoist cable ex-
tends vertically (without deflection by tree
branches, etc.) from the helicopter to the ground
and that the evacuee is secured to the cable at that
point, Under no circumstance may the cable be
pulled from the vertical. A potentially disastrous
pendulum motion can be the only result. A true
vertical lift must be set up by the’ personnel

280
on the ground, by moving the evacuee to the verti-
cal (free-hanging) cable preferably, or if this is
physically impossible, by instructing the pilot to
adjust, his hover position to a point directly over
the evacuee as evidence by the ground contact
point of the free-hanging cable.
The unit requesting a MEDEVAC
must be prepared to assist the pilot in locating
the casualty pickup point. Any available means
including voice radio and pyrotechnics may be
used. If the evacuation is to be made at night,
the supported unit must light the intended pickup
zone utilizing flashlight or other light sources
at the approximate four corners of the obstruc-
tion-free area, If this is not feasible, inability
to light the zone must be indicated on the
MEDEVAC request and the requesting unit must
be prepared to accept flare illumination.
Every effort must be taken to mini-
mize the time that the evacuation helicopter must
remain on the ground. The stationary helicopter
constitutes an extremely lucrative target and the
longer it remains on the ground, the more intense
the enemy fire usually becomes. To this end, the
evacuee should be prepared and positioned im-
media tel y adj scent to the pickup point before
the helicopter lands.
b. Pilot Procedures
If communications can be established with
the ground unit which requested the MEDEVAC, it
is usually not difficult to locate the site except

281
during a ccmdi[ion 0[ reduced vlsihi]ity caused
by darkness or bad weather. ‘1’lwrc are several
methods or navigational aids that can be utilized
to locate the pickup:
Obtain the TACAN bearing and distance
for the coordinates given from the DASC or TADC.
When the ground unit FAC has the air-
craft in sight, he can clirect the pilot over the
site and/or mark the site with signal mirror,
smoke grenade or flare, as appropriate.
Plot a course which follows rivers,
coastline, highways or other prominent terrain
features co the pickup area even if the route is a
few miles farther.
If the ground unit FAC can transmit on
UIIF, home on his signal using the ARA-25direc-
tion finder.
Although a MEDEVAC pickup site itself
may be secure from enemy fire because of de-
filade, frequently the areas over which the heli-
copter must approach and depart may ~ be
secure. Therefore, it is imperative that the pilot
obtain from the ground unit FAC the best quadrant/
direction for approach and retirement as well as
the location of nearby enemy positions. The gun-
ship can be very effective on a mission of this
type. Even the presence of the gunship will, at
times, suppress enemy fire. Occasionally a pickup
zone which has been declared “secure” and has,
in fact, rcccivcd no enemy fire for sometime,

282
suclcienly becomes “hot” when the helicopter
presents a lucrative, highly visible target that
draws direct ancl indirect fire. While waiting
in the landing zone the helicopter pilot can gain
some important knowledge of the local ground
picture by simple observation; e.g., if all or al-
most all of the troops are in the prone position
behind the dikes, etc., the zone must be “hot”;
also if most of the troops appear to be facing
and pointing rifles in the same direction, that
must be the direction of the enemy, so do not
take off in that direction.
Night lighting for a MEDEVAC pickup is a
serious problem which will not be solved until
ground units are issued sets of portable, direc-
tional lights (strobe lights preferred) with which
to mark the landing zone with a 100-foot square
pattern. Meanwhile, flashlights, gasoline fires in
pits, and anything available will be used to mark a
safe landing area. Although it may be necessary
at times because of enemy fire to make an ap-
proach wit!~ lights “out,” pilots should be advised
to use aircraft lights as required to accomplish
a safe landing. The vertical-hover light, painted
red, has been found to be quite effective for night
landing under, these conditions.
There are a number of questions relating
to pilot judgment which are difficult to answer:
+ At what point does enemy fire become
too heavy to continue mission? An answer which
may he oversimplified is “When the enemy fire

283
sounds heavy but is not hitting the helicopter, the
mission should be continued”; on the other hand,
“When the enemy fire sounds heavy and is hittin~
the helicopter, the mission should be aborted
until the situation can be rectified. ”
+ At what point does the weather become
too bad to continue the mission? Another over-
simplified answer is “When the situation appears
to be making demands that exceed the capabilities
of the ‘aircraft or the pilot, it is time to abort. ”
The common tendency is to go too far or to
hesitate too long.

#####

284
6. MONSOON WEATHER FLYING
a. Flight Problems Induced by the Monsoon
From October through March annually, the
Danang/Chu Lai region is affected by the north-
east monsoon which causes low cloud ceilings
and flight visibility on 15 to 20 days per month,
I-Iowever, on the days of marginal weather, rarely

285
will the helicopters be held on the ground because
of weather itself. The first problem is that flying
aircraft at low altitude, below 1500 feet AGL,
over an area infested with insurgents/guerrillas
frequently results in unacceptable battle damage
and casualties. A second problem is that of the
inherent difficulty in low-level navigation ag-
gravated by a condition of reduced flight visi-
bility. A third problem is that the inadvertent
IFR procedure listed in the NATOPS Flight
h4anual” (UH-34 ) becomes an inadequate solution
in the case of large flights of helicopters; and if
the air traffic control system is already saturated
at the time, the NATOPS inadvertent IF R pro-
cedure would be ill-advised.

b. Procedure
First Problem. . . (low
-—----- flight
---- ...... and enemy
-—.—— fire)
If the mission calls for flight over an
area which has been quiet (no hit reports) for a
considerable period of time, the flightleader may
elect to attempt the mission in spite of a low
cloud ceiling. The availability of UH- lE gun-
ships for helo escort would be a factor itilu’encing
the flight leader’s decision.
If the mission has been assigned a
priority of “mandatory,” there is no question that
every effort will be made to accomplish the
mission in spite of weather and risk.
The mission may be delayed until the
weather has improved to acceptable minimums.

286
 The mission may be canceled when there
appears to be no chance of weather improvement
within the required time frame.
Even a mandatory mission may be
aborted when the weather encountered creates a
situation which, in the judgment of the flight
leader, is beyond the capabilities of the pilots or
the aircraft.
Second —.-Problem (low-altitude
. . .. .-—..-—.——.—.—.—navigation)
On a low-altitude flight in a condition
of low flight visibility, line-of-sight radio aids
to navigation are frequently unusable. Therefore,
the flight leader must rely on dead reckoning
(heading-time-distance) navigation or navigation
by following prominent terrain features such as
highways, or rivers, etc., a combination of both
which is usually the case.
The preflight planning for a low alti-
tude/low visibility flight must be done carefully.
The route selected must provide the best terrain
aids to navigation even if the distance is greater
than a direct route; e.g., from A to B follow
Highway 1 (estimated time en route: 10 minutes);
hold a magnetic heading of 260° for approxi-
mately 3 minutes to intercept river at C; follow
river in southerly direction to D.
Third Problem
.—-..—--(inadvertent
..-—------..-—-- IFR proce-
dures) ‘—
It is extremely difficult to fly forma-
tion with helicopters in the dark, heavy clouds

287
associated with monsoon weather. To enter heavy
weather with a large formation of helicopters is
to invite disaster. When confronted with the im-
mediate prospect of taking a formation of heli-
copters into IFR conditions and a 180° turn is
elected as the course of action, the flight leader
should descend immediately to keep the surface
in sight and turn in the direction which appears
to offer the best horizon; e.g., if flying over the
water parallel to the beach line, turn toward the
land. When confronted with the immediate pros-
pect of taking a formation of helicopters into IFR
conditions and the decision is to continue straight
ahead, the flight leader should descend immedi-
ately from 100 to 200 feet AGL in order to keep
the surface in sight. If the visibility is extremely
poor, the airspeed should be reduced to approxi-
mately 60 knots. The wingmen are still in visual
contact with the surface; therefore, comfortable
formation flight is still feasible. The fore~oin~
low altituclc/low visibility procedures for heli-
copter formations are not recommended for night
flights.

7. NIGI-IT 11ELICOPT12R OPERATIONS

a, General Considerations
Night helicopterborne assault missions are
feasible and have been conducted regularly in
Vietnam. There are many special considerations
in the planning and. execution of such missions:
+ The planning must be more detailed
with the closest possible coordination between
ground and aviation units participating; there-
fore, decentralized planning and execution under
centralized supervision and control become in-
creasingly important.
The loading zone will be organized in
the same manner as for daytime. There is an ad-
ditional requirement for portable lights with whi$h
to mark aircraft spots and positions for heliteams.
The portable lights are part of the helicopter
squadron’s T/E allowances.
The flight formations should be modified
so that the basic formation is the two-plane sec-
tion. The number of helicopters per flight should
be reduced to a comfortable number, perhaps
six. The overall number of aircraft, fixed and
rotary wing, which occupy the same general air-
space at the same time must be held to a con-
trollable minimum,
Except for areas which are absolutely
devoid of obstacles, it is considered essential
to provide constant flare light for helicopter
formation landings at night. Multiple flare drops
of millions of candlepower will provide a half-
light or twilight condition entirely acceptable for
visual control of helicopters. However, it should
be expected that slender defoliated trees, wires,
and other similar objects will not be readily
visible in the subdued light.

289
 b. Night Lighting of Rough Area LZ’S
Satisfactory illumination of LZ’S is a major
factor in the accomplishment of night missions.
IUumination has been provided at the one time
or another by strobe lights, flashlights, cigarette
lighters, jeep lights, tank lights and burning
smudge pots, to name a few. Each has advantages
and disadvantages depending upon the weather and
the tactical situation. Vehicle lights illuminate the
zone too. brightly and disclose the zone to the
enemy. Lights from a flame source are not
beamed, therefore are not readily visible under
conditions of poor visibility.
Flashlight wands similar to those used by
aircraft taxi directors are much superior to
other methods of lighting in that they produce a
high visible, but not harsh light.

8. PILOTS 13RIJZFING ON IZMERGENCY

M1SS1ONS
Prompt and safe execution of emergency heli-
copter missions is greatly expedited if the’ infor-
mation required by the pilot upon arriving at the
landing zone is readily available.
As the urgency of the mission increases,
the time factor for the exchange of information is
lessened, hence the readiness of the ground unit
to pass desired information will greatly expedite
execution of the mission.

290
 A good mental checkoff list should be made
prior to a helicopter entering your LZ. Have this
info ready before the helo arrives.
Approximate size of the LZ.
When was enemy fire last received and
from what direction?
Where are the nearest friendly troops? (If
possible mark their position if pilot requests it. )
Are there any obstacles in the approach
path of the helo?
Are there any obstacles on the ground in
the LZ?
From what direction would the helo most
likely receive enemy fire?
From what direction should the helo ap-
proach LZ?
Is pilot cleared to fire if he receives
enemy fire?
Have MEDEVACS ready at the LZ when helo
arrives.
Pop smoke when pilot asks for it.
Stay on your radio until the helo departs.

291
9. REACTION FORCE DEPLOYMENT BY
HELICOPTER
The troops to be deployed as a reaction force
and the requisite number of transport helicopters
and armed helicopter escort are placed on an alert
standby condition with a specified reaction time.
If the troops of the reaction force are billeted
near the helicopter parking area, the reaction
time can bc reduced by 10 to 15 minutes: Some
units attempt to react so quickly that they elimi-
nate any time for briefing, a practice which can
bc justified only in a truly emergency situation.
The reaction time of the helicopters can be re-
duced by the following:
+ Aircraft engines should be warmed up
periodically.

—
+ All pilots, crewmen, and troop leaders
should receive a common intelligence briefing
once or preferably twice daily during the period
of standby.
+ All troops should be organized into heli-
teams and assigned to specific aircraft.
+ The flight leader should conduct a thorough
flight briefing u p o n assumption of standby,
presenting a generalized plan of action designed to
fit most situations and locations.

#####

10. HELICOPTER LIMITATIONS

Except for the individual Marine, the most
useful all-purpose item in use in RVN is the
helicopter. Whet!ler utilized as a means of
evacuation, transport, observation, or as a gun-
ship, the helicopter is always busy. Though
extremely versatile, there are times when the
helicopter is unable to perform an assigned task,
even though it- may appear that the task is within
aircraft capabilities. Most of these failures can be
attributed to insufficient lift being available to en-
able the helicopter to perform as required. Lift
is the force that gives the helicopter its ‘~go
power. ” A certain amoum of lift is required to
keep the helicopter in the air; the remaining lift
can be utilized to carry an equivalent amount of
weight.

293
 Many personnel who are not familiar with the
helicopter’s flight characteristics do not fully
understand this relation of lift to load-carrying
ability; nor are they fully aware that the heli-
copter’s performance is directly related to the
operating conditions in which it is performing.
Many factors affect the amount of lift available
to the helicopter pilot. As a result, a load that
can be carried easily under one set of conditions
may not. even be lifted a foot off the ground under
different temperature and altitude conditions.
An increase in operating altitude, such as is
encountered when flying over mountaintops, de-
creases the efficiency of the helicopter and
decreases lift. An increase in temperature causes
a loss of lift. Another factor that is extremely im-
portant to maximize helicopter operating capa-
bilities is LZ selection. Since the flight character-
istics of the helicopter are such that available
lift is at a minimum up to approximately 20 knots
of airspeed, an LZ that has enough clear area
for the takeoff run should point into the wind.
‘1’hc utilization of a landing zone surrounded by
ohstaclcs causes the capability of the helicopter
to ciecrcase drastically. This type zone creates
the necessity for a vertical takeoff pattern with
no forward airspeed. This decreased lift, due to a
lack of a clear area, reduces forward airspeed
and limits maximum lift capability.
Selection of the best possible LZ by the user
can assist in maintaining the normal helicopter
lift capability. Planners and pilots must give full

294
weight to all lift limitation factors when making
mission assignments. Knowing and properly
weighing the factors affecting lift capability can
assist in the successful completion of an assigned
mission.
# # # #//

11. I-IE3LC)-GROUND COMMUNICA’rIONS

I-helicopter commanders repeatedly have dif-
ficulty reaching ground units on designated radio
frequencies, even though the helicopters have
been requested by the ground units. Helicopter
commanders need to know information pertaining
to wind direction, zone obstructions and zone
security prior to landing. Except in an emergency,
pilots will not make an initial landing in a zone
where ground-to-air radio contact has not been
established. Ground units that have requested

295
helicopters for their support should make every
possible effort to contact the helicopters by voice
communications when the aircraft appear over
their position. Common FM radio frequencies are
usually available to the ground and helicopter
commanders. Requesting units should specify the
FM frequency to be used for helo-ground com-
munications when submitting their requests, A
secondary frequency should also be specified. This
will provide both the ground and helo command
\vith the information needed to establish contact.

##t# #//

12. IIWEllE’El<lZNCl? AND 130GUS

TRANSMISS1ONS
Noise interference has frequently been noted
on radio channels used by helicopters and fixed-
wlng aircraft. In addition, bogus transmissions
have t)cen received which gave false turn and drop
directions to fixed-wing aircraft, and have at-
tempted to lure helicopters into false landing
zones. To reduce the effect of bogus transmissions
and ince.rference the following measures should
be taken:
+ Proper use of the authentication fre-
quency
+ Use of alternate frequency
+ Change color codes frequently
+ Occasional substitution of squadron call
signs instead of collective calls

296
13. HELICOPTER CREW PROTECTION
The pilot’s and copilot’s compartment in the
CH-46A, because of a wide expanse of glass, is
vulnerable to enemy gunfire and shrapnel. Extra
back plates (ARMOR AIRCREW SMALL ARMS
PROTECTIVE BACK FSN 8470-926-1571) placed
in the bottom glass area beneath the rudder
pedals, on both the pilot’s and copilot’s side,
provide good protection from enemy fire. These
plates have been tested in one squadron and have
prevented injury to three pilots by stopping shell
fragments. The plates do not unduly hinder vision
beneath the aircraft, are reasonably lightweight
and have proven very successful in providing
protection for the aircraft and aircrew members.

/#####

297
14. IIELICOPTL7R GUNNERS
TIIC side gunners provide the primary de-
fense for Che transport helicopters; they usually
are the first to spot a source of enemy fire; and
they provide the marking of the location of the
enemy fire for the helo escort. In gunner training
and in preflight hricfings, tlw gunners must be
impressed with Ihc importance of dropping red
smoke grenades at the first instant that enemy
fire is detected.
The normal sequence of action< for a gunner
of a helicopter receiving enemy fire is con-
sidered to be: drop red smoke grenades, shoot
if target identification of the enemy is reasonably
certain, and report the details (clock code, range
and description of location) to the pilot. In the
event that the motion of the helicopter is about
co mask the target from his view or from his
cone of fire, the gunner should ask the pilot for a
turn in the appropriate direction to bring the
target back into view or into the firing cone.
Under certain circumstances the pilot may be un-
able to comply with the request for a turn but
may bc able to yaw the helicopter to unmask the
target for the gunner. The en route flight for-
mation shoLdd be flown sufficiently wide so that
the gunners are afforded complete coverage of the
terrain below the helicopter flight.
Quick return fire by helicopter gunners is
dcmoralizin~ to the enemy and has a definite sup-
pressive effect if accurately delivered. The con-
centrated tracer fire of several helicopter gunners
298
can be great assistance to the helo escort in
locating the source of enelmy fire.
Aggressive, competent, alert helicopter gun-
ners are those who have good eyesight, who have
been conscientiously trained, and who have been
properly briefed prior to the flight,

15, ORDNANCE LOADING FOR ARMED

IJH-l E }IELICOPTERS
At present, there are two types of 2. 75-inch
rockets available for use of the UH-l E heli-
copters; the white phosphorus (WP) warhead and
the high-explosive warhead. When the UH-l E is
employed in the helicopter escort role, the re-
quirement is for the destructive IHE warhead.

299
When employed in the TAC(A) role, the require-
ment is for WP warhead to mark the target for
the attack aircraft. Experience has shown that
UH-l E aircraft are often required to deliver
both types of ordnance during the same flight.
As a result, a standard ordnance load has evolved.
The right rocket pod is loaded with WP rockets
and the left rocket pod is loaded with HE rockets.
Although this somewhat reduces the destructive
power of the escort helicopter, it provides the
pilot with the added capability of marking the
target for attack aircraft. In addition, it gives
him the capability to generate a small WP screen-
ing smoke cloud. This smokescreen has proven
to be an effective means of fire suppression.

#####

16. AIRCRAFT BILGE DRAINHOLES

Recently a CH-46 aircraft experienced trouble

when called upon to lift a load that was computed
to be well within the aircraft’s performance
capability. When the CH-46 returned to its base
airfield, it was discovered that several hundred
pounds of water was trapped in the bilge. Close
inspection of the bilge drainholes is necessary
to ensure that they do not become clogged with
sand and debris. Ensure that the aircraftts basic
capabilities are not impaired,

#####

300
17. VISUAL RECONNAISSANCE FROM
HELICOPTERS
Experience has proven that helicopters re-
ceive more enemy fire and hits when they fly
below the normal 1500-foot minimum operating
altitude to conduct visual reconnaissance. Binocu-
lars should be used by air observers on all
visual aerial reconnaissance missions to better
observe an area rather than make low passes.
Low passes are considered appropriate only in
chose instances where no other means is avail-
able to adequately observe or identify the target
or friendly forces in question.

#####

301
18. TIP FOR AI RCREWS
On several occasions after carrying ARVN
troops, members of the crew have found ammuni-
tion, grenades and various objects in the radio
compartment of the aircraft. On another occasion,
a confirmed VC document was discovered when
the aircraft was swept out. The document had
been folded to approximately the size of a
quarter and sewn into a cloth jacket. It must be
realized that some ARVN troops may be VC
sympathizers.
All aircraft crew personnel must be alert to
closely obsenw actions of ARVN troops while
cml)arked, and upon departure of troops, the air-
cral”t should be thoroughly inspected for loose
ammo, documents, or other items of possible
intelligence value.
// # # {/#

19. I~REVEN”rION 012 MIDAIR COLLISIONS

IN LOW VISIBILITY
Since many helicopters fly regularly traveled
routes during marginal weather conditions without
traffic control procedures, midair collisions are a
distinct possibility. Pilots should illuminate the
aircraft landing light and have it pointed ahead of
the aircraft to permit the aircraft to be seen from
a greater distance. This procedure has proven
to be beneficial in helping to prevent midair
collisions during daylight and darkness. Due con-
sideration must be given to the enemy threat in

302
the area being overflown so as not to provide a
better aircraft target for enemy fire.

#####

20. INCREASING HELICOPTER VISIBILITY

High-performance jet aircraft escorting heli-
copters experience difficulty in maintaining visual
contact with camouflaged helicopters, particu-
larly during haze conditions,
As a field expedient the tops of one or two
main rotor blades may be painted a contrasting
light color, thus making these aircraft much
easier to see,

#####

21, TACAN MAPS

Aircrews in Vietnam have found that they can
arrive at their target with the least amount of
navigational delay by using the following tech-
nique. When using a map for operations in the
vicinity of a TACAN station, 10° radials and 10-
mile distances are marked on the map, It is then
covered with a piece of lightweight clear plastic
on which grease pencil annotations may be made
and erased quickly. This provides for faster
target acquisition and reduces the number of
marked maps which have to be discarded.

#####

303
~z. MONSOONS AND MAP cl-IAN(_J~s

Frequently, the heavy rains associated with

a monsoon season cause changes in the ap-
pearance of depressions, streams, small bodies
of water, and the surrounding terrain. This is
more apparent to an aerial observer than to a
man on the ground. These changes can delay
needed C1OSCair support, and cause aircraft to be
exposed to enemy observation and fire for an
unnecessary period of time due to delays in
identifying target areas. Changes can even result
in selection of the wrong target. Apparent changes
to terrain features should be reported during pilot
debriefings. Maps and aerial photographs must
reflect these changes. There will be a con-
sequent savings of aircraft airborne time and
an increase in the accuracy of air-delivered
weapons.
#####

23. YOU ARE MR. CLEAN

Equipment maintained in a high state of
cleanliness has consistently proven to be the most
dependable. A problem in the ‘preventive main-
tenance of multiple ejection racks (MER) and
triple ejection racks (TER), used on tactical air-
craft, has been the removal of carbon deposits
from the breech mechanisms. A simple and effec-
tive cleaning solution for the breech mechanisms
is hot soapy water; use immersion burners to
heat the water, and alkaline soap. Trichlorethe-
lene or acetone can be used to clean the breech
304
caps and reduce the incidence of broken firing
pins. The reliability of MERs and TERs can be
increased by regular cleaning and periodic test-
ing and repair.

#####

24. USE OF SATS LOADER AND UNIVERSAL

WEAPONS CRADLE WHEN LOADING
NAPALM AND 2.75 -INC1-I ROCKETS ON
THE F-4B
The use of the SATS loader during combat
operations has proven most satisfactory as an
expedient method of loading ordnance on the
F-4B. It also provides a safety factor against
physical fatigue, particularly during hot weather
operations. Only l-inch horizontal clearance is

305
available between the SATS loader boom and the
external wing tanks when “soft” ordnance is to
be attached to the outboard shoulder stations of
the TER. The boom, approaching from forward
of the aircraft, has to be turned 90 degrees for
ordnance. alignment. This is a critical phase
since the clearance is such that any careless-
ness may allow the external wing tanks to be
damaged by the boom.
When the “Weapons Cradle Universal, Small,
MAV-63E” is utilized, the distance between the
boom assembly of the SATS loader and the
external wing fuel tanks increases from 1 to 4
inches. The bomb or p’od is placed on the cradle
which is lifted by the SATS loader. The additional
height provided by the cradle lowers the boom
elevation requirements which results in the ad-
ditional clearance. This cradle also provides
protection against loading damages to the “soft”
ordnance itself.
Here are some do’s and donot’s for SATS
weapon loader operators:
+ Do check oil levels daily and always
before operation. Add oil if necessary.
+ Do ensure that all wheel lug nuts are
tight before operating. Replace missing nuts.
+ Do check hydraulic lines for leakage and
frayed sections. Replace frayed sections and add
hydraulic fluid as required.

306
 Don’t ride the clutch.
Don’t use the loader like a hotrod.

#####

25. RCPT-105 DUAL STARTING SYSTEM

In order to reduce the starting times for
multiple aircraft launches, especially the ground-
to-air alert, the RCPT-105 starting system may
be modified to allow dual aircraft starts. By
attaching an additional 10 feet of air hose to the
RCPT-105, two F-4’s placed side by side with
wings folded can be started without having to move
the starting unit. (The AC power cable is of suf-
ficient length to each the external p o we r re-
ceptacles of both aircraft and requires no cable
extension. ) This. simple modification saves time
and manpower and efficiently utilizes equipment.

###i/#

26. SERE KITS

Inspect pilots’ SERE (survival, escape, res-
cue, evasion) kits frequently for serviceability.
Recent spot checks have revealed that through
normal wear and tear the morphine syrettes had
become cracked or punctured and were completely
unsemiceable.

# i)it//#

307
27. F-4 DRAG CHUTE DOOR LATCH

Reports have been received concerning in-

stances where the drag chute door of the F-4B
has “popped” open during taxi and takeoff opera-
tions. The drag chute has fallen out during these
incidents and caused serious material and safety
problems. The primary cause of these occur-
rences has been the failure to properly secure
the drag chute door when the parachute was in-
stalled.
The manufacturer’s “Product Support Digest”
has recently recommended the following simple
procedure that will enable personnel to ensure
that the drag chute door is properly secured:
First, ensure that the drag chute door is properly
latched in the closed position. File a small notch
in the “over center latching handle” close to the
fuselage skin. This notch can be inspected visually
in the daytime and can be touched in the dark. If
the notch can he seen or felt, the door will be
in the properly latched position. If the notch is
not visible or cannot be felt, the chute door is
not properly secured and the latching procedures
must be repeated.

308
28. ALTITUDE SEPARATION
During the conduct of close air support and
direct air support missions, more than one flight
of aircraft may be required to orbit over a
specific area. When these occasions occur, the
aircraft controller will usually be occupied pri-
marily with the execution of the assigned mission.
Also, the pilots of the orbiting aircraft are oc-
cupied with attempting to identify the target
visually. In this situation, when all personnel are
devoting maximum attention to the accomplish-
ment of the tactical mission, a potentially danger-
ous situation exists due to the possibility of
midair collisions. To avoid such an accident, it
is of the utmost importance that the proper al-
titude separation between flights be maintained.

309
 When entering an area where flights may
be “stacked,” or where other flights can be ex-
pected, flight leaders should identify themselves
by call sign, state the flights assigned/intended
orbit altitude, and receive acknowledgment from
other fljght leaders in the area.

#####

29. NIGHT AIR ATTACKS

Controlled close air support attacks and
armed helicopter operations have been success-
fully conducted under flares. These operations
require a high order of pilot proficiency and
judgment. Pilots should be alert to avoid burn-
out flares descending in parachutes. Prior to
night operations, each flight should be briefed
on the altitude and heading of the flare drop
aircraft and the burning time and rate of descent
of the type flares employed. Training programs
should include practice in this technique of night
close support.

#####

30. KEEP A CLEAN COCKPIT

Dust and sand can cause major aircraft
maintenance problems. Dust and sand have caused
many spring-loaded pushbutton-type controls to
stick. A dangerous situation would exist, for
example, if the boost pump test button were to
stick in the “in” position, unnoticed, after the

310
pump check. This would render the boost pump
inoperative.

Canopies must be kept closed whenever

possible
All dust covers must be installed.
Vacuum the cockpit periodically.
A thin clear plastic, placed over push-
buttons, keeps foreign matter out while per-
mitting free movement of controls.

#####

,,
.!’ ‘i

,,2
,. ‘\

31. EMPLOYMENT OF A-6A AIRCRAFT

Extensive experience in employing systems
delivery of ordnance has resulted in increased
effectiveness in this new area of warfare.

311
 Offsets for preplanned targets should be
computed trigonometrically to gain the best ac-
curacy.
Whenever possible, the offset bearing
should be used as a run-in heading to eliminate
azimuth error. “rhis procedure keeps the target
between the aircraft and the aiming point so that
the aiming point remains on the scope throughout
the run. If the computer fails during the run, the
attack may often be completed by using preplanned
manual range.
Bombardier/navigators should practice
acquiring moving targets on secondary and dirt
roads, in all types of terrain.
#####

32. AIRSTRIKE TACTICS

The enemy often withdraws rapidly from
areas marked with smoke in order to avoid the
following airstrike. To obtain maximum strike
effectiveness, attack aircraft should be prebriefed
prior to arrival over the target and prior to
marking the target with smoke. Once the’target is
marked, the strike should follow as rapidly as
possible to obtain maximum surprise and ef-
fectiveness. When visual contact has been made
with the enemy, intensive surveillance must be
maintained to discover enemy withdrawal routes.

312
Followup attacks should be directed, first against
observable targets, and then on likely avenues of
escape.

#####

33. NATOPS PROGRAM

To ensure the safest possible operation of
aircraft, the Naval Air Training and Operations
Procedures System philosophy must be stressed
at all levels, as the tempo of combat increases.
Too often, particularly during periods of
heavy operations, aircraft accidents/incidents are
directly attributable to laxity in adherence to
established procedures. In the interest of expedit-
ing mission accomplishment, pilots tend to dis-
regard the solid philosophy of the NATOPS pro-
gram. In some cases, even supervisory personnel
regard the increased tempo of combat operations
as a license to shelve vital NATOPS functions.
Times of crisis can point out deficiencies in
a system that are not readily apparent during
normal operational periods. If it can be estab-
lished that NATOPS procedure is unduly hamper-
ing operations, it is the obligation of the indi-
vidual or unit to recommend changes. Until changes
are recommended and approved, basic NATOPS
procedures should be closely followed.

#####

313
34. PILOT FREQUENCY CARDS
Communication security in combat requires
the use of many color-coded frequencies to pre-
vent compromise. The normal practice is to
indiscriminately list the colors and frequencies in
no particular order. This requires a momentary
search Of the pilot’s kneeboard card to match
the color given with the correct frequency. By
alphabetizing the color codes of the frequency
cards, the given color can be rapidly located by
scanning directly to its alphabetical precedence.
This is a simple procedure to adopt and has been
found to be extremely useful.

#i/ ###

35. C-117D MAINTENANCE

Aviation mechanics in Vietnam have learned
that timely and adequate preventive maintenance
will increase the usability of the R-1820-80A
engine for the C-117D. The practice of changing
the oil on each 60-hour check, changing the
plugs ever 200 hours and frecluent changing of
the carburetor air filter will substantially lengthen
engine life.

## f/ ###

314
 Chapter V: MINE WARFARE

1. DEFINITIONS
A mine is an explosive device designed
to destroy or damage vehicles, ships or air-
craft or to wound or kill personnel. It may be

315
clctonated by the action of its victim, by the
passage of time, or by controlled means.
There are land and water mines. Land mines
are usually classified as antipersonnel or
antivehicular.

A boobytrap is a device that will injure

a person who disturbs an apparently harm-
less object or Performs a presumably safe
act.

(3

316
2. FACTS WE HAVE LEARNED ABOUT VIET
CONG MANUFACTURE AND USE OF MINES,
SABOTAGE DEVICES, AND BOOBYTRAPS

a. General

The Viet Cong, being very resourceful,

make maximum use of all explosive ordnance at
their disposal. The Viet Cong search the battle
area for unexploded munitions (duds) and modify
them for use as mines, sabotage devices or
booby traps. They also use the explosive filler
for locally manufactured munitions.
The Viet Cong use all the standard initiat-
ing methods for fuzing various types of devices;
i.e., pressure, pressure-release, pull-release,
pull-friction, chemical delay, mechanical delay,
initiation by tidal water rise, and command con-
trolled detonation. The complexity of these fuzing
systems, their construction, and their intended
use are limited only by the materials available,
the knowledge, and training of the individual who
constructs them. One or more fuzing system may
be found in each type of explosive device. Almost
any type of container may be used to fabricate
mines and sabotage devices; e.g., US AID soy bean
oil cans of 1- to 5-gallon capacity, pieces of
bamboo, etc. The VC recently smuggled plastic
explosives into a Bachelor Enlisted Quarters.
The explosives, with a time delay device, were
placed in a pair of combat boots that were seldom
used by the owner. The occupant of the room was

317
seriously injured upon detonation of the explo-
sives. This was a new approach to VC terrorist
activities. The VC addressed booby trapped pack-
ages to U.S. officers working in sensitive posi-
tions. Some of these packages contained such
items as exploding fountain pens and cigarette
lighters. These devices were meant to maim
rather than kill. Homemade grenades and small
bangalore torpedoes concealed in loaves of bread,
briefcases, baskets of fruit, radios, and coconuts
have also been used as booby traps. Directional
mines and shaped charges have been hidden in
motorcycle saddle bags or on bicycles. On num-
erous occasions bicycle frames have been com-
pletely filled with explosives. Automobiles and
panel trucks have been made into large bombs
by filling the enclosed sections of the hood,
fenders, and body paneling with explosives. These
types of bombs need not be in close proximity to
the target to cause death or destruction.

b. l_+zes

(1) Pressure-Type Fuzes

Pressure-type fuzes are probably the

simplest fuzes to produce locally. The basic
components are a firing pin, a cartridge primer,
and a detonator. A pressure-type fuze can be
made from a nail, a small arms cartridge, and a
block of wood (fig. 5-1). They may be of more
sophisticated design having a firing pin retained
in a cocked position by a key slot which, when

318
 NAIL

v
k
r WOODBODY
TAPERED TO
WEDGEIN
FUZE WELL

CASE FILLED
WITH PLTN
BASIC COMPONENTSOF A PRESSURE TYPE FUZE

Figure 5-1

depressed, releases the firing pin under spring

pressure, detonating the device (fig. 5-2). The VC
also use modified mortar and artillery fuzes as
pressure firing devices (fig. 5-3).
(2) Pressure-Release Type Fuzes

Pressure-release type firing devices,

normally called “mouse traps, ” can be easily
made by using the design of commercial-type
319
,omHm#3L’
FUZEBYLIGHT

:%. P.su.-
FUZEWEDGED IN
FUZEWILL I

IMPROVISED
MINE J

SIHPLEPRESSURETYPE

Figure 5-2

mouse traps. With innovations applied to utilize

the munitions that are on hand, the Vc employ
this device primarily in modified booby traps such
as bomblets, dud artillery rounds, and U.S.
aerial bomb duds. The device shown in figure 5-4
is activated by the removal of the weight which
releases the mouse trap device, thus detonating
the mine or booby trap. The VC sometimes use a
standard grenade fuze with the safety pin removed
and with sufficient weight on the handle to hold
the firing pin in the cocked position. When the
weight is removed from the handle the spring
loaded firing pin strikes the primer exploding
the booby trap.
 u? STRIKER

%= LIGHT ANTI CREEP

+-F&W

~ DETONATOR

MODIFIED PRESSURE TYPE FIRING DEVICE

Figure 5-3

,
d?
●
$\.
TENSION
SPRING
ANCHOR
PLATE \—

140DIFIEDPRESSURE-RELEASE
FIRINGDEVICE

Figure 5-4
321
 (3) Pull-Type Firing Devices
The most common pull-type firing de-
vice used by the VC is the pull-friction fuze
similar to those encountered in the VC and
Chinese Communist stick grenades (fig. 5-5).
When used as a mine or boobytrap fuze, the delay
firing train is usually removed and replaced with
an explosive detonator which instantaneously
detonates upon ignition of the fuze. As with all
pull-type firing devices, the mechanical pull-type
firing device is characterized by a slack tripwire.
The mechanical pull-type firing device has not
been used as commonly as the pull-type friction
device; however, an increasing number of this
type of locally manufactured VC initiating device
has recently been recovered (fig. 5-6). Many

STICK
GRENADE
—
\

STICK GRENADERIGGEDhTTH TRIPWIRE

Figure 5-5

322
 DETMAT~
mu FUT.X
WICK MATCH
CCMFWITIDN
FIRXNO
DJWICE

STRING

PULL FRXCTIDM FIRING DEvICE BOX CONTAXNINr3HICN EXPU61VE9

Figure 5.6

devices of the type shown in figure 5-5 were used

against the French. A Chinese Communist or VC
copy of the Russian MUV firing device is more
likely to be used in the Republic of Vietnam. The
MUV fuze was widely used in Korea during the
Chinese Communist intervention.

(4) Pull-Release Type Firing Devices

Pull-release firing devices are de-

signed for activation by either an increase (pull)
or decrease (release) in tension on a taut wire
or vine (fig. 5-7). Pull-release firing devices are
also called tension release devices. Extreme
caution must be observed when encountering a
taut wire or vine, as a cocked striker is always
used in this method of initiation; thus any move-
ment of the wire, vine, or explosive item may
activate the striker detonating the device. To
render safe a pull-release device, the striker
must be blocked with a positive safety between
the striker and primer. Many pull- type firing

323
 PULL RING

SAFETY PIN ~

RETA.ININcRcr

RETAININGROO SPRING

SPLITENDOF—
.SrRIKER
SH~

STRIKERSPRING

llli!!L
<8
STRIKER
I
j

PENCUSSICNCAP 1
FUSE ADAPTSROR,DmOMTCR
PULL RELEASETTPS FIRINGDEVICE

Figure 5-7

devices can be used as a pull-release device by

attaching the tripwire or vine to the striker. Pull-
type devices rigged for pull-release action nor-
mally activate when the tripwire is broken.
(5) Tilt-Rod Mine Firing Devices
The VC have constructed this type of
device from a small arms cartridge, a threader
base, and a spring-loaded striker. The cartridge
case is modified by removal of the primer cap,
and the base is slotted to accept the spring-loaded
striker. A primer detonator is placed on the

324
threaded base and a length of bamboo or tree
branch is inserted in the other end of the car-
tridge case. There is usually a hole in the threaded
base for inserting a safety or nail thus preventing
the spring-loaded striker from impacting on the
primer during fuzing installation. The assembly
is then screwed into the mine and the safety
removed. This device is activated by moving the
rod approximately 20° from the vertical, which
will release the spring-loaded striker and de-
tonate the mine. The VC utilize this device most
commonly by installing it in landing zones as an
antihelicopter mine, in paths of foot troops, and
in areas being cleared by tanks and bulldozers.
They have been used in various types of VC mines
including the Nuoc Mom pot - shaped mine, and
homemade VC cylindrical mines (figs. 5-8 and
5-9).

TILT~X ~IIUl10
DSVICI —

— SPRINO

‘ ‘/1 ‘-’:
— 911UIIM

f w
oEronAIoa I
&—m —
VC HUOC
IK21
POITILT
R~NIUE TILT ROD AWIHELICOPTEII
M
AJITIWUCULLRIumx

Figure 5-8 Figure 5-9

325
 (6) Control of Command Fired Fuzing
Systems
All the firing devices mentioned can be
command detonated by a person lying in wait for
a prime target. The fuzing system can be activated
by a VC observer from a distance when a suitable
target presents itself. The most common method of
controlled firing practiced by the VC is by electri-
cal means. This is accomplished by placing anelec-
trical blasting cap in the mine or boobytrap fuze
well, leading a firing cable to a concealed position,
and connecting a battery or electrical blasting ma-
chine when the target comes into range. The VC
use this type of initiation for all types of muni-
tions, including water mines (figs. 5-10 and 5-11).

.,<~;~’
,... ,> ~/“
. . +
-<b
@ LITIU5U PR13JDXILS

Ccm
STOPPES

ss.lDcs

HEAT
SSNSITIVE
DP7CUATOR
COMXO+ ELSCTRZCALFIRING
Sr$nn EKCTRICAJ,
SXPFDIFXT FUZE
CCM4ANDFIMzIFUZINGSE3’TbMS

Figure 5-10
 CH.INDNICN, A.T. NINE

& e-ANTIF’EN91xNEL
DINscTIGHAL
FNACNEX’TATIIM
MINS

-a..
COMCN4TE BX3KE1’AP MINE

CONCNETE TUNTI.SAP NINB CCNICAL SIIAPSUCHARGS A.T. NINE

PLASTIC DUAL PIUk(F.D

A.?. MM!

CW4AND FIREu FUZIN13SK3TSM

Figure 5-II

327
 (7) Time-Delay Firing Devices

Mechanical delay and chemical delay-

type firing devices have been encountered through-
out South Vietnam. The mechanical delay is the
most common. One type of VC mechanical delay
firing device is made from commercial watches
with two electrical contacts being added. One is
soldered to the case of the watch and the other is
wired through the crystal of the watch. At the
desired time of detonation, the moving hand makes
contact with the wire projecting through the watch
crystal completing the electrical circuit, and ini-
tiating an electrical blasting cap which detonates
the explosives (fig. 5-12). Small alarm clocks
have been used utilizing the clocks alarm system
to complete the circuit. Chemical delay firing
devices used by the French have also been

JACKI’LUC

,..

‘r- .>

+
-e

VC )IM21ANICAL
DU.AT/~rUC FIRINGDKVICE

Figure 5-12

328
encountered in scattered incidents. These are
similar to the U.S. chemical delay firing device
type M-1.

c. Main Charges

(1) Grenades

Many small explosive items, resembl-

ing grenades and normally used as such, are also
employed extensively by the VC as antipersonnel
mines and booby traps. Both percussion-type and
pull-friction type fuzes with the delay element are
used in these items.

(a) As a Boobytrap

A grenade was placed under a bag

of rice in a VC base area. The weight of the bag
of rice held the grenade handle in the cocked
position. Upon removal of the rice by friendly
forces, the grenade exploded (fig. 5-13).

(b) As an Antipersonnel Mine

A grenade with a safety pin removed

was placed in a hollow length of bamboo. A trip-
wire was attached to the grenade. Pressure on
the tripwire would have pulled the grenade from
the bamboo releasing the handle and allowing the
striker to initiate the action detonating the
grenade. This device was discovered before it
could inflict any damage (fig. 5-14).

329
IJAGOF III(X
llol,LzJd
BAXEOJ
\
(WEWDE

... ..
.. ...
GHENADEUY~ AS A WOUITU1’ ofwNADETYPE mmmw

Figure 5-13 Figure 5-14

(2) Artillery Projectiles, Aerial Bombs,

Mortar Ammunition and Explosives

All sizes of dud artillery projectiles,

aerial bombs, rockets, and mortar projectiles are
used by the VC as mines or boobytrap devices.
They use the smaller ammunition as antiperson-
nel mines or boobytrap devices and the larger
type as antitank and antivehicular mines. Both
categories may be equipped with any of the pre-
viously mentioned firing devices. Various exam-
ples are:

(a) As an Antipersonnel Mine

A VC modified U.S. BLU-3/B bomb-

let was wired to the side of a tree with a tripwire
across the trail. The tripwire was a monofilament
cord resembling fish line leader and difficult to

330
see (fig. 5-15). A patrol, not seeing the tripwire,
suffered heavy casualties.

(b) As an Antipersonnel Mine

A tilt-rod firing device was placed
in a Nuoc Mom pot filled with explosives (fig.
5-16). The mine was emplaced in a heavily foliaged
path leading to a VC bunker complex. The rod
assembly resembled the surrounding vegetation,
but the lack of camouflage around the fuze assem-
bly revealed the mine. This mine was recovered
intact and no casualties were experienced.

(c) As a Boobytrap
The VC placed the tail fins of a 250-
pound bomb on the ground, giving the appearance
of a dud bomb. Explosive ordnance personnel were
called to investigate, and discovered that a VC

TILT R
rmmo

UU-3/B USSU AS A SCX3SITRAP TILT R(3)FUZ~ IN IIUCCKU F07

Figure .5-15 Figure 5-16

331
modificcl U.S. i3LU-3/B antipersonnel bomblet,
using a mouse trap device, had been placed and
camouflaged beneath the bomb fins (fig. 5- 17).
Disturbance of the bomb tail fins by inexperienced
personnel would have resulted in casualties.

(d) As an Antitank/Antivehicle Mine

A 105mm artillery projectile was

buried in a dirt road and rigged to be fired elec-
trically (fig. 5-18). The charge was detonated
under a 3/4-ton vehicle. Many incidents have
occurred involving artillery projectiles emplaced
in roads and command detonated when a prime
target presented itself.

DNICE

MODIFIED US BLU-3/B WITH MOUSEW+AF ANTILIFT BENEATH US AERIAL Bf.MBFINS

Figure 5-17

332
 . .
AETIIJ,CRT
PRWECTIIX BURID UNDFJi
IIWD

Figure 5-18

(e) As an Antipersonnel Mine

A large number of artillery rounds,

75mm, 155mm, and 20-pound aerial fragmentation
bombs were suspended from treed (fig. 5-19).
Some were command detonated, while others were
rigged with tripwires. The controlled mines were
detonated when’ friendly forces came within range.
Those rigged with tripwires were set off by
friendly forces looking up in trees for mines and
unsuspectingly tripping the wires on the ground.
The VC also consider the 20-pound fragmentation
aerial bomb to be an excellent antipersonnel mine.
The larger bombs (100 to 1000 lbs) will destroy
any type vehicle. The VC are now using bombs as
mines more frequently than in the past and are
known to use excessive amounts of explosives to
complete their mission. Bombs are also used near
VC safe havens, preplanted on likely avenues of
approach, and are either command detonated or
set off by any of the other mentioned methods of
activation.

333
 +—
. \

4Ai5
\
--

ASIIIAL
IK)MQ
USED
ASANTIPSRSCtJNSLBCOBYTRAP
Figure 5-19

(f) As an Antitank/ Antivehicle Mine

The VC have used 15 to 20 pounds of

plastic explosives wrapped in plastic ground cloth
or placed in a wooden box. The VC attach a con-
ventional type nonelectrical blasting cap to a
pressure-fuze. The blasting cap is attached to a
length of detonating cord and used as a primer
for the explosives. The VC then emplace this
crude, but effective, mine in the road as an anti-
vehicular mine. A ceramic cup used on rubber
plantations for collection of latex is placed in the
inverted position over the fuze for protection (fig.
5-20). When mine clearing parties clear the road,
metallic type detectors do not detect the fuze.
Consequently, mine clearing crews have missed
334
 .PnE9surw TTP8
Puzls

USE OF PLA9TIC XPIAISIVISA9 AT MINE

Figure 5-20

this recent adaptation by the VC resulting in dam-

age to equipment and loss of personnel.

d. Viet Cong Locally Manufactured Mines

The homemade or locally manufactured
mines come in many sizes, shapes, and forms
(fig. 5-21). They may be constructed of light
metal, cast iron, or explosives packed into bamboo
tubes, boxes, wrapping paper or plastic ground
cloth. The intended use for a mine normally governs
its size, shape, and construction.
The most infamous and widely used locally
produced mine is the direction-type mine com-
monly referred to as the “Claymore.” These
items have been found in sizes ranging from 5 to

335
 URE wooou PIIz9surll
PUTIS
\

TOP
vu

iE5a
VC tlCMD!ADE
ANTITAUKBOX MINE

Figure 5-21

8 inches in diameter. There is also a type pro-

duced which resembles the U.S. M18A1 “Clay-
more” directional mine, being similar in con-
figuration. The principle of directional mines is
that a large number of fragments are propelled
in a given direction by an explosive force. The
maximum effective range is approximately 200
meters with a dispersion pattern of approximately
16 to 20 lmc!tcrs wide at the maximum range.
VC directional mines have been used against
light vehicles, armored personnel carriers,
troops, billets, bus stops, helicopters in landing
zones, in breacning barbed wire barriers, and
as a dispersant for CS gas, accomplished by
mounting a satchel of CS wrapped in plastic to
the front of the mine and detonating the mine.
The VC have also used 10 to 12 grenades
or modified U.S. BLU-3/B bomblets mounted on
a wooden plank as an antihelicopter and anti-
personnel mine. This mine is a modified “Fou-
gasse, ” consisting of approximately 5 to 10
pounds of explosives, which is laid in the bottom

336
of a hole with the opening toward the enemy. The
hole is at a 450 to 90° vertical angle depending
on the type of employment. The charge is covered
with a layer of earth and the board containing the
grenades or modified U.S. BLU-3/B is placed in
the hole and camouflaged. The grenades or U.S.
BLU-3/B bomblets are modified with standard
VC grenade fuzes which may or may not incorpo-
rate a delay train of 3 to 5 seconds depending
upon employment. Nails are driven into the board
forming a holder for each device. One nail is on
each handle to hold the handle in place and the
safety pin is removed. When a suitable target pre-
sents itself, the explosive charge is command
detonated hurling the board containing the gre-
nades into the air. Three to five seconds after the
initial blast, the grenades, having become dis-
lodged from the. board, explode in the air hurling
fragments for approximately 200 meters in all
directions (fig. 5-22).
e. Detonation bv Tidal Action
This type of firing device was recently re-
covered by Republic of Vietnam troops after the
VC had destroyed a bridge. The device was of the
electrical type and placed in the main stream
under the bridge. The device consisted of a stake,
hollow bamboo, a sealed “C” ration can, and two
electrical wires attached to the “C’ I ration can.
As the rising tidal water enters the water inlet
of the firing device the “C” ration can, is floated
upward until contact is made completing the cir-
cuit and detonating the explosives (fig. 5-23).

337
 HJSXI1lCMIOUTICU U111S9

+ \,

BOASDccmAInIffi
GREXADE0+7I(ODIFIRI
U.U7FU1CALLY
lIbTLYAATKl “Usmo Scw
MPUMIVX CIIAMM
IAHR 0? .EAmIi

Vc MWIF1Su :s ulsl-3
/11FluuOoMtl Vc IICMFXADX
l,lNoG,wm&g
\ \
. .

‘/ “‘“’ ‘

ILUJSTIUTICN
W ALIOVE
DOAROCCNTAININO
EKMUMXSANDMANDCW~~
VC HOOIFICII
FOJCASSEANII-HSUCOPTES/)MH.PENWMU,
OLVICK

Figure 5-22

f. Chinese Communist Antipersonnel Mine

Camured in South Vietnam

A Chinese Communist copy of a Soviet

POMZ- 2 antipersonnel mine equipped with an
electric blasting cap for command detonation was
recently captured for the first time in South
Vietnam (fig. 5-24). This mine is normally

338
 INSUIJTKZITWO WIRE9
LIEIWSENllATTLiiI
DLTfflATOR
ANO
AIR VM
-i#i(-
— DNICE ATTACHFXl
TO POST UNOSR
. ..— —
W?TAL BRIOOE IN STREAN
CONTACT

IN HOIJ.W BAiSDO
>
>
L TIOAL WATDl
ldATsRINLET

‘-L
TIDAL ACTION TYPE FUZ%
4–
Figure 5-23

soviet POMZ-2
Antipersonnel Mine

Figure 5-24

339
detonated by a tripwire attached to the firing pin
retainer. It weighs only 4.4 pounds and is easily
emplaced. These features plus the command-
detonation capability make it appropriate for use
in ambushes.

#####

3. PUNJI PITS

The VC frequently construct punji pits in

sandy areas by placing a wicker basket in a
hole 4 to 5 feet deep, emplacing the punji
sticks, and then concealing the pit with a thin
wicker mat covered by sand. The sand-covered
tops are sometimes darker than the surrounding

340
sand, and are particularly obvious in wet sand.
Marines should be alert for such signs and
check suspected areas by probing. Remember
punji pits may be boobytrapped, so always re-
move the cover with the help of a long rope
or cord;

#####

4. BOOBYTRAPPED ENEMY PROPAGANDA

DISPLAYS

Beware of enemy flags and displays of enemy

propaganda materials. VC flags and eye-catching
displays of enemy propaganda materials are
often booby trapped to inflict casualties on un-
suspecting trophy seekers. When enemy dis-
plays are discovered, extreme caution must
be exhibited by all personnel. The surrounding
area should be searched for Claymore-type
mines directed at the display. A search should
be made for wires that could lead to a command-
detonated mine. The display itself must be ap-
proached with extreme caution due to the pos-
sibility of pressure-type mines in the area,
or the presence of an explosive device rigged
to explode when the display is disturbed. Don’t
let souvenir hunting cause casualties in your
unit.

#####

341
 .-

5. VC/NVA MINE TACTICS

VC/NVA mine warfare doctrine closely par-

allels that of the Chinese Communist Army,
although it is heavily influenced by past guer-
rilla warfare in the Republic of Vietnam as
well as that acquired during the French Viet-
narncsc War.

Present practice of the VC/NVA is to

make use of numerous isolated mines and
groups of mines for their nuisance value and
to create casualties, fear, and overcautious-
ness.

342
 Generally mines are used wherever troops
are expected to bunch up, slow down, or present
a good target. Such areas are bridges, curves
in roads, single track roads or trails, junctions,
hillsides, huts, and likely rest areas. Any place
that is a good ambush site is usually a good
mine site, and mines are often employed with
ambushes.

The VC/NVA often use command detonated

mines. One method requires a man to be con-
cealed some distance from the explosive with a
battery pack or hand held generator which is
connected by wires to the mine. When troops or
vehicles are in a position where the mine will do
the most damage, the VC detonates it. It is im-
portant to check trees, bushes and the edges of
roads for wires.

The pull wire is another command deto-

nation device that is commonly used. A pull
wire is connected to a pull - release device
or to a friction igniter, and a VC conceals
himself at the other encl. When the target is
in position, the VC pulls the wire and detonates
the mine.

The soft earth shoulders of surfaced roads

are often mined. This tactic is easily accom-
plished and provides an effective trap for

343
unwary troops. This method is not limited to
hard surfaced roads but also may be used on
dirt roads and trails. Roadside mining is used
most often in ambush sites where the vehicles
and men are to be driven off the road by fire.
Heavy casualties have resulted in this type of
operation.

,The VC employ mines above the ground

along land and water routes used by the enemy.
This is a particularly favored and effective
method of using mines improvised from ar-
tillery or mortar ammunition. The mines may
be placed in rotten tree trunks, on sticks, next
to or in termite mounts, at the base of or in the
branches of trees, in bush~s, or in any conceal-
ment that affords a “sweeping” action for the
fragments. In high grass areas the VC may just
lay the mines on the ground with no other
camouflage.

Mines may be laid on t h e bottom of

streambeds for tripwire initiation, pressure
initiation or command detonation. These ,mines
may be placed at fords or wherever troops
could be expected to wade through the water.

##//##

344
6. TRICKS FREQUENTLY EMPLOYED BYVC/
NVA

Dirt roads and trails are easily mined, since

the traces normally can be completely eliminated.
In instances where traces cannot be eliminated,
the VC use a number of tricks in addition

345
to the normal mine laying mchniqucs used by
both sides.

One unusual technique takes advantage of the

mine detection personnel’s carelessness. The VC
dig up the. road and leave--a normal method of
cutting Uncs of communications. Friendly troops
fill in the dug up sections and the VC return to
lay mines in the refilled areas. These areas must
be checked, day after day even though nothing is
found. The VC expect you to assume an area is
clean after it has been checked and to become
careless and not recheck it. The VC may dig
holes in the road, lay mines in a few of them,
and refill them with dirt. After the mine detect-
ing teams check dozens of holes and find nothing,
the next hole may be expected to be empty and
may not be checked.

Another method is emplacing mines in a road

and then surrounding the area with pieces of
metal to negate the use of a mine detector. Some
mines may be emplaced and then covered with
straw, grass, dung or any natural looking sub-
stance. Employment of mines on hard suffaced
roads presents more of a problem than do dirt
roads. The VC tunnels under the road from the
shoulder and emplaces a mine. The VC prepare
the mine for command detonation, usually elec-
trical, and carefully fills the tunnel. Traces of
this burrowing activity can be eliminated be-
cause of the dirt shoulder. The leads to the
mine are concealed and generally terminate in

346
a place where a VC can hide while waiting for
his victim. This setup is a very difficult one
to detect and requires careful inspection of the
shoulders of the road for wires or traces of
digging.

Tricks are employed which are similar to

those used on dirt roads. One of these includes
digging up sections of the road. After these areas
are filled in, the VC return and lay mines in a
few of them. This is the same tactic used on dirt
roads and is countered by constant checking.

The VC smear the road with mud. This con-

dition forces a mine detecting team to check the
area carefully. The smearing may go on for
several days until one day the VC emplace
mines in the muddied sections. The mine de-
tecting teams having checked the areas before
with no results, may become a little careless
and miss these mines. Agah this carelessness
is what the VC expect. The smearecl areas must
be carefully checked each time troops must
cross them.
Another trick is to dig up the road, emplace
the mine, and refill the hole with asphalt. A spot
usually remains that contrasts with the surround-
ing asphalt. To avoid detection, the VC use a
tire to mark across the patch and blend it in with
the road surface. To counter this tactic, the de-
tection team must be alert for any signs of road
repair. Each spot must be carefully checked
with a detector and a probe.
347
 A 13-year-old Vietnamese boy recently
claimed that dle VC had forced him to recon-
noiter helicopter landing zones and routes used
by U.S. and ARVN forces. The boy was in-
structed by the VC to place handgrenades in
helicopter landing zones which would detonate
when the troops disembarked. This was to be
accomplished by pulling the pin and wrapping
a piece of string around the spoon to hold it in
place temporarily. The free end of the string is
then tied to a piece of heavy paper or cardboard,
which in turn is laid over the grenade in the
landing zone. Rotor wash from a landing heli-
copter blows the paper, thereby unwrapping the
string, and releasing the safety lever.

Beware of debris in LZ’S!

The VC continue to demonstrate their adept-
ness at modifying all types of discarded or dud
munitions for use as simple mine devices. A
Marine patrol discovered a pressure-type anti-
personnel device which had been made from an
M-79 round. The head of the M-79 cartridge was
removed and the centrifugal arming device ro-
tated until the round was armed. A triggering
device was the detonating contact. The device
was then buried along a trail with the camouflaged
trigger device above ground, where the pressure
from the weight of a man would be sufficient to
cause detonation.
This illustrates the importance of caring and
accounting for all ordnance” or explosive devices.

348
 Recent instances have revealed the VC use of
bandoleers as tripwires for mines/boobytraps.
The bandoleers are torn into thin strips which,
because of the color, allow the tripwire to blend
in with the natural foliage making it extremely
difficult to detect. All units should be advised of
the VC use of discarded bandoleers, and steps
should be taken to ensure used bandoleers are
properly destroyed.

#####

7. ANTITANK BOOBYTRAPS

A recent search and destroy operation con-

ducted in I Corps revealed the enemy’s use of
RPG2 rocket rounds as antitank boobytraps.
Lengths of bamboo had been emplaced at 45°
angles along the shoulders and banks of the road
on the route of advance. The empty bamboo poles
were seen during the approach march but were
not removed. That night when the Marine force
returned through the same area, the enemy had
inserted RPG-2 rockets on the stakes, wired them
for command detonation and effected a hit on one
tank.

Advancing troops must be alert to unusual

signs and apparently harmless objects, They may
have a lethal mission.

#####

349
8. DEFENSE AGAINST MINES

-B- Reinforce with sandbags or armor plate

the bottom of the driver and passenger-carrying
compartments of all vehicles that frequent ,roads
outside protected areas.

350
+ Completely destroy/mutilate all discarded
batteries of any size or type, since batteries are
used as initiators in improvised mines.

-+ Enforce strict accountability for all gre-

nades, trip flares, demolition materials, smoke
grenades, ordnance items, etc. These items
comprise the largest number of mines and/or
initiating devices discovered.

+ Maintain constant surveillance/control of

all known minefield, since unattended mines
are a source of supply for the VC.

+ If possible, recover and destroy all ex-

pended trip flares, LAW’s, smoke and illumination
grenades, and 40mm clips. These items can all
be used as components of a mine.

+ Whenever possible, recover, cut and/or

multilate all abandoned communication wires.
This wire may. be used in command-detonated
mines.

+ Avoid establishing any pattern of movement ‘-

in time and route.

.+ Report all duds immediately. If possible,

surveillance should be maintained until destruc-
tion is accomplished. Duds are a prime source
of VC mines.

351
* Destroy, crush or turn in all containers
including “C” ration cans, beer and soda cans
and ammunition boxes since these are used
extensively as improvised mines.

+ Avoid driving over potholes, road shoul-

ders, boxes, cans, grass matting, loose boards
or other foreign items in the road. These items
may conceal a hastily emplaced mine.

+ Adhere strictly to combat convoy inter-

vals. Doing so can prevent damage to two ve-
hicles.

-+ Observe civilian activities. A lack of

local people along a route that is normally
well traveled often indicates the presence of
mines.

+- During hot weather, avoid stopping ve-

hicles in shaded areas or near a stream, since
these are prime mining targets.

+ Reemphasize limiting vehicular traffic to

essentials. Numerous casualties have occurred
on “sightseeing” trips.

#####

352
9. DETECTION OF ANTITANK MINES

Pressure detonated AT mines are sometimes

placed under large flat stones and usually in the
most heavily traveled tracks in the road.
Vehicle crews should be alert for stones or
other suspicious objects in the road, and mine
sweep teams should be especially attentive to
well-traveled tracks in the road.

#####

10. PROBE CULVERTS

Pressure-type road mines have been de-
tonated where the road has recently been swept
by engineers. Investigation showed that the mines

353
were laid in close proximity to a metal drain
culvert; consequently the mine detectors could
not distinguish the mine from the culvert.
Those parts of roads in the vicinity of metal
culverts should be probed by hand after the
shoulders and culvert have been inspected for
wires leading to a command-detonated mine.

##/’##t/

11. ROUGH RIDER MINE SWEEP

Excellent results have been obtained on

convoy mine sweeps by using the following
system:
An engineer sweep team was placed on a
hardened 6 x 6 truck accompanied by a squad
(rein) of infantry for security. On an additional
hardened 6 x 6 truck, one U.S. Army M-55 (Quad
-50) was mounted for additional security. The
concept of operation provided for the sweep team
and security vehicle to cross the 1P 30 minutes
prior to the lead elements of the convoy, and
maintain radio contact with the convoy commander
on the convoy control net. When the sweep team
reached the first checkpoint, they waited until
the lead elements of the convoy crossed the 1P
before proceeding to the next checkpoint. Before
the leading element of the convoy crossed the 1P,
air support in the form of gunships, air observer,
and fixed wing was on station and could provide
support to the sweep team as well as the convoy

354
itself. This procedure enabled the sweep team
to clear the highway without causing delay to the
convoy.

#####

12. CONVERGING MINE SWEEP TEAMS

When sweep teams consistently start at

separate points on a given route and sweep
toward each other, there is a tendency for the
VC to install a mine or boobytrap device at the
point where the teams usually meet. The ap-
parent reason for this is the opportunity to in-
flict heavier casualties. If teams sweep to a
predetermined point, but do not physically meet,
there is a danger that one team will complete its
sweep and be secured, thus opening the route to
traffic from one direction before the road is
completely swept.

One solution is for the sweep teams to con-

verge at a point which is close to a friendly
position. This denies the VC the opportunity of
mining or booby trapping the area. An alternate
solution is for the sweep teams to establish a
system of converging at different points on
successive days. Extreme caution must be ex-
ercised to ensure that no traffic is allowed over
the road until all teams have completed their
sweep.

#####

355
356
13. MINE AND EXPLOSIVE DEVICE PROTEC-
TION

The danger from mines and explosive devices

is ever present in Vietnam. The enemy does not
plant explosives at ground level only. Frequently,
explosive devices are hidden in trees or overhead
in existing structures. These antipersonnel de-
vices are usually command detonated to cause
maximum casualties to personnel. Crewmen in
tanks, LVT’S, Ontos, and other vehicles are
particularly susceptible to this danger. Crewmen
should wear protective clothing and take positions
that afford minimum exposure to overhead ex-
plosions. Be alert for mines and explosive de-
vices at all times.

#####

14. VC CONSTRUC”I’ION BLOCK MINE

The Viet Cong have devised a new mine for

use against construction projects. This new de-
vice is prepared by filling a hollow cement build-
ing block with explosive. This mine can be em-
ployed by itself or in series and is detonated
electronically prior to, during, or after con-
struction is completed. The advantages of utiliz-
ing such a mine are obvious, since it is relatively
easy to smuggle these explosives into pacified
areas when they are disguised as building mate-
rial. To guard against this new sabotage tech-
nique, security forces should check all building

357
material entering populated areas and inspect
all buildings and construction projects for ex-
posed wires associated with demolitions.

#####

15. VC/NVA UTILIZATION OF MINES

Marines in northern I Corps discovered a

minefield 1500 meters long, adjacent and par-
allel to Route #9. Thirty ChiCom DH-10 mines
were emplaced approximately 50 meters apart.
The majority of these were about 10 meters
from the road. It appeared that the enemy had
emplaced the mines as part of a planned ambush.
The mines were emplaced in an upright position
on stumps, about 1 foot above the ground, with
tripwires 5 feet long attached. At several loca-
tions, two mines were placed about 8 feet apart
wiuh one tripwirc between them and were posi-
tioned where troops were likely to debark from
vehicles. Several mine locations were marked
by stones placed in an arrow pattern on the road
pointing toward the mines; others were marked
by a series of 10 stones in a row.
Unusually placed rocks, logs, bamboo and
other irregularities in terrain along lines of
communications often identify VC minefield,
punji traps and other obstacles. Personnel must
be alert at all times for indicators of enemy
minefield.

#####

358
 Chapter VI: COMMUNICATIONS

1. RADIO OPERATORS

Units in Vietnam rely almost exclusively on

radio communications during field operations.
Highly trained radio operators are essential to
avoid confusion and delay, and to ensure that
orders and reports are transmitted quickly and
clearly. Transmissions should be brief, yet
complete. Operators must be highly motivated
and imbued with a sense of responsibility for
the importance of their contribution to the suc-
cessful accomplishment of the mission.

#####

359
2. AN/ PRc-25
Since the battery compartment of the PRC-25
radio is not waterproof, operators must ensure
that the battery case is drained and dried after
each immersion or exposure to rain. When
prolonged exposure is anticipated, a waterproof-
type tape should be used to seal the battery box
and the radio telephone unit.
Ensure that connector covers are used on the
AN/PRC-25. If excessive moisture or water gets
into the connector, the radio will short circuit
when the handset is keyed. If the covers become
lost, tape can bc used as a field expedient.
The electrical equipment harness used to
carry the PRC-25 radio can cause discomfort
to operators of short-stature by digging into the
small of the back. To cure this, the lower
frame is bent backward about 3 inches. Once
bent, no attempt should be made to straighten
the frame. Operators of slim stature may find
it more comfortable to cross the lower harness
straps over the chest.
In dense underbrush PRC-25 antenmis and
bases may become detached and lost. Chances
of this happening can be reduced by tying a short
piece of nylon cord securely to the PRC-25
carrying handle on one end and to the coiled
portion of the antenna base on the other end. In
the event the antenna and base are lost, placing
a rifle (barrel end), bayonet, or one’s index
finger at the point the antenna base screws into

360
the radio will permit transmissions for short
distances. The use of a radio frequency ampli-
fier, AM-306 /P RC-25, with the PRC-25 radio
greatly increases its range.
In hot weather the radio set should be pro-
tected from as much heat as possible. Extreme
heat affects the components of the frequency
synthesizing system to the extent that a change
of frequency rating may occur. Radio operators
and unit leaders should attempt to keep the
radio in the shade when tactically feasible.
Some AN/ PRC-25 models do not contain a
diode in the module A3 to protect it from high
frequency signals. Even though the PRC-25 has
been turned off, the receive circuit of the
RT- 505/ PRC-25 can be damaged if the radio is
in the immediate vicinity of a higher powered
transmitter, as may be found in an AN/ VRC-12
or VRC-43-49. Antennas mounted on PRC-25’S
which do not contain the protective diode should
be kept a minimum of 10 feet from high-power
radio sets.
To provide more protection for the H- 138/
PRC-25 handset, a simple lanyard may be
attached. This will not only protect the handset
by securing it to the operator when not in use
but will permit the operator free use of both
hands. Without the handset, the radio is useless--
protect it!
The life of the BA-386 battery for the AN/
PRC-25 radio can be prolonged by rotating it

361
with another battery every 6 to 8 hours. When
radio operators in a base location assume the
radio watch, they should rotate batteries. During
field operation, carrying at least one spare bat-
tery will permit accomplishing the desired rota-
tion.
Used BA-386 batteries will provide flashlight
batteries when broken apart. Each BA-386 will
provide four BA-30’s and six 13A-58’s which can
be used in flashlights to provide an average of
2 days’ power. This practice also ensures total
destruction of the batteries and prevents their
use by the VC as a power source for detonating
mines and booby traps.

3. AN/ PRC-25 BATTERY INSTALLA”I’ION

‘1’hc battery DA-386 for the AN/l] l{C-25 radio

has been redesigned with a “floating” battery
terminal to preclude damage to either the battery
or the radio set while changing or installing the
battery. Terminal damage can occur as a direct
result of improper battery installation ‘proce-
dures. TM-11-5820-398- 12 should be checked
for the correct procedure. It should be noted
that throughout the installation, the radio re-
mains on its side and not in an upright position.
Battery installation in the AN/PRC-25 is a
continuing problem” because of the fragile nature
of the connector plate on the battery. Certain

362
precautions are necessary when both removing
and replacing the battery. A recommended pro-
cedure is described below:
+ Stand the radio on level surface with front
panel facing upward.
+ Release the battery case clamps by push-
ing the upper part of each clamp down and away
from the radio.
+ Lift the radio upward and away from the
battery and place it on its side.
+ Slide the new battery into the radio case
so that the connector mates with the battery
plug.
+ Slide the battery cover over the battery
until it meets the radio case.
+ Refasten both clamps at the same time.
Install the battery only when the radio is
lying on its Bide. Don’t cause a radio to become
unserviceable by improperly connecting a bat-
tery,

#####

4. AN/PRC-47 RADIO

The AN/ PRC-47 radio has a tendency to

overheat if the c y c 1 e (2 minutes transmit;
9 minutes receive) is exceeded. A built-in
thermal cutoff switch will automatically cut the
radio off when the heat exceeds a certain level,

363
thus preventing internal damage to the equip-
ment. However, if the thermal cutoff switch is
overridden by depressing the battery test button
while continuing to talk, permanent damage can,
and probably will, result. This procedure should
be followed only under extreme emergency con-
ditions.

#####

5. ANTENNAS

The AS- 1320/ PRC-47 antenna is extremely

unwieldy when fully assembled. If the fully as-
sembled antenna is screwed into the radio
chassis, permanent damage can result to the
threads of both the antenna base and the radio

364
connection. To avoid this damage, attach the
base section of the antenna to the radio chassis
first, then assemble the remaining sections and
attach them to the base section.
The proper antenna selection can improve
the efficiency of the AN/ PRC-47 radio. When
operating between 2 and 9 megacycles, the long
wire antenna is more efficient than the whip
antenna. In the frequency range from 9 to 12
megacycles, the whip antenna is comparable to
the long wire and the ease with which it can be
employed makes it preferable. When erecting a
long wire antenna, it should be elevated as high
as possible. The table below offers a guide to
the antenna length.
Frequency (me) Length (ft)

2-5 45
2-9 25
2-12 15

Radio transmissions can be improved by

counterpoising (grounding) the whip antenna when
the radio is used from a fixed position. Lay
wires along the ground radially from the radio;
WD- l/TT can be used effectively. These wires
provide a better reflection of the transmitted
signal. Without this counterpoise, the signal
energy would be absorbed in the ground. Note
that the wires are not attached to the antenna
base but should be grounded to the radio case.

365
The length of the wires should be between one-
half to one wavelength.
Counterpoise Length
(AN/PRC-25)

Frequency (me) Length (ft)

30 16-32
40 12-24
50 10-20
60 8-16
70 7-14

VERTICAL HALF RHOMBIC

The Wave and Vertical Half Rhombic an-

tennas are two field-expedient methods that can
be used with FM radio sets. These antennas
can be constructed using field wire with lance
poles or trees for support. The antennas will
transmit and receive in the direction of the
resistor terminated ends. They will normally
double or triple the rated operating range of

366
the FM radio sets. The antennas are terminated
with one 400 or 700 ohm carbon resistor. When
no resistor is available, the antenna will still
increase the ,range of FM sets. However, it will
not be as great an increase because the antenna
will be radiating in two directions rather than
one. The antenna is connected to the auxiliary
antenna connector.
The range of most FM radio equipment is
substantially reduced when operating in dense
vegetation. Much of the radio energy is absorbed
by the surrounding foliage thereby reducing radio
range. To compensate for this loss, the RC-292
antenna should be elevated to the limit of the
antenna cable.
Units employing the RC-292 antenna in semi-
fixed positions can counter the effects of rust
and corrosion by using brake fluid on the ends
of the sections and then taping the joint with
plastic electrical tape. The antenna elements can
be protected from moisture by spraying with
Humis eal Protective Coating, type 1A27.

#####

6. BACKUP COMMUNICATIONS

The enemy has frequently attempted to isolate

a unit by cutting its wir.q lines prior to an attack.
This tactic can prove particularly effective at
night and adds to the confusion during a night
attack. To avoid being isolated, it is imperative

367
that a backup communication capability be main-
tained at all times. As wire is extremely vulner-
able to cutting, or destruction by mortar and
artillery fire, radio equipment should be readily
available to provide a backup means. Ensure that
frequencies on’ backup equipment are preset,
antennas are assembled and the equipment is
ready for instant use.

#####

7. RECORD FRIENDLY FREQUENCIES

Unit operations officers should maintain a

listing of the radio frequencies of U.S. and aIlied
agencies in the zone of operations. Frequent
liaison visits by command and staff personnel
are a means of keeping the frequencies current.

368
The following incident illustrates the value of
such a listing.
During the course of a combined opera-
tion, a friendly allied battalion in motor convoy
was attacked in daylight along a road. A Marine
operations officer, observing this attack, at-
tempted unsuccessfully to contact a friendly unit
by radio. Seeing a U.S. observation plane circling
the area, he gained radio contact with the ob-
server because he remembered the observation
frequencies used a month earlier. In a matter of
minutes artillery fire was directed on the enemy.
The operations officer also contacted a local
U.S. advisor on another net who directed addit-
ional fires on the now-withdrawing VC. Within
a half hour of the first radio contact, air and
ground supporting fires had been delivered on
the enemy ambush force.

#####

8. VEHICULAR RADIOS

The basic units of the FM vehicular radio,

AN/MRC- 109-110, are watertight when issued.
However, accessories, connectors, and recep-
tacles require additional waterproofing prior to
fording operations.
The operator/driver must be cautioned that
the AN/MRC- 109-110 radio vehicle is less stable
than the AN/MRC-38. This is particularly true
since the installed radio equipment has a higher

369
center of gravity, and is more susceptible to
overturning while executing sharp turns at rela-
tively high speeds. The suspension system of
the new AN/M RC - 109-110 provides a compara-
tively easy ride, thus reducing driver awareness
of the necessity to maintain a safe speed for the
existing driving conditions. Observe safe driving
precautions at all times with this vehicular
radio. Keep it upright and operating.
The” M-151 Jeep (AN/M RC- 109-110) vehicle
does not have an aluminum alloy body and there-
fore is extremely vulnerable to one of the
enemies encountered constantly in RVN--RUST.
One problem area to watch closely on these
vehicles is the battery compartment. The eight
drainholes beneath the battery tray can easily
become plugged with dirt and foreign matter.
Supervisors should continually spot check these
vehicles to ensure that operators are keeping
the battery tray area clean.

9. SQUAD LEVEL RADIO

The squad level radio, AN/ PRT-4 transmitter

and AN/ PRR-fJ receiver, to be employed by rifle
platoon leaders, platoon sergeants, squad leaders
and fire team leaders, is currently being pro-
cured by the Marine Corps. This radio will
provide an interim commuk~tion capability at

370
the platoon level, pending development of a
single-unit transceiver. First deliveries to field
units are expected by the first part of 1968.
The radio transmitter, AN/ PRT-4, is a dual
channel transmitter capable of transmitting voice
or internally generated tone signals. The micro-
phone is contained in the front of the case. A
collapsible antenna, which is approximately 24
inches long when extended, slides down along the
side of the transmitter housing when collapsed.
This unit can be carried in the shirt or flak
vest pocket; can be clipped to clothing; or can be
carried in the hand.
The radio receiver, AN/PRR-9, is a self-
contained, single-channel receiver designed to
be attached to a standard combat helmet, clipped
to a harness, or placed in a shirt or flak vest
pocket, A lanyard is provided as a retainer to
prevent loss. An 18-inch stainless steel whip
antenna is provided and may be utilized in either
of two positions; perpendicular to the receiver
housing or parallel to the housing.
Both transmitter and receiver are dry battery
powered, with a normal battery life of 30 to 40
hours. Normal communication r a n g e under
optimum conditions, is approximately 500 meters.

#####

371
 ,

10. EXTERNAL POWER SOURCE TELEPHONE

TA-312

On the face of the TA-312 telephone there

are two chrome screws marked “Bat.” These
screws are to be used as a field expedient
method of connecting an external 3-volt power
source, such as two BA-23 batteries shown in
the opposite sketch. When BA-30 batteries nor-
mally used with this field telephone are not
available, there are some other batteries with
.—
‘ -volt sections
2 which may be used. These are:
+ BA-386 (PRC-25 batteries)
+ BA-279 (PRC-1O batteries)
+ BA-270 (PRC-6 batteries)

# # /{ # //

372
 Sln.al@
Str-!!dOfwire
I

Tebphono Yolophono

Ground return
——

—
— —

11, GROUND RETURN COMMUNICATIONS

If the wire on your field telephone suddenly

fails, take both pieces of wire and place them in
the same terminal post. From the other post
run a piece of wire to a ground stake. The same
thing must be done at the other end of the line.
If both positions follow this procedure, com-
munications may be restored.
If wire is temporarily in short supply, lay
one strand of wire, connect it to one terminal,
ground the other terminal, and continue with
dependable communications.

#####

12. FIELD WIRE LINE TESTS

Field wire line defects can cause various

degrees of trouble by intermittent or total failure
of the field wire system or its components.

373
Testing the field wire sys!em can Lsolate prob-
lem areas and enable repair personnel to elimi-
nate trouble cluickly. The below listing indicates
common wire system problems, probable causes,
methods of testing with the field telephone, and
the symptom.

TROUBLE _ METHOD OF TESTING sY?4PmM

Short TWO conductors of Connect DOTH conduc. If the

ONE pair in elec- tors of the pair to generator
trical contact. be tested to the line crank turns
terminals of the test HARD the
telephone. Turn the circuit iar
generetor crank SHORTED.
rapidly.

Ground ONIJ or NW?{ =0”- Connect ONE conduc- If the

ductors aro in t.or of the pair to generator
electrical cOn - be tested to ONE crank turne
tact with the liru terminal of the HARD that con-
ground or a test telephone. Con- ductor la
grounded object. nect the 2ND line GROUNDED.
terminal of the test
telephone to a ground
stake. Turn the gen-
erator crank rapidly.

cross A conductor of a Connect BOTH conduc- If the gen-

pair is in elec- tors of one pair to erator crank
trical contact ONE line terminal of does not
with a conductor the test telephone turn FRESLY
of a DIFFERENT and BOTli conductors there in a
pair. of the 2ND pair to CROSS.
the 2ND line termi-
nal of the test tele-
phone. Turn the
generator crank
rapidly.

Open ONE or LIOTH con- Connect BOTN donduc- If the

ductors of a tors of the pair to generator
pair broken. be tested to the crank turns
line terminals of FrWSLY the
the test tclept’me. circuit is
Turn the enerator OPEN.
crank rap 7 ally.

/i##i#i/

374
13. SWITCHBOARD OPERATIONS

Several adverse effects associated with

switchboard operations have been noted in Viet-
nam during the monsoon season, One of the most
common and more troublesome of these prob-
lems is “cross talk.” This results when the wire
conductors connected to the terminals in the
rear of the switchboard become moist or wet,
thus allowing transmission current to cross chan-
nels through the moisture around the terminals.
When a switchboard is established in a forward
area, the tactical situation requires the location
of the equipment to be underground or at least
completely sandbagged. This situation adds to the
moisture problem which in turn increases
“crosstalk.”

375
 To counter this, the back cover of the
switchboard should be removed and all terminals
exposed to a strong light; e.g., a !500-watt
searchlight (type ADR14), in order to dry moisture
and eliminate “crosstalk.”

#####

14. SB-86 SWITCHBOARD DEMAGNETIZATION

After a period of use, line signals and

supervisory signals in the SB-96 switchboard
become magnetized in the operate (white) posi-
tion. The normal solution is replacement of the
signal at a cost of approximately $9.50.
It was discovered that the use of a tape
recorder head demagnetizer will restore the
signal to normal (black) position with no damage.
A head demagnetizer, with a switch, is plugged
into a 110v 60-HrZ outlet and located within easy
reach of all the signals on the switch150ard.
When one of the signals fails to restore to the
normal position after the plug is inserted, the
demagnetizer is touched to the lens of the ‘signal
and switched on. A second or two is all that is
required to restore the signal to normal. The
cost of the head demagnetizer is approximately
$3.50.

#####

376
15. PROTECT POWER AND COMMUNICATION
CABLES

Unprotected cables linking permanent fixed

command or communication facilities with re-
mote equipment are extremely vulnerable dur-
ing enemy attacks. Flying debris and shell
fragments can easily slice unprotected cables,
causing a loss of comniunications with the com-
mand and control agencies. The resulting prob-
lems are far out of proportion to the physical
damage received. Scrupulous attention to proper
safeguarding of cables by burying or shielding
will enable command and control agencies to
continue vital operations during attacks.

#####

16. PROTECT CO MM UN ICATIONCOMPO-

NENTS

The high heat and humidity of Vietnam ac-

celerate the deterioration of the rubber com-
ponents on communication-electronics equipment.
To prevent this drying-out process, apply a
thin coat of llC4 lubricant to these parts daily,
Components such as push-to-talk switch covers
will last longer.

#####

377
17. SECURITY FOR WIRE TEAMS

Certain dangers are inherent in trouble-

shooting wire lines because the lines are sta-
tionary and the enemy can predict routes the
wire teams will be using. An adequate number
of personnel should accompany the wire team to
provide protection and should be equipped with

-—.—.——c
a radio. When checking the wire lines, the wire
team must not establish a pattern, but vary their
routine each time. Walk varying distances from
the ~ wire and approach wire at right angles.
Check the wire carefully for boobytraps before
testing. Only one man should approach the wire
to trouble shoot. All except the inspecting wire-
man keep spread out and alert. The same caution
should ‘be exercised on the return trip as the
area should never be considered safe.

#####

18. COMMUNICATION SECURITY

The communication equipment available to

field units includes the most advanced and ex-
tensive airay ever provided. Yet, without proper
security measures, the use of this equipment
can be more harmful than useful.
The enemy in Vietnam possesses the ability
to intercept friendly radio transmissions. Any
information passed in the clear must be as-
sumed to have been subject to intercept. Opera-
tors and supervisory personnel must ensure that
adequate security measures are employed with
all transmissions. The correct use of shackling
and the use of call signs is a must,
Attempts by the enemy to intercept com-
munications are not limited to radio equipment.
U.S. forces have detected numerous attempts to
disrupt telephone communications and even enter

379
these conversations in attempts to deceive and
disrupt them. On one occasion, just prior to an
attack on a U.S. installation, the Vlet Cong en-
tered the telephone communications system in-
side the installation perimeter and conversed
in fluent English, free of any trace of accent.
Detailed conversations were carried on until the
U.S. personnel became suspicious of the type of
questions that were asked by the unidentified
party. Later, investigation revealed the location
of the line tapping. Security measures must be
developed to counter such a possibility and con-
stant attention must be paid to limiting tele-
phone and r a dio conversations to essential
information properly protected b y security
measures.

380
19. CHECKLIST FOR COMMUNICATIONS

+ Plan for primary, alternate, and emer-

gency means of communication.
+ Keep communication equipment clean,
dry and as cool as possible.
+ Adhere to proper radio procedures.
+ Reduce radio traffic by establishing sig-
nals (key handset).
-+ Tie both the mounted and the extra an-
tennas to the radio or backpack.
-+ Move radio a few meters if reception is
poor.
+ Use RC - 292 or field-expedient antennas
to increase communications range.
+ Disperse radios.
+ Camouflage communication equipment.
* Ensure all leaders know operational fre-
quencies.

####f’#

381
 Chapter VII: LOGISTICS

a. Trans~rtation and Movement Doctrine

MILSTAMP represents the title, “Military

Standard Transportation and Movement Proce-
dures. ” The final work concerning MILSTAMP
is the D e p a r t m e n t of Defense Regulation
4500.32-R. This manual provides guidance, regu-
lations, and code designators and establishes the
procedures to be followed by shipping and re-
ceiving activities. When processing, handling, or
moving material from one location to another,
these regulations should be adl]ered to closely.
The work of handling and moving materdal may

383
sometimes seem dull and routine to the trans-
porters and movers. However, to the Marine in
combat who is anxiously awaiting the arrival of
the right box of gear, very few, if any, shipments
are routine. All personnel involved in the handling
and movement of material must be thoroughly
familiar with the provisions of MILSTAMP--the
right gear, at the right place, at the right time
depends on it.

b. Attention Supply Personnel

Some difficulty is being experienced with

the MILSTRIP coding now being used in the sup-
ply system. To make the system work efficiently,
the codes must be understood and used properly.
Remember:
+ The document identifier code (DIC)
provides ready identification of each type of
MILSTRIP transaction, such as requisition,
passing action, status request, receipt or adjust-
ment. The DIC is found in the first three positions
(card columns 1-3) in the MILSTRIP format. By
this code, ready identification is available, on the
data and action that is required to be performed
on the requisition. The document identifier code
(DIC) is a mandatory entry on all MILSTRIP
documents. Commonly used DIC’S are published
in the current edition of MCO P4400. 15, Organic
Property Control Procedures Manual. Correct
utilization of these codes will speed supply re-
sponse.

384
-+ Pending modification at the inventory
control points, document identifiers in the RM
(requisition modifier) series will not process in
the current program. Requisitioning activities
are reminded that a priority can only be up.
graded by canceling the original requisition and
submitting a new requisition stating the appro-
priate priority designator, quantity, and the
required delivery date (RDD).

#####

2. EMBARKATION

a. Embarkation Readiness

Success or failure of embarkation opera-

tions is dependent upon proper embarkation
planning. To ensure rapid and orderly

385
deployment, it is mandatory that units maintain
a high state of embarkation readiness at all
times. Experience has shown that units which
have encountered difficulty during embarkation
for deployment have not planned nor trained
properly. Some of the major errors of omission
arc:
+ Embarkation personnel responsible for
loading ships are not thoroughly familiar with
embarkation procedures.
-* Accurate embarkation data are not
readily available. As a result, shipping require-
ments cannot be rapidly and accurately esti-
mated for unit lifts.
-* Cargo and equipment are not properly
boxed, crated and/or palletized.
In order for any unit to be prepared
for a rapid and orderly deployment, the following
measures arc rccluircd:
4- Up-to-date embarkation SOP.

-> Complete, accurate a nd up-to-date

cargo manifests.
+ Trained embarkation personnel onhand.
4- Complete and accurate tactical mark-
ings displayed where required.
-?- Sufficient packing and crating material
onhand.

386
 + Periodic embarkation inspections of
subordinate units.
+ Initiation of timely followup embarka-
tion actions and assistance, when indicated, to
ensure maximum readiness.

Embarkation procedures can be improved

by following the points below:
+
Take advantage of embarkation school
quotas. The unit embarkation officer and his
assistant should be school-trained whenever
possible.
+ Embarkation should be an all-hands
effort. Complete, accurate data from all sections
are necessary in order to prepare effective plans.
+ Use standard-sized pallets with string-
ers running the shorter length of the pallet.

,,, ..., . ?..,-,,AW*,,,,.

. *, .< 387
Ensure that loads do not protrude beyond the
pallet edge. Usc the widest banding available and
reinforce it with lumber if there is any doubt
that the package can withstand rough handling.
+ When packaging lumber, do not rely on
banding alone. Reinforce the package with lengths
of wood under the banding and perpendicular to
the lumber.
+- Plan for embarking items of equipment
or supplies which are on requisition but not yet
onhand.

#####

388
3. SUPPLY ECONOMY

One of the biggest problems unit leaders at

all levels are faced with in a combat situation is
supply economy. Personnel serving in a combat
area for the first time have a tendency to feel
that any item lost or damaged can automatically
be written off as a combat loss. Stress to all new
personnel that resupply in a combat situation is
at times extremely limited and that each indi.
vidual is directly responsible for each item of
individual equipment in his possession. Should
this item be lost or damaged through negligence,
the individual may be punished. More importantly,
the item may be needed later when a replace-
ment cannot be obtained.
During the monsoons in the I Corps area,
proper handling and distribution of all supplies
become even more necessary. Unit shortages on
some critical items such as boots, utilities and
782 gear can sometimes be traced directly from
poor supervision by unit leaders to the trash
dump. Inundated roads and low cloud cover re-
strict distribution, so each item must be con-
served and utilized to the fullest extent possible.
However, too much conservation can be as bad
as too little. Stockpiling supplies not immedi-
ately required by a using unit may deprive
another Marine unit of urgently needed gear.

389
 I
c. Economy of Fuel Filters

Replacement of fuel filters for the TD-18

tractor can be reduced by transferring the
auxiliary filter to the primary position and
placing the new filter in the auxiliary position.
This method may also be applied to the dual-oil
filters used on multifuel engine trucks. The
estimated reduction of filter usage is approxi-
mately one-third.

b. Prolong Battery Life

‘1’hc life of a 11A-386 battery for tile

AN/ PI{C-25 radio can be prolonged by rotating
it with another battery every 6 to 8 hours. When
radio operators in a base location assume the
radio watch, they should rotate batteries. During
field operation, carrying at least one spare bat-
tery can accomplish the same thing.

c. Class V Management

The indiscriminate expenditure of ammuni-

tion and practices contributing to its deterioration
in storage have no place in combat operations.
Commanders at all levels must be alert to
eliminate undesirable ammunition handling prac-
tices such as are outlined below:

390
* Carrying linked machinegun ammuni-
tion wrapped around the shoulders and upper
body. This removes the ammunition from its
protective packaging and permits the accumulat-
ion of moisture, sand, and dirt on the exposed
rounds. Any of these conditions could cause a
weapon malfunction. Inside each bandolier of
7. 62mm machinegun ammunition (100 rounds) is
a cardboard container protecting it. If the
ammunition is removed from its packaging,
leave it inside the bandolier until just prior to
firing.
-E
Frequently, ammunition beyond the im-
mediate requirement is removed from its con-
tainer. Mortar propellants in particular are
susceptible to moisture, and prolonged exposure
can result in short rounds or misfires.

391
+ Improper and inadequate field storage
prac~iccs contril.mtc to ammunition dcterloratlono
Check the appropriate publication for the ac-
cepted methods.

4. F[];l.1) liX1’liDIENCY

Do you need an idea for an expedient means

of bridging a small stream? How much sand,
mortar and water make a good batch of con-
crete? What size culverts will support tanks
and how much fill should cover the culvert?
IHOW many pounds in 1100 kilos of rice? What
are the dimensions of an M51 dump truck? Need
a winch for some heavy hauling? --use truck
wheels.
All this information and more is contained in
the recently revised Engineer Field Data Manual
(FM 5-34). Keep a copy handy. It will quickly
provide you with the correct solution to many of
your minor engineering problems.

a. Ficlcl-Expedient Cleaning “rank

A field-expedient cleaning tank for tele-

phone components can be constructed by using a
55-gallon steel drum, or a similar container,
cut down to a 36-inch height; a 10-foot length
of 5/ 16-inch-copper tubing; and a vacuum
clcancr. This cleaning tank is particularly useful

392
 Figure 7-1

for cleaning components that have a heavy ac-

cumulation of dust and grease. (See fig. 7-l. )
The construction is simple. This aerated
bath of cleaning solvent is very effective and
can be used to clean any mechanical part that is
normally cleaned with solvent. The article to be
cleaned should be suspended to allow sediment
to settle to the bottom of the tank. (CAUTION: Do
not house apparatus indoors. )

b. Battery Salvage

If your penlight battery is worn out, the

BA-386 battery can be the source for a replace-
ment. The BA-386 of a certain manufacture
contains six small AA (penlight) batteries. When

393
the 13A-386 has been expended for normal radio
use, it can be cut open and the smaller compo-
nents removed. This prevents its reuse by the
enemy and provides a possible additional battery
supply for a small penlight.

c. Emergency Vehicle Repairs

+ To repair a small hole in a punctured
fuel tank, remove a self-tapping screw and washer
from the body or cab of the vehicle. Then cut a
small piece of leather from a tarpaulin strap.
Punch a hole through the leather and work the
screw with the washer attached through the
leather. Insert the self-tapping screw in the hole
in the fuel tank and tighten it to the point where
the leather expands slightly.
+ When a fan belt breaks and a replace-
ment is not immediately available, a fiber rope
from the vehicle tarpaulin or a length of field tele-
phone wire may serve as a substitute. The gene-
rator mounting blocks should be loosened and
the generator pus hed toward the engine block.
The rope or wire should then be looped around
the pulleys two or three times and securely tied;
trim the loose ends to prevent them from dam-
aging the radiator. Push the generator gently
back into position until the rope is reasonably
taut and tighten the generator mounting blocks.
4- Broken fuel or oil line--Breaks on these
lines are under low pressure or a vacuum and
may be temporarily spliced by forcing a piece of

394
hose over the broken ends of the line. A piece of
hose cut from the windshield wiper may be
used,
+ Broken brake line--Crimp the cut brake
line, thus allowing the remaining vehicle wheels
to continue functioning without loss of the brake
fluid.
+ Cracked distributor cap--Cracked dis-
tributor caps have a tendency to fill with moisture.
Sparks running along this moisture can cause
the cap to burn, creating carbon deposits. Scrape
a notch in the cap or rotor deep enough to re-
move all the carbon from the crack, then fill the
crack with tar from the top of the battery.
+
Vapor lock-- This is common in hot
climates or when the operating temperature of
the engine becomes too high. The fuel vaporizes
in the pump, which will not pump vapor alone.
Wrap the fuel pump with a piece of cloth that has
been soaked in water. This will lower the fuel
temperature enough to keep the fuel in a liquid
state.

d. Substitute V-Belt
The generator belt used on the M-422
Mity Mite may be used as an interim substitute
for the drivebelts found on the AN/MRC-109
radio jeep. Both belts must be replaced on the
MRC-109 since the M-422 V-belt is approximately
3/8 inch smaller in diameter. The FSN of the
substitute belt is 3030-528-4446.

395
 ~% Round Solid Stock

Figure 7-2

e. M38 Axle Puller

A Victnarn-basml maintenance unit has

devised an axle puller for M38 l/4-ton vehicles
that has consistently removed rear axles when
the old slapstick method has failed. Utilizing the
devised axle puller (see fig. 7-2), two Marines
were able to remove rear axles which required
repair even when other methods such as heating
the axle housing failed. The damage to the cone
and rollers usually associated with other methods
is eliminated. All the parts used to fabricate
these devices are found around vehicle mainte-
nance shops; scrap material can be used for all
metal parts.

396
 Figure 7-3

f. Ditch Crossing

The use of five logs will permit a convoy

of mixed vehicles to cross ditches that are too
deep to drive through. The logs should be about
10 inches in diameter and 3 to 4 feet longer than
the width of the ditch. To prevent the logs from
spreading apart, drive stakes into the ground on
both sides and lash them together with rope,
chain or communications wire. Only two logs
are needed to pass a dual-wheeled vehicle across
a ditch by allowing the dual wheels to straddle
the log as the vehicle crosses. Single front wheels
can be converted to duals by using the spare wheel
and by removing the outer wheel of one of the
sets of rear duals. Four logs are necessary to

397
pass a vehicle equipped with single wheels. By
lashing the logs together in pairs, the wheels
ride between the logs. Guides must be provided
to ensure that the vehicles and the logs are
aligned properly. (See fig. 7-3. )

a. Preventive Maintenance Indicators

The human body and items of equipment

can both show certain indications of poor health
or ill use. However, equipment is unlike the body
in that it does not have built-in mechanisms to
ward off disease once infection sets in. It does
not take a highly skilled mechanic to practice
sound preventive maintenance procedures. It

398
takes goods eyes, common sense, an oilcan,
perhaps a wrench, a willingness to inspect
equipment, and a realization that without in-
spections the equipment will get “sick.”
Rust, loose connections, s p 1i t rubber
gaskets, bent couplings and condensation are
just a few indicators that mean further inspection
is needed. Each item in the table of equipment
has certain preventive maintenance procedures.
Learn them, follow them and tell the men with
whom you work what they are.

b. Effect of Monsoon Conditions on the Mity

Mite
During periods of heavy rain, mud, and
deteriorating road surfaces, the M-422 Mity
Mite experiences excessive wear to the idler
pulley, brakes hoes, and brakedrums on rough
roads. Frequent inspections, thorough d r i v e r
maintenance, and an intensified training pro-
gram to ensure that drivers exercise necessary
caution while driving on rough roads are essen-
tial. Undercarriages of all vehicles must be
cleaned as often as possible to preclude bearing,
brake and universal joint wear, engine clogging,
and to aid in visual inspection to detect dis-
orders before they render the vehicle useless.

c. Brake and Clutch Free Travel

Drivers and mechanics should be aware

of the proper clutch and brake free travel

399
distance on the vehicles which they operate and
repair. Free travel distance takes on added im-
portance when the vehicle is operating in sand
and laterite, and over rough terrain. When the
clutch is not properly adjusted, pressure on the
disk, pressure plate and throwout bearing causes
excessive wear on the whole assembly. Improper
free travel of the brake pedal can cause partial
engagement of the brakes while the vehicle is
moving. This condition wears out the brakeshoes
and builds up pressure in the brake system
which could result in system failure. The correct
free travel adjustments are integral to a sound
preventive maintenance program. Consult the ap-
propriate technical publication for specific in-
formation.

d. Fuel Tanker Condensation

Wide differences between day and night

temperatures and humidity can lead to increased
condensation in fuel tanks. Continued use of con-
taminated fuel can cause engine damage. This
problem can be reduced if fuel tankers are kept
full at night, leaving 1i t t 1 e or no space for
moisture-laden air in the tanker. In addition, a
weekly check with water-finding paste can re-
duce contamination problems.

400
 e. Tightening Vehicle Hardware

A continuing problem exists for vehicle

operators and mechanics in attempting to keep
vehicle hardware tight. Once boltholes or mating
surfaces become elongated or warped, it is
almost impossible to tighten hardware securely.
The secret in preventing the development of
loose hardware is to take corrective action be-
fore the nuts and bolts become loose. Indications
that hardward is loose are: mud and dirt not
collecting on a nut or lockwasher; shiny metal
surfaces around the bolt; or red streaks staining
the painted surface adjacent to mating surfaces,
Some of the pertinent areas to watch closely are:
wheel lug nuts; door, cab, and bed mounting
bolts; subassembly and unit mounting bolts;
spring “U” bolts; drive shafts and axle flange

401
bolts; battery holddown clamps; fuel tank mount-
ing straps and supports; and all steering mecha-
nism bolts.
Particular attention to the above problem
areas by drivers will prolong the life of all
equipment and will result in fewer vehicles
becoming deadlined.

f. Vehicle Washing
The lack of adequate vehicle washing facil-
ities in RVN makes local self-help programs a
must. However, when utilizing a nearby river or
stream to wash a vehicle, do not “dunk” the
vehicle all the way up to the vehicle bed. When
water flows over the top of the wheels, system
components such as seals, bearing and brakes
are subject to excessive deterioration caused by
the water. A good rule of thumb to follow is that
when the depth of the water reaches the bottom
of the wheel rim, stop. Accidental submersion
beyond this point should be reported to unit
maintenance personnel.

g. Multifuel Drivers
Keep vehicles out of 2(I or 3d echelon
maintenance by performing a simple weekly check
on engine mounting bolts and the steering gear-
box mounting bolts. If either of these work loose,
they will cut into the injection pump hose and
fuel will wind up in places other than in the
engine.

402
 h. Maintenance Procedures on the M52A2t
Multifuel Tractor
The exhaust from this vehicle is directed
toward the ground and stirs up dust and dirt
which are picked up by the air intake on the
supercharger. To remedy this, install the ex-
haust extension of the short deepwater fording
kit. The amount of dust and dirt entering the air
intake is considerably reduced.

i. Overheating Problems

The multifuel engines in the 2~-ton and

5-ton trucks are designed to operate between
170° and 200° F.; however, when the tempera-
ture goes above 90°, the coolant temperature can
go as high as 2200 without damage to the engine,
providing the radiator pressure cap is function-
ing properly. If these engine temperatures are
exceeded, the following action should be taken:
+ Check water level; do not rely on visual
inspection as water can be in the filler neck and
give a false indication of level. Check water
level by filling radiator until it overflows.
+ Check fan belt tdnsion.
+
Check radiator core for dirt plugging.
+
Check for headgasket leaks by observ-
ing radiator water for bubbling or appearance
of oil.

403
+ Check radiator pressure cap for loose-
ness in the normal position. Can pressure be
heard escaping when cap is loosened on a hot
engine? CAUTION SHOULD BE USED TO PRE-
VENT SCALDING WHEN LOOSENING THE CAP:
If the above checks do not solve the over-
heating, replace the thermostat. If a new thermo-
stat is not available, the engine may be operated
without one. providing the bypass to the water
pump is “blocked. This is the 2-inch diameter
pipe that extends from the bottom of the thermo-
stat housing and is connected to the water pump
by a short hose section. A tapered wooden plug
is recommended in the rubber hose section be-
tween the thermostat housing and the water pump.
Care should be taken to ensure that the plug
does not protrude beyond the diameter of the
pipe and does not have sharp edges. When op-
erating without the thermostat, the engine will
tend to remain cooler than usual under normal
conditions. I-lowever, in weather above 90°, the
engine will reach a maximum of 220°. Under
emergency conditions when operating the engine
without the thermostat and without blocking, the
bypass, extreme caution must be taken to avoid
overheating the engine. It is recommended that
a coolant temperature limit .of 200° be estab-
lished to ensure a safety margin. Loads and
speeds should be reduced to prevent exceeding
the coolant temperature limit.

404
 j. Jeep Battery Compartment
The M-151 Jeep (AN/MRC-109-110) ve-
hicle does not have an aluminum alloy body and
therefore is extremely vulnerable to one of the
enemies encountered constantly in RVN--RUST.
One problem area to watch closely on these
vehicles is the battery compartment. The eight
drainholes beneath the battery tray can easily
become plugged with dirt and foreign matter.
Supervisors should continually spot check these
vehicles to ensure that operators are keeping
the battery tray area clean.

k. 24- and 5-Tori Truck Air Reservoir Tanks

Recent inspections of 2~-ton and 5-ton
trucks have disclosed t h a t the inboard air
reservoir tanks are not being properly drained.
Moisture that accumulates in air reservoir tanks
can cause brake failures and damage to all
components of the vehicle’s brake system.
TM 11240-15/1A specifies that the driver has
the responsibility to drain the air reservoir
tanks daily. Draining the tanks should be a
normal portion of the vehicle operator’s after-
operation services. Deadlined vehicles should be
checked daily to ‘prevent the accumulation of
moisture in the air reservoir tanks.

1. Vehicle Rivets
Operating vehicles over rough terrain with
heavy loads can cause the rivets securing the

405
 crossmembers of the vehicle frame to break or
crack. This has happened to several 2~-ton and
5-ton vehicles in Vietnam. This situation ispre-
dominant on the extended beds of the M-36and
M-49 Fuel Tanker, and the M-50 Water Tanker.
Rivets most often break on the second and third
crossmembers. The twisting action of the frame
caused by the engagement of the sprag units
may be the cause of this. Vehicles should be
inspected weekly for signs of broken or cracked
rivets and, when discovered, must be reported
~ for appropriate corrective measures.

m. Xenon Searchlight Preventive Maintenance

It has been discovered that a green mold

will develop on the inside of the protective glass
shield and on the reflector of the tank-mounted
Xenon searchlight. This mold develops rapidly

406
during the monsoon season. The illumination
capability of the light is reduced considerably,
especially as the mo~d accumulates on the re-
flector.
During the monsoon season, on a weekly
basis, tank crewmen should clean the protective
glass shield and the reflector with medical
alcohol and a clean, soft cloth.

n. Rough Terrain Forklifts

The rough terrain forklift needs much the

same preventive maintenance and driver training
as a heavy truck. Daily operator checks before
and after operation are necessary for such items
as lubrication, oil, water and component adjust-
ments. The forklift technical manuals and lubri-
cation charts are based on normal operation
conditions. More frequent servicing may be
necessary. Driver training should emphasize the
proper use of the clutch cutoff control and the
necessity to bring the vehicle to a complete halt
before reversing directions.

o. Maintenance
—— of Gasoline- 13ngine-Driven
Chain Saws

The gasoline-engine-driven chain saw is a

rugged tool, and it will tolerate a limited amount
of abuse without being rendered unserviceable;
however, for optimum performance it is abso-
lutely necessary that routine and unscheduled

407
maintenance be performed when prescribed or
when necessary.

Operator abuse is a major factor in chain

saw failures. Improper lubrication is one of the
most frequent causes of inability to start. Lubri-
cating oil of the prescribed weight and type must
be mixed with gasoline in the correct propor-
tions, no more, no less, if the saw is expected
to operate properly. Too little oil will cause
excessive engine wear. All preventive mainte-
nance services must be performed before at-
tempting to start the engine.
A clogged muffler or exhaust port may
bc the cause of failure to start, hard starting,
or loss of power. The muffler and exhaust port
should be cleaned of carbon periodically. Re-
move and scrape carbon from the muffler. Scrape
carbon from the exhaust port. CAUTION: Before
attempting to clean the exhaust port, the piston
must be moved to the bottom of the cylinder to
avoid damage to the piston and piston rings. If
the exhaust port is divided, care must be exer-
cis ed not to break out the divider. After the
exhaust port has been cleaned, the engine should
be cranked over rapidly by hand several times
with the muffler removed in order to blow out
any carbon remaining in the cylinder.
While operating the saw, it should be
stopped immediately if unusual noises are heard
or erratic operation is observed. The trouble
should be located and corrected before again

408
starting the saw. The cutter bar and chain must
be lubricated at intervals while the saw is in
operation, The chain must be sharp and properly
adjusted.
After use, the engine should be stopped by
shutting off the fuel supply at the tank. This
procedure will minimize the possibility of flood-
ing when the engine is restarted. If it is found
that failure to start is caused by flooding, the
engine should be cranked with the fuel shut off
and spark plug removed until the excess fuel
mixture has been purged from the cylinder and
crankcase. The spark plug should be thoroughly
dried or replaced with a new one, and the start-
ing procedure repeated. CAUTION: The spark
plug cable should be firmly grounded to the en-
gine when the engine is cranked with the spark
plug removed.
When the saw is not being used, and while
it is stored, it should be treated with the same
care as any ot!]cr precision tool or piece of
machinery. It should not be carelessly thrown on
the ground or tossed into the body of a truck.
Above all, it should not be laid on rock, concrete,
or gravel surfaces. In summary, if supervisors
and operators ensure that chain saws are properly
maintained and handled with care they will be
ready for the big job where required.

#####
6. SPARE THAT BRIDGE

Many bridges in Vietnam are not capable of

supporting the heavy engineer and tracked equip-
ment which U.S. forces employ. Engineer units
are replacing or reinforcing many of these
bridges. During this rework, the new or im-
proved bridges are marked on the approaches
and on the bridge itself to show a classification
number representing the safe load carrying
capability. Bridge classification numb~s range
from 4 to 100. All vehicles and items of heavy
equipment with a gross weight of over 3 tons,
and all trailers with a payload over a ton and a
half are similarly assigned classification num-
bers ranging from 4 to 150. The planned move-
ment of heavy equipment and loaded vehicles
must include a route reconnaissance to include

410
the classification number of each bridge. Unless
the bridge capacity (classification) and the classi-
fication number of the load is known, crossing
a bridge could be hazardous. Two recent bridge
failures illustrate this hazard. A tank retriever
towing M-48 Tank attempted to cross a triple-
single Bailey bridge, The combined load (class
100) caused the bridge (class 55 normal, class
65 risk) to collapse at the center. A wrecker
towing a 2+-ton truck attempted to cross an
Eiffel bridge. Again the combined load (class 32)
exceeded the bridge capacity (class 9). FM 5-34,
Engineer Field Data Manual, provides detailed
information on the marking of bridges and the
classification of both bridges and vehicles. Use
it and spare the bridge.

#####

7. GENERATORS

+ Cold generators should be run for at least

10 minutes before applying a load. The circula-
tion of air around the stator windings ‘will tend
to remove the accumulated moisture inside the
equipment, which is the cause of most generator
breakdowns.
+ Proper protective measures must be taken
to keep generators free of excessive water and
sand. Sandbags placed 4 feet from the generator
at a minimum height of 2 feet, with a protective
covering (such as a tarp or tent) placed over

411
the generator, will cut down unnecessary ex-
posure of the generator to weather elements.
+ Centralization of 45-kilowatt generator
maintenance results in significantly lower dead-
line rates and improves responsiveness when
generator troubles occur.
+ The elevation of generators a few feet off
the ground will reduce the amount of sand drawn
into the stators while the generators are in
ciperatioti.
+ When a unit is deployed under field con-
ditions for sustained operations, suitable down-
time should be scheduled in order to accomplish
required maintenance on each electrical power
generator. When scheduling downtime, considera-
tion should be given to the electrical power
requirement for operating the electrical equip-
ment usually powered by each generator. For
continuous operations, at least one generator
should be maintained on a standby basis at all
times.
+ Generators damaged by rats or other small
rodents can be repaired and/or protected from
further damage by ordinary plastic insulating
tape and fungus proofing spray. The damaged
wires or insluation should be sprayed with fungus
spray, then wrapped with plastic tape, and given
a final coating of the fungus spray.

#####

412
8, SANITIZING FOOD SERVICE EQUIPMENT

Galley floors and walls, as well as all equip-

ment used in food preparation such as can
openers, ice cream s c 00 ps, glass cleaning
brushes, etc., must all be kept scrupulously
cleaned and sanitized. Heat and chemicals
are the two means used to sanitize.

Dishes and utensils may be washed by hand

or by machine depending upon the equipment
available and the tactical situation, Whatever the
method, satisfactory results depend upon con-
scientious use by the personnel concerned of the
equipment and materials provided.
Dishwashing and sanitizing equipment, dish-
washing methods (including improved methods
for use in the field), dishwashing compounds,
sanitizing agents, drying, storing and handling
of u t ens i 1s are all thoroughly described in
NAVMED P501O-1, Manual of Naval Preventive
Medicine, Chapter 1, Food Sanitation, The prin-
ciples set forth therein must be strictly followed
to prevent galley casualties.

#####

413
9. FLAK JACKET REPAIR

Flak jackets in Vietnam receive rough treat-

ment and arc easily torn. To prolong their life,
repairs should bc made immediately. Six-inch
wide communication tape is an excellent expedient
when sewing is not possible. This tape is str~ng
and waterproof and, if available, will serve the
purpose until permanent repairs can be made.

10. LONG RANGE PATROL RATIONS

The lightweight patrol rations used in Viet-

nam have been praised for their taste, compact-
ness and variety of menu. Although these rations
were not intended to be used for extended periods

414
of time, long patrols, up to company-size, have
used them for periods of 6 days. Each menu con-
sists of a precooked, dehydrated combination item
which requires reconstitution by the addition of
water. A confection, a cereal or fruitcake bar,
and coffee, cream and sugar complete the menu.
A total of eight menus are included in the ration
carton, three of each menu, The packaging weight
~nd configuration of the packets is such that a
3-day supply can readily be carried in a light
marching pack; four packets could also be car-
ried in utility jacket pockets. An available supply
of water is required for reconstitution in the foil
lined packet itself. A combination of canned
rations, patrol packets and rice can make meals
wholesome and appetizing with a minimum of
effort. Keep in mind food requirements for
operations and tailor them to meet the mission.

415
 Chapter VIII: CIVIC ACT ION -
PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

1. REVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT
a. RD Coordination
The rapidly expanding Revolutionary De.
velopment Program involves the participation of
an increasing number of organizations and agen.
ties which assist the GVN at all levels of govern-
ment (hamlet, village, district, province). The
effort of all these organizations must be coordi-
nated to ensure that the success of the program
is realized. The distribution of supplies by
Marines must be coordinated with and accom-
plished through the local officials, to ensure that
the refugee camps, orphanages and other selected
recipients are not already programmed for
assistance from the GVN, USAID or another

417
organization. The same is true for construction
projects, MEDCAP and any other civic action
project.
There are important additional benefits
from this coordination. The personal prestige of
the local Vietnamese officials is considerably
enhanced by deferring to them. Consequently,
their respect for us is increased, and they are
encouraged to improve their performance.

b. The Resettlement of Villagers

One of the byproducts of Revolutionary
Development programs is the resettlement of
local villagers from VC dominated and ter-
rorized areas to areas where government and
U.S. troops can provide protection for them. Ini-
tial contact with these people should point out that
resettlement of other villages has been successful.
The village and district chiefs, as well as selected
village elders, should accompany the party making
this first contact. The villager will be assured
that he will be provided with land to farm, an
initial allowance of money and materials for food
and shelter, medical treatment and, in general, a
far better prospect for a secure life.
The conduct of resettlement operations
can make a good impression on the Vietnamese.
If the troops are helpful and friendly, and exhibit
respect for elders; the people will be impressed.
If the local tactical situation permits,
villagers who are evacuated for medical reasons

418
should be tagged in a manner similar to medically
evacuated military personnel. Tags should be
made in duplicate. The original should be attached
to the patient and the duplicate delivered to the
civil affairs officer. All reasonable steps should
be taken to ensure that children are accompanied
by an adult, preferably a parent or a member of
the immediate family.
This method can eliminate problems which
could arise later during followup visits by civil
affairs officers.

c. Psyops Support for R13 Operations

The mission of psychological operations in
the I Corps Tactical Zone is to support the GVN
integrated military and civilian program to re-
store, consolidate, and expand governmental con-
trol as a part of nation building. During the
clearing phase of Revolutionary Development,
psyops support is provicled by means of ground
combat loud-speaker teams, leaflet operations and
aerial broadcasts, with emphasis on Chieu Hoi
appeals for defector inducement. In the securing
phase of RD, propaganda is directed at the entire
population of the area, utilizing newspapers, radio,
audiovisual teams, and cultural team perform-
ances. This phase of propaganda is mainly inform-
ative in nature, and explains government programs
and goals. The psyops effort is directed at
influencing VC families to develop ralliers.

#####

419
2. CIVIC ACTION
a. The Importance of Civic Action
The presence of a legally operating,
friendly government in South Vietnam makes
military civic action conducted hy U. S./ FWMAF
forces unique, as compared with similar action in
previous wars. Our efforts are directed at
strengthening and expanding the authority of the
~overnmcnt 01 Vlctnam (GVN) which, in turn, is
responsive to the needs and desires of the people.
In this effort, we must work through the Viet-
namese governmental system and help it work.
Working through local GVN officials improves
their image in the eyes of the people and encour-
ages them to do a better job. These officials
should be encouraged to submit requests through
the proper channels of their government for ham-
let improvement projects and materials for
improvements that the GVN can provide. Efforts
should then be made, with the help of sector and
subsector advisors, to ensure that such requests
are filled. This will foster the people’s confidence
in and support for their government. The fulfill-
ment of such requests by the GVN also will
encourage local officials to submit other requests
to improve the way of life of their constituents
and further their support for their government.
All civic action projects conducted by Ma-
rines must meet the needs of the people. ‘I’he
people must have a sense of participation in the
project and must feel that the project is their
own and not the Marines’. If the people do not help
build a project, they will probably not protect or
maintain it. The VC will hesitate to destroy proj-
ects that the people have worked on because they
know that such an act will turn the people against
them. This makes self-help-type projects a key
element in civic action.

421
 Of primary importance in civic action is
thorough coordination of all civic action projects;
not only with local GVN officials, but with all
personnel (MACV subsector advisors, CORDS
officials, Marine Corps civic action personnel,
etc. ) who might be concerned with the project.
This will ensure maximum support for the proj-
ect and will prevent the duplication of projects
that are already planned and budgeted for by the
GVN.
Remember that the projects should be high
impact, low cost, and as short term as possible
from conception to completion.
Remember too, that the people must be
capable of supporting and running the project
when the Marines leave. Schools without teachers
or dispensaries without trained medical workers
are of little value.
b. Civic Action Coordination
Two potential problems in a civil affairs
program are coordination and cooperation among
military units and the Vietnamese. There will
frequently be more than one military unit con-
ducting civic action in a particular area. This can
cause duplication of effort, confusion, and mis-
understandings. The other potential problem re-
lates to finding out what civic action programs are
wanted and needed by the Vietnamese. Often
Vietnamese and Americans differ on the value of
civic action projects.
Both problems can be minimized by organi-
zing a village civic action coordination committee.
This committee should include both Vietnamese
officials (village chief, hamlet chiefs, police
chief, etc. ), and military officials (all units having
either civic action responsibility or tactical
responsibility in the area). A good interpreter
should be used. The village chief should be the
chairman of the committee. The Vietnamese
should be encouraged to bring up their problems,
and discussions should be held regularly and a
report should be made of all activity since the
last meeting. This committee strengthens the local
government by giving the officials more recogni-
tion and assuring coordination. The committee can
also be used as an instrument to strengthen
district-village relations by having a district
representative present at each meeting.
423
 c. Project Submittal Sheet
Civil affairs officers are frequently
besieged with requests for material aid. Prob-
lems exist as to whether the project is justified,
how much material is needed, whether the project
has been coordinated with the local officials, and
who will coordinate the Vietnamese action on
the project.
A bilingual project submittal sheet can be
reproduced at the unit level. This sheet can be
filled out in duplicate by the Vietnamese project
coordinator. It provides a space for a description
of the project, the material, and quantity re-
quested, the location of the project, the name of
the project coordinator, and provides a space for
the signature, and an endorsement of both hamlet
and village chiefs. The use of this sheet requires
the project to be planned and coordinated.
d. Security and Civic Action
A basic requirement for a successful civic
action program is security. When adequate
s ccurit y cannot be provided, any civic, action
endeavor presents an open invitation to’ ‘enemy
attack. Civic action programs pursued in areas
where security is inadequate often result in
additional hardships rather than benefits for the
people. The Vietnamese who participate actively
in our civic action programs are frequently
singled out by the Viet Cong for severe pressure
and intimidation. If this occurs, future civic
action efforts can be hampered. due to fear by the

424
people that participation will result in reprisals
by the Viet Cong. Security and Successful civic
action programs go hand-in-hand.

e. Civic Action Checklist

The following questions, arranged as a
checklist, can be used to assist in analyzing
prospective civic action projects and to check the
rate of progress of current projects. These
questions contribute to individual awareness of the
many facets of civic action projects.
(1) Agriculture
What crops, animals, vegetables form
the basis of the local food supply?
What weather, climate and topographic
factors assist or restrict plant and animal
growth?

425
 Which plants and animals could best
adjust to local conditions and benefit the local
food SU@y?
What animal/vegetable raising projects
can be initiated to improve local economic
conditions?
What source of seed, fertilizers, and
animals is available?
What production methods which exist in
adjacent areas could be introduced?
Is there a potential and an outlet for a
local cash crop?
What local customs or other possible
restrictions could handicap local economic im-
provement?
Are there plans for agricultural im-
provement? If so, what are they?
(2) Home Industries
What industries already exist? (Brick
making, basket weaving, etc. )
What GVN plans exist for local home
industries?
Can local villagers now produce the
basic items needed?
What machinery would assist villagers
in providing more of their basic needs? (Ex-
amples: brick presses and kilns, hand forges,
weaving looms. )
426
 Do the villagers have certain basic
skills?
What financing arrangements are avail-
able?
Is there a potential for cash income from
the sale of home manufactured items?

#####

3. UNDERSTANDING THE VIETNAMESE

a. The Vietnamese Peasant: His Value System

The following is an excerpt from an Octo-

ber 1965 research report by the United States

427
 Information Agency Research and Reference Serv-
ice (it is not a statement of agency policy):
●
“The Vietnamese peasant lives in a
small world limited by the bamboo hedge around
his village. He is aware of his traditional history,
but his first loyalty is to his family. The peasant’s
spiritual world is large and alive with the spirits
of nature and of all creatures who lived before,
particularly his ancestors. These must be propi-
tiated at his family and village altars with the aid
of spirit specialists who guide him through life’s
crises. Most peasants are also at least nominally
Catholic, Cao Dai, Hoa I-lao or, more usually,
13ucldhist. While many, rcsortlng occasionally to
the 13uddllist pagoda, have not always considered
themselves Buddhists, Buddhist awareness has
grown.
“Face is all important, but face con-
cerns appcaranccs, not truth or morality. The
peasant is not a moralist and considers flexibility
more important than fixed principles. Peasant
aspirations have risen because of many promises
made by both the Viet Cong and the Government.
The peasant now expects change and wants a
better life.
“Vietnamese life is oriented to the
family, which is the religious, social, economic
and political unit and provides security for its
members. The Vietnamese woman is very influ-
ential both in the family and in the marketplace.

428
 “The Viet Cong have devoted enormous
efforts to winning’ the peasants, who provide the
bulk of their economic support and manpower.
Communist propaganda is tailored to meet indi-
vidual and local wants. The Viet Cong first used
terrorism to create a ‘Robin Hood’ image by
eliminating corrupt officials. More recently ter-
rorism has become less discriminating, and
harsh Viet Cong methods are increasingly alien-
ating the peasants.
“Peasants rarely see newspapers or
magazines and few have radios, consequently
word-of-mouth communications are important.
The leading village opinion- moulders are teachers
and local officials. Because his life is dull, the
peasant can most easily be reached by meeting his
desire for entertainment, but he prefers tradi-
tional types. He is most responsive to communica-
tions he can understand in local and personal
terms. . .“

b. IZlder/Adult Friendships
Successful operations in Vietnam are
heavily dependent on achieving the friendship and
understanding of the Vietnamese adult population.
Due to the important status of the village elders
in their villagesand the older people in the
families, their influence on the remainder of the
population is great. As a result, effort should be
directed toward the elders and older people in
furthering Vietnamese/Marine friendship and un-
derstanding. A Vietnames Province Chief has

429
rcccntly stressed the importance of parties for
the elders in furthering this effort. Parties and
other exhibitions of friendship should be empha-
sized for adults in general. These face-to-face
displays of respect will help reduce suspicions
as to our purpose, and influential friendships
will bc gcncratcd.

To date, much of our effort in achiev-

ing Vietnamese friendship has been concentrated
on the children. The primary benefit of ‘these
efforts will be realized in the future when the
children become better educated adults. Cur-
rently, however, adverse effects may result if
our generosity toward children undermines the
authority and status of parents and elders, and
encourages beggarism. Gifts to children should
always be offered through responsible adults.
This will foster confidence by both child and adult.

430
 c. Social Attitudes/Rcllgious 13ellefs
The social attitudes of oriental peoples
have been developed from concepts which west-
erners sometimes do not understand. For example,
the concept of time to a man raised in America
can be represented as a straight line. That is,
the period from 1000 B.C. to A.D. 1967 runs in a
line in which no year repeats itself. The oriental
concept can be represented as being circular or
repeating. For example, the Buddhist cycle of
12 years in a circular concept. The Year of the
Goat (1967) will come again (1979) and again
(1991). This concept stems from a religious
belief that a person will live many lives. Time
is considered plentiful by an oriental so there is
no need to rush headlong into a project. Sudden
actions or split-second decisions are looked
upon by the “Vietnamese with disapproval, They
consider it good taste to proceed cautiously, and
they carefully consider their problems before
making a decision.
Death and sickness are common experi-
ences in Vietnam. The various religious observ-
ances affecting death and illness should be studied
so that they may be better understood. For
instance, many Vietnamese homes will have a
mirror and red ribbon placed near the doorway to
ward off any spirits which may carry sickness.
The family is constantly reminded of their
ancestors through the ancestor shelf, which has
a prominent place in most Vietnamese homes.
The respect of a family for a deceased member

431
is evident by the number of mourners and the
amount of food, music and drink at the funeral,
consistent with the family’s income. The reflec-
tion of these beliefs by the Vietnamese is evidenced
in a kind of fatalism about death.
, WI,
‘-%- b--f - :~.%%~ ,*

Probably no other act creates such indig-

nation and resentment among the Vietnamese as
an apparent lack of regard for Vietnamese
ancestor worship and disrespect for their graves.
The VC are exploiting this aspect as an effective
propaganda wedge against the Free World forces.
Marines must remember that deliberate or
thoughtless acts of disrespect provide ready
propaganda for the VC in the war for the hearts
of the people.

432
 e. The Symbol of the Republic of Vietnam
The symbol of the Republic of Vietnam has
as its central theme the flexible bamboo; sym-
bolizing consistency, faithfulness, and vitality.
The bamboo is flanked by a writing brush, the
symbol of culture; and a sword, representing
strength and determination.
Bamboo is typical of the Vietnamese coun-
tryside. Thick hedges of the woody plant form a
protective wall around almost every village in
the central coastal plains. For many Vietnamese,
bamboo is associated closely with their rural
Hfe, which to them is a happy image of home and
traditions rooted in a time-honored past.
The inner strength of the bamboo, coupled
with its flexibility and modest appearance, is
considered as representing the virtues of a
gentleman. An ancient proverb says, “the taller
the bamboo grows, the lower it bends”; meaning
that a great man is humble, modest, and tolerant.
A fierce storm may uproot proud, stately, and
seemingly indestructible trees; but after the
storm subsides, the flexible bamboo emerges
straight and as verdant as before. This reflects
the Vietnamese approach to life.
f. Be Courteous to the Vietnamese

(1) .DO
+ Respect the people of Vietnam. Im-
proper conduct toward Vietnamese women can
hurt our cause as much as any other mistake

433
that might be committed. It is well to remember
that commanders at all levels are responsible for
their men’s behavior.
+ Encourage local officials to participate
fully in all Revolutionary l)cvclopment programs,
underscoring and praising their contributions to
such programs.
+ Practice speaking and writing simple
Vietnamese words and pharases regularly. Ask
assistance from a villager. He will be flattered by
your interest.
+ Learn the local festival clays and how
they are celebrated. Plan to participate in these
events, if invited.
+ Greet passing villagers in their own
language or try the silent greeting with the right
hand in a fashion similar to the thumbs up
gesture.
+ Rccogntizc the wooden structures on
stakes that resemble houses. These structures
are spirit houses erected as a religious gesture
for wandering spirits. They usually ,,contain a
small pot or cup filled with earth in w’hich a few
incense sticks are placed, and sometimes a
candle or a small dish of food. Remember y
respect them.
+ Pay respect to GVN officials (province,
district, hamlet chiefs, RVNAF officers) by
saluting and addressing them as “Sir.”

434
+ Observe these simple actions when
speaking with Vietnamese elders:
. Stand on slightly lower ground.
. Stand close to the person being
addressed.
● Speak softly.
● Smile.

Fold
● your arms or keep them at
your side. Hands on hips mean the individual
is about to strike the person being addressed.
(2) DON’T
+ Display wealth and privilege,
+ Consume alcohol with or around the
Vietnamese. It is an invitation to trouble.
+ Be impatient. Vietnamese habitually
exercise caution, and this process often takes
more time than Americans might wish.
+ Exhibit intolerance or anger. These are
attitudes that exhibit no real understanding.
+ Pay more than the agreed price for
services.
+ Permit another Marine to act undigni-
fied or disrespectful in his relations with the
Vietnamese. If the Marine acts through ignorance,
square him away.
+ Violate the symbols of the local religious
creed any more than you would your own. The

435
five virtues and five commandments of Buddhism
are worth practicing by everyone.
+ March indiscriminately through local
gardens or ricefields. They represent the people’s
food Supply.
+ Discuss politics with local officials.

436
 g. Winning and Maintaining Civilian Support

Winning and maintaining the friendship

and cooperation of the Vietnamese civilians
living within the operational area is an essential
step in reducing the effectiveness of the local
Viet Cong guerrillas --they cannot operate
effectively without civilian support. The two main
aspects of our military presence which contribute
toward good civil-military relations are the
individual Marine’s positive attitude in his deal-
ings with local civilians, and the planned civic
actions of military units.
The Viet Cong attempt to separate our
soldiers from the local civilians by showing that
we are cruel, unthinking, and not concerned with
the welfare of the local peoples. The VC can be
defeated in these efforts by the strength and
generosity we show in our daily life. The “Nine
Rules” for the military man in Vietnam provide
the guide for doing this. Study them and govern
your conduct accordingly. The “Nine Rules” are
as follows:
REMEMBER WE ARE GUESTS HERE:
WE MAKE NO DEMANDS AND SEEK NO SPECIAL
TREATMENT.

JOIN WITH THE PEOPLE: UNDER-

STAND THEIR LIFE, USE PHRASES FROM
THEIR LANGUAGE AND HONOR THEIR CUS-
TOMS AND LAWS.

437
 TREAT WOMEN WITH POLITENESS
AND RESPECT.

MAKE FRIENDS AMONG THE SOL-

DIERS AND COMMON PEOPLE.

ALWAYS GIVE THE VIETNAMESE THE

RIGHT-O F-WAY.

BE ALERT TO SECURITY AND READY

TO REACT WITH YOUR MILITARY SKILL.

DO NOT ATTRACT ATTENTION BY

LOUD, RUDE OR UNUSUAL BEHAVIOR.

AVOID SEPARATING OURSELVES

FROM THE PEOPLE BY A DISPLAY OF WEALTH
OR PRIVILEGE.

ABOVE ALL ELSE, WE ARE MEMBERS

OF THE U.S. MILITARY FORCES ON A DIF-
FIcuI.T MISSION, RESPONSIM.E FOR ALL OUR
OFFICIAL AND PERSONAL ACTIONS. REFLECT
I-1ONOR UPON OURSELVES AND T}lE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA.

#####

438
4. CHIEU HOI PROGRAM

a. Chieu Hoi Success

III MAF contribution to the Republic of
Vietnam Chieu Hoi Program is illustrated by the
sucess Marines have enjoyed in applying revolu-
tionary development techniques to one particular
hamlet.

439
 The llamlct, known as “Chicu Iloi, ” is
populated by five hundred Vietnamese who have
rallied to the Republic of Vietnam from unpacified
I Corps areas in response to the Chieu Hoi (Open
Arms) amnesty program. In May ’66, 111MAF
assumccl sponsorship of the hamlet and directed
initial efforts at providing badly needed medical
treatment for the inhabitants. Only 15 townspeople
responded to the first sick call. Others displayed
anxiety and even fear and hostility at the Marine
presence. Slowly, however, the work of the Navy
Medical Team, together with Marine donations of
tools, lumber and other aid, produced confidence
in the people.
Today, a little more than 6 months later,
the villagers are working and planning together in
open cooperation. Wells have been dug, roads
built, programs of animal husbandry started and
an eighty acre project for vegetable farming
initiated. A temporary school has been built and
is operating, while planning continues for both
a permanent school and a church. Further, the
time-honored Marine practice of weekly “field
days” has been adopted by the villa~ers as a
routine sanitation measure.
A final indicator of the progress of the
villagers is found in their willingness to help the
Republic of Vietnam amnesty program expand.
With GVN and 111MAF support, they now provide
homes for the families of new defectors during
their first days in the hamlet.

440
 b. New Chieu
.—. I-loi——
Leaflet
The tempo of the allied program in Vietnam
to encourage the VC and NVA to defect is on the
increase. One of the means to reach the guerrilla
forces is by the distribution of Chieu Hoi leaflets.
All allied forces in Vietnam must be informed of
the procedures for rallying by the enemy to the
government’s cause. A new leaflet explaining the
rallying procedure has been published. The in-
structions printed on both sides in Vietnamese
tell the rallier that he will be treated kindly and
that his family will be treated kindly and will be
well protected. He is instructed to hide his
w capon, present himself to the friendly forces In
the daytime, with raised hands and bearing this
leaflet or a surrender pass. Even if he has no
leaflet, he is advised to seek the friendly forces
and present hires elf with raised hands; the
allied soldiers will understand this gesture. As an
inducement, a reward will be paid to him for
leading allied troops to any weapon caches.

c. Refugees
Unit operations in areas controlled by the
Viet Cong usually generate a large number of
refugees. Prior to the commencement of an
operation, and if feasible, close liaison should be
established with local U.S. and GVN agencies to
ensure that maximum assistance is given to these
refugees. Planning must include details on the
means of evacuation, medical assistance, tem-
porary settlement locations, shelter, food and

441
clothing, Planning will serve to reduce the hard-
ship and suffering on the part of the refugees,
and will minimize their interference with combat
operations. Well-planned and humanely executed
evacuation operations will also illustrate the
value ‘placed by the GVN and U.S. on the welfare
of the Vietnamese people.
Refugees offer an important means of
communication with the enemy. Many refugees
come from enemy controlled areas and some have
relatives and friends in the enemy camp. Some
refugees may eventually return to insecure areas
where their villagers are located. If they are
knowledgeable of and impressed by the Chieu Hoi
Program, they can become effective salesmen.
Some can persuade relatives to rally under the
Chieu agreement; others might be willing to de-
liver safe conduct passes and other leaflets to

442
enemy guerrillas. Armed propaganda teams and
former guerrillas who have rallied to the Govern-
ment (Hoi Chanhs ) should be encouraged to work
in the refugee camps making speeches, contacting
guerrilla relatives, and recording broadcasts.
Leaflets and other printed material should be
disseminated in these resettlement camps.
Every possible means of using the refugees
in local psychological operations should be re-
viewed, and the people convinced of the value of
the Chieu Hoi Program.

# # # ii //

5. COUNTY FAIR

Part of the coordinated military and govern-

ment program for ferreting out the Viet Cong
and gaining the trust, confidence and active co-
operation of the people of Vietnam is called
COUNTY FAIR. These operations comprise a
combination of military, local government, and
psychological warfare action designed to re-
establish government control. County Fair is
designed to separate the VC from the loyal
villagers while refraining from actions which
alienate the populace. At the same time, opera-
tions capitalize on the opportunity to convince
the villagers, through vigorous civic action and
psyops, of the merits of the Government. The role
of local civil and police authorities is stressed,
and m i 1i t a r y participation is restricted to

443
temporarily isolating the objective and combat-
ing enemy military actions if they should develop.
The size of the military force involved is limited
to that necessary to conduct searches and cordon
the village. A careful use of this force will prevent
the people from openly resenting its presence.
The presence of local officials and police deny
the Viet Cong the opportunity later to propagandize
that National Forces did not support the operation.
The eyident participation by local officials, civil-
ian and military, assist in developing government
leadership down to the hamlet level. These
officials become more dedicated to preventing
infiltration and more skilled in those civil and
military activities necessary for national unity.
In general, the operation follows a pattern
once the hamlet has been selected. Isolation and
search is the initial military action. A Marine
force is employed for the cordoning operation,
while clearing and searching is best accomplished
by local police or civil authorities supported by
government security forces. In both planning and
execution, it is necessary to stress to both U.S. and
GVN participants the mutual advantages of using
only. the degree of force required. Interrogation,
segregation and the psyops actions involved are
best left to direct participation by the Government
and civil authorities. Local customs, traditions
and the language all present potential stumbling
blocks for direct participation by U.S. forces. Sup-
port by U.S. can be in the form of loudspeaker
equipment, leaflet printing, taping messages from

444
local officials, propaganda films and equipment,
medical assistance, tents, and kitchens including
foods. While each County Fair possesses indi-
vidual characteristics, operations are relatively
frequent and minimum advance warning is com-
mon.

The basic logistic support for each County Fair

can be reduced to a standard package which can
be maintained for required operations. Such a
package could include:
5 Fly tents
2 Lister bags
4 Battery powered hand speakers
2 Mallets
12 Metal stakes
1 Pair wire cutters
5 Wooden collapsible tables

445
 10 Folding stools
1 Plywood bulletin board
1 Immersion burner
1 Trash can (24 gal)
1 Water trailer
16 Water cans
Sufficient rope or engineer tape for
delineating restricted areas
As a result of the search operations, a portion
of the villagers will be dislocated temporarily
and will not have access to their homes. Those
unable to provide or prepare their own meals
will have to be fed. Remember that village
economy is marginal, and if a villager is denied
access to his cropland for even a day it means
his family goes without food. The U.S. force
assigned to support a County Fair can greatly
assist in providing and preparing meals for these
villagers. Frequently, it will be necessary to
provide and prepare up to 1200 meals per day.
Based on that figure, foods can be obtained through
USAID and civil affairs channels. The following
amounts will support an average of one County
Fair operation per week (1200 meals peY day).
600 lbs - Milled rice
100 cans - Assorted foods (vegetables,
meat, etc.)
8 cans - Soup base (100 rations)
There is much detailed planning and prepara-
tion involved in successful County Fair operations.

446
It is important to emphasize this detailed plan-
ning and close coordination at all levels to both
U.S. and GVN participants. The measure of
success of each operation lies in this coordina-
tion and cooperation.

/#//##//

6. PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE IN VIETNAM

a. Handling of Noncombatants in the Objective

Area
A major problem facing U.S. forces when
engaged with the Viet Cong is the handling of
noncombatants in the objective area. The VC use
populated areas as hiding places and as areas
to regroup their forces after contact has been
made with the enemy. Firing on aircraft and
ground forces from the villages is a favorite
tactic of the Viet Cong. When the fire is returned
by friendly air the probability of noncombatants
being killed or wounded runs high, especially when
no attempt is made to control the movement of
the people. Should noncombatants be injured in
such a situation, the VC exploit it by saying the
Americans are indiscriminately killing and maim-
ing innocent people.
Recently, an American infantry division
was conducting sweep operations in Vietnam with
the objective of clearing Xom La Ran, a VC
hamlet, and the wooded area adjacent to the hamlet.

447
Planning for the operation included the require-
ment to separate combatants from noncombatants
in the hamlet.
After receiving a thorough briefing on the
tactical operation, personnel of a Psyops Com-
pany, supporting the divisionj designed and pro-
duced two warning leaflets and a number of
loudspeaker tapes in support of the operation. The
tapes were recorded by the ARVN District Chief
of Tan Uyen District. These messages warned
the people of the impending attack and advised
them to remain calm and await instructions on
what to do and where to go to avoid the engage-
ment.
As the operation progressed, friendly ele-
ments swept the wooded area adjacent to Xom La
Ran. Prior to the ground force advancing on the
hamlet, loudspeaker and leaflet missions were
flown over the hamlet advising the people to re-
main calm and instructing them to assemble at
the school house and await further instructions
from the district chief. Some 20,000 leaflets
were dropped in the hamlet and in the immediate
:,
vicinity.
As the sweeping elements were securing
the area, the district chief entered the hamlet and
went directly to the schoolhouse to meet with the
people. He separated the men and women into two
groups. All the men between the ages of 16 and
30 were checked for identification and draft cards.
Seven suspected draft dodgers were found among
the group and taken into custody.
448
 The district chief then spoke to both groups
explaining that the Americans were in their
hamlet to secure it from the VC and that the
ultimate goal of the Americans in Vietnam was
to bring a lasting peace to the country, Throughout
his talk the people remained apathetic. Although
many persons clutched one of the leaflets which
had been dropped earlier, the impression gained
was that the villagers believed as long as they
held on to the leaflet they would not be harmed by
the Americans.
While the district chief was talking to the
people, two 2~-ton trucks, loaded with approxi-
mately 10 tons of rice taken from a nearby VC
cache, passed by the schoolhouse. The district
chief immediately took advantage of the situation
explaining to the people that the rice loaded on
the trucks was their rice; that the Government
was going to redistribute it; and, the VC were
exploiting them by taking the rice away from them.
He pointed out that the Government was working
hard to put a stop to VC rice requisitions. He
also pointed out that without the support of the
people, the VC would no longer be able to wage
war, causing innocent people to be killed.
A question and answer period was held in
which the villagers complained about the slow
bureaucratic process of the Government. The
district chief fielded the questions admirably
and seemed pleased with the results of the ses-
sion. The villagers expressed interest in what

449
could bc done to rid the area of t+c VC and were
witnessing the first steps at doing that very thing.
The most significant aspect of this opera-
tion was the success achieved by the close
coordination between the psyop element and the
comment clement of the unit conducting the sweep
through the hamlet. In this case both elements
were coordinated by the battalion S-3 which
resulted in excellent timing of psyops missions
with the tactical maneuvers. The end result was
that not a shot was fired during the sweep of the
hamlet and the villagers were unclel control at
all times. Experience has shown that in similar
situations where psyop was not employed the
villagers will panic in the face of advancing
troops resulting in unnecessary casualties among
noncombatants.
Through the effective use of face-to-face
tcchniclues, the district chief was able to convince
the people that the Government with the help of
its allies was in a position to free the people
from the demands of the VC and to take positive
steps toward improving the conditions under which
the people live.
This operation is a goocl example of using
psyops to minimize noncombatant casualties.
The target was the peasant who had lived under
VC control; had been filled with suspicion, fear
an(l doubt toward the GVN ancl the Americans;
and who could, if uncontrolled, end up as an
inadvertent combat victim. The objectives were

450
to solicit their cooperation, to control their
movements during the operation and to minimize
the chance of innocent people being injured or
killed. The results; no one was injured and the
first steps were taken to remove the suspicions,
doubts and fears of the peasants. This is the
kind of integrated psychological and combat
operation that will ultimately win the battle for
men’s minds in Vietnam. Without psyops, a
successful sweep could have left the people with
such hate and misery that any military success
would have been negated.

b. Psychological Support of Tactical Opera-

tions

The 244th Psychological Operations Com-

pany (USA ) has been providing support to 111
MAF in the psyops field. This support consists of

451
combat speaker teams, audiovisual teams, liaison
teams, leaflets, tape recordings, and Joint U.S,
Public Affairs Office (JUSPAO) newspapers.
Psyops support of tactical operations has in-
creased with the recent Marine augmentation of
the psyop company and, as additional enemy
vulncrabilities have been discovered, intensive
psyop support of tactical operations has resulted
in a sharp increase in returnees. The following
example demonstrates the effective use of psyops
on the battlefield.
Early on the morning of 11 November 1966,
an Army psychological warfare team was airlifted
from its C P to an LZ close to the point where a
battalion was engaged in a fire fight. The
psywar team moved to the forward positions and
placed speakers in a nearby tree. The latest
enemy intelligence was obtained and molded into
an appeal to fit the existing situation by deliber-
ately capitalizing on the enemy’s weak position
and low morale. After approximately 20 minutes,
the first NVA soldier walked directly to the
speakers, following instructions explicitly, and
surrendered with his weapon. After th,e prisoner
was fed, the psychological warfare team convinced
him that the Government of Vietnam and its
American allies did not want to harm him, and
that his comrades’ senseless struggle could only
end in death. An appeal was devised with the
concurrence of the prisoner to urge his fellow
soldiers to surrender. Current intelligence was
acquired from the prisoner and used to make the

452
basic appeal more personalized and meaningful.
Shortly thereafter, fivemore NVAsoldierswalked
in. At this time, it was learned that the executive
officer of the opposing enemy battalion was
killed. This information was immediately in-
corporated into the appeals and more soldiers
chose ltto rally to the GVN with honor than to
continue to fight and be killed and buried in an
unknown grave. ” Approximately 1 hour later, the
American battalion commander directed the team
to move to his vantage point, a tall tree located
on the crest of the hill, and continue the mission.
From this location appeals were broadcasted and
several more NVA soldiers surrendered.
It was during these broadcasts that an
intense fire fight broke out in one company area.
The psychological warfare team was immediately
displaced forward to this position, the speakers
were set up during the first lull in the fire fight
and broadcasting was begun “face-to-face” with
the enemy. The team emphasize! that the “soldiers
of the Screaming Eagle were everywhere, that
the NVA cause was lost and that death was soon to
be their only honor. ” Greater impact was gained
by using a wounded NVA soldier lying nearby.
Five more “hard core” soldiers chose life rather
than death.
By 1800, the enemy’s position had been
overrun, and the psywar team returned to bat-
talion CP. During the day’s action eighteen pris-
oners were used in live broadcasts, four special
personalized appeals were made and a total of 9

453
hours of speaker time was recorded. These
appeals were modified as fresh intelligence and
changing battle conditions dictated.
It should be pointed out that it is most
likely that the results achieved would not have
been possible had it not been for the constant
pressure placed cm the surrounded enemy by the
American infantry. In this case, psychological
warfare had the unique advantage of being in the
right place, at. the right time, with the right ap-
peals. The enemy was under great pressure from
the infantry, and psychological warfare offered
an “honorable” way out. The choice was theirs --
-life or death.
Many critical lessons were learned which
stress the fact that psychological warfare is most
effectively utilized on the ground in direct support
of the ground troops. Briefly they are:
In jungle terrain, the enemy often finds
it easy to detach himself from air appeals since
the aircraft is often hidden from view by the thick
foliage and the message is sometimes garbled by
aircraft and atmospheric conditions., However,
when made on the ground, the appeal is’direct and
personal and is not distorted by the jungle canopy.
The sound appears to reverberate off the ground
and the jungle canopy achieving a surprising
range.
On the ground the appeal can be instantly
molded to fit everchanging battle conditions, and
it can employ spontaneous prisoner appeals.

454
 A loudspeaker appeal on the ground
during lulls in intense fire fights helps to stress
the magnitude of American technology and has a
definite demoralizing effect on the enemy.
It was also noted that although leaflets
were on the ground, many were inaccessible due
to thick vegetation. Trails seem to be the most
profitable target for leaflet dissemination.
During lulls in ground contact, psycho-
logical warfare is most effectively employed by
using aircraft for broadcasts and leaflet dis-
semination. However, once significant contact
with the enemy is made, the psychological warfare
effort should be on the ground with the units in
contact.
A well-planned psychological operation
may include the use of printed leaflets dropped
from an aircraft. In friendly areas, aircraft
leaflet drops can cause local hamlets to become
unnecessarily littered. This may not be in the best
civic interest and could cause an adverse reaction
to the leaflets.
When possible, leaflets should be passed
out by hand during the course of small unit
operations. This serves to reduce the littering
problem and to permit those passing out the leaf-
lets to observe the reaction and overhear the
comments of the villagers.

455
 c. Psyops Leaflet and Poster Writing
If the message is to be effective, the wording
in psychological operation leaflets and posters
must be in language that the target audience can
understand. A verbatim translation of English to
Vietnamese does not normally result in the
phraseology that would commonly be used by the
Vietnamese. When the message is written first in
English and then translated, almost invariably the
fact that the material originated in English is
evident. As a result, the message does not com-
municate WC1l. This can cause the people to
attribute portions of the information to American
sources with a resulting failure to believe in the
truth of the information. When preparing psyops
material, the thoughts, ideas, and facts to be pre-
sented should be explained to a Vietnamese writer
who can express the information in proper Viet-
namese. U the material must originate in English,
a Vietnamese writer/translator should study the
material until he understands the intended meaning
before writing it in original Vietnamese. When the
material is intended for use in a newspaper, it
should be wriltcn in the Vietnamese journalistic
style. A psyops message designed to influence
people must bc presented in the people’s language.
d. Example of Special Appeals

(1) Soldiers of the 5th Bn, 95th NVA Regi-

ment
The GVN and its allies are your friends
and do not want to harm you. We give you a

456
choice--life or death. If you come in now, you will
have life--is it not better to rally now to the GVN
with honor than to continue to fight and be killed
and buried in an unknown grave (and have your
soul wander the earth forever) ? This choice is
yours-- life or death. Your family and your loved
ones want no harm to come to you. They need
you. The choice is yours. Life or death.
(2) Soldiers of the 5th Bn, 95th NVA Regi-
ment
Do you want to be buried in an un-
marked grave ? That is the only honor you will
have if you continue your senseless fight. Do
you think that’s right ? The soldiers of the Strike
Force Airborne Division are everywhere. Ap-
proach the Americans with your hands above your
head. Wave something white. Have your weapon
muzzle down and you will not be harmed. Wave
something white. This is your last chance and
only hope. Life or death--the choice is yours.
(3) Soldiers of the 5th Bn, 95th NVA ReRi-
ment
Your life is about to end! Are you
ready to die? The soldiers with the eagle on
their shoulders are everywhere. They are now
closing in. This is your last chance, this is your
last chance. If you do not come in now, you will
be killed without mercy. Wave something white,
have your hands up. Bring your weapon with
you, muzzle down. This is your last chance.
“This is your last chance.

457
 e. Aerial Broadcasts
Experience in Vietnam has shown that
aerial broadcasts are one of the more effective
psychological operations medias. Broadcasts
can be rapidly employed to exploit a particular
situation and can be heard over a large area.
Messages should be short and repeated con-
tinuously to ensure that the intended target au-
diencq gets the entire message. Broadcasts con-
ducted in the early evening hours have provided
the best results. At that time, wind conditions
arc usualiy suitable for aerial broadcasting and
the Vietnamese family is together.
Family influence has proven to be one of
the most important factors in influencing enemy
defections. When possible, broadcasts should be
directed at particular groups, units, or individ-
uals and should mention such target audiences
by name in order to counteract the tendency of
many Vietnamese to disassociate themselves from
the broadcasts. Also, broadcasts of tape record-
ings made by enemy defectors and the use of
enemy defectors to make live broadcasts have
proven highly effective. The use of these per-
sonnel discredits the enemy’s claim that de-
fectors are killed and helps to instill confidence
in the GVN Chieu Hoi Program.

f. Use of the Vietnamese National Flag in

Propaganda
The Vietnamese feel that excessive repro-
duction of the National flag or any indiscriminate

458
 VILTNAWiSE CWESNflENT SAFE-CONDUCT PASS

● D&l ng~ ttidng xdng

... . . ,
.
1
-, 1;

(? .,\ ..... ,:-

‘~’
.. %-+ ~ 9-

(Back)

use of the flag in propaganda is distasteful and

disrespectful. Use of the national flag should be
limited to propaganda of significant national im-
portance. Safe conduct passes are an example of
items that are of national significance. The Viet-
namese flag or reproductions of the flag should be
459
used with cxtrcmc care and discrimination and
only after consultation with Vietnamese officials.

#####

7. POPULATION AND RESOURCES CONTROL

The objective of a population and resources
control program is to deprive the VC of the sup-
port of the population and the material resources
neede~ to engage in continuous warfare. The ex-
tensive effort of the GVN to win over the population
has resulted in the following procedures being
established for population and resources control:

a. Population Control
The Vietnamese have been using individual
identification cards since 1939. Today, all persons
over the age of 18 must be in possession of an ID
card. The present card is laminated and contains
a photograph and prints of the left and right index
finger of the bearer.
Curfews are imposed only as necessary
and primarily in areas where the VC or:VC sup-
porters are active. Any person having a legitimate
need to be outside his area during curfew hours
must be issued a special curfew pass. Curfew
violators are assumed to be insurgents or sup-
porters until proven otherwise.
Travel permits in most areas are required
for any travel outside an individual’s village or
area. These permits may be issued to individuals

460
or groups, either on a one-time basis or a
multiple-day basis, usually not to exceed 90 days.
b. Enforcement
To enforce the controls imposed on the
population, a system of checkpoints is established
on roads and highways, railroads and bus termi-
nals and airlines. Along the 2,500 miles of water-
ways in the delta region, rivercraft and assault
boats provide control. Mobile checkpoints, both
land and water, are established on an irregular
basis to apprehend personnel attempting to avoid
or bypass fixed checkpoints.
Civil police are suited, by training and ex-
perience, to conduct this type of operation. Their
normal police operation, in their own specific
area, provides them with a familiarity of the
area, and its people. Police may require support
from the military when insurgents or sym-
pathizers are actively belligerent, but generally,
the military is called in for support only in cases
where superiority in manpower and armament is
required for effective enforcement.
U.S. forces do not have authority or juris-
diction over Vietnamese nationals. On joint op-
erations, U.S. military police check only U,S.
vehicles and personnel while civil police check
Vietnamese vehicles and personnel.
c. Resources Control
It is imperative that the populace be con-
trolled if basic resources are to be denied the VC.

461
Resources required by the VC to continue opera-
tions are the same as those required by insur-
gents everywhere. Critical items are:

Food. This includes anything fit for

human consumption. Most of the food obtained by
the VC is procured locally, either by “taxation”

462
of the local population or from sympathizers and
supporters, or in some cases, is grown by the VC
in remote areas.

Medicines and medical supplies.

Arms, ammunition and explosives.

Clothing and textile materials.

Money.

Transportation of all types.

Various control procedures have been es-

tablished to deny the VC access to the resources
he needs. Among these are inventories of material
manufactured and shipped from processors and
importers, ancl maintenance of formal records of
the amounts of material being shipped and the
destination. Upon arrival at the final destination,
the goods are inventoried again to ensure that
dlere has been no loss or pilferage.

Foodstuffs and clothing are rationed to

prevent delivery of these items to the VC by local
supporters. Police also guard supply depots and
storage areas where such items are stored.

463
 The lnost cffcctivc method of resource
control employed by the civil police is the search
of land and water vehicles. Critical items required
by the VC are hidden by sympathizers and sup-
porters in every imaginable place in an attempt
to pass inspection at checkpoints. Thorough in-
spections by land and river police are a tedious
and painstaking process but are necessary if the
resources control operation is co succeed.

#####

464
 Chapter IX: MEDICAL

1. PREVENTION, NOT TREATMENT

The following comment is taken from a combat

operation after action report:
“It was apparent that many of the medical
problems encountered could have been prevented
by more aggressive instruction of the individual
Marine by corpsmen and Marine staff NCO ‘s, Foot
inspections, supervision of water purification,
and stressing of individual hygiene responsibil-
ities could have prevented a high percentage of
casualties on this opera tion. ”
Prevention, not treatment, is the objective.
Casualties due to carelessness in personal hy-
giene have just as great an impact on a unit’s
effectiveness as those caused by enemy action.
Ensure that all possible health-saving mea-
sures are employed at all times. Instruct, im-
plement, inspect and supervise.

#//{###

465
2. ACCLIMA’rING MARINES TO HOT-WET
CI.IMATE
During and shortly after World War II, Amer.
ican and British Armed Forces were confronted
with the pro blelm of acclinlatizing troops for
service in llOL-dry c]imates such as North

At’rica, Kuwait, and Adcn. As a result, ,a large

body of information was accumulated dealing
with the problems encountered under such en-
vironrncnral conditions. More recently, however,
the scene of the action has shifted to hot-wet
climates, such as Vietnam. Experience has shown
that adaptation to hot-dry conditions is similar
but not identical to that for hot-wet conditions,
and that data collected under the first situation

466
are not neccssa.riiy applicahlc to the second. In
a hot-dry climate the evaporation of sweat pro-
vides a cooling mechanism which assists the body
in keeping its temperature stable; in a hot-wet
climate ‘the air may be so humid that the sweat
does not evaporate and the body temperature
continues to rise.

In spite of this difference, acclimatization to

a hot-dry environment increases the ability of
men to work well under hot-wet conditions, and
vice versa, suggesting that certain underlying
mechanisms are common to both conditions.
Among them are the following:
+ Merely resting in the heat develops only
a limited degree of acclimatization; full accli-
matization can be achieved only by working in
the heat.
+ Men in good physical condition generally
acclimatize to heat faster than do men in poor
condition, but excellent physical condition does
not confer automatic acclimatization.
+ The acclimatized individual is cl]arac-
terized by a markedly increased sweat rate, a
decreased heart rate, and lower body temperature
on exposure to heat stress as compared with the
unacclimatized man.
+ The increased sweating capacity is a re-
sult of sweat gland conditioning and is not de-
pendent on elevated body temperature.
 Many of these same adjustments appear to be
typical of the trained atlllcte. l{cg:lrdlcss of tllc
outside temperature, his strenuous workouts in
sweat suits or other heavy clothing surround him
with a hot-humid microclimate, His body becomes
accustomed to repeated elevations of body tem-
perature and stimulations of his sweating mech-
anism. As he becomes well conditioned, there is
a lower production of heat relative to his body
surface area; more effective cardiovascular func-
tioning, resulting in improved heat dissipation;
and a greater sensitivity of his sweating re-
sponse, resulting in more effective cooling. As a
result of these bodily adjustments, the trained
athlete demonstrates a greater ability to with-
statld heat stress than do nonathletcs.
British scientists have conducted a long series
of ingenious experiments in attempting to artifi-
cially acclimatize men by having them exercise
in heat chambers before sending them to hot
climates. The results were reasonably good and
they concluded that his general technique “is
probably the most practical for large-scale use
in the Army. ” Such techniques do not appear to
be of great potential value to the U. S.’ Marine
Corps. In event of an emergency, the Marines
are required to respond immediately. It is highly
unlikely that they would ever have time for con-
ditioning in heat chambers, even if chambers suf-
ficiently large for the purpose were available.
A more promising approach may be found in
the fact that a Marine infantrynlan is regularly

468
exposed to vigorous physical training. By use of
n field jacket, poncho, or other garment during
this training, he could surround himself with a
personal hot-humid climate, just as does the
athlete, and thereby achieve a degree of heat ac-
climatization. This could be done ashore or
afloat, as it requires neither special equipment
nor special training areas.

Commanders in Vietnam have commented

that it takes about a month for newcomers to
become acclimatized to that area, and that some
units have had difficulty in combat because
of numerous cases of heat prostration. Obviously,
a practical systcm of acclimatizing Marines to
heat before their arrival would be of great
potential value. To determine whether the method
suggested above was of any measurable value,
the Naval Medical Field Research Laboratory
undertook a practical experiment with a military
police battalion in the spring of 1966.
Two companies, Alfa and Bravo, were assigned
to participate in this investigation. The MP’s
had been formed at Camp Pendleton, California,
in the early spring and had been training in the
moderately cool weather characteristic of the
area at that time of the year. In the opinion of
the two commanding officers, both companies
were in above-average condition, with Bravo
company perhaps a bit more accustomed to hard
work. In order to eliminate any possibility that
this might bias the results, Alfa company was

469
designated the experimental unit and Bravo com-
pany the control group.
l%e battalion ernbarkccl in the USNSUPS1lURat
San f)icgo, (California, on 7 May 1966. Bravo corn-
pany was asked [-o establish its exercise program
as if no slLidy were being undertaken, with the pro-
vision that it should last for 45 minutes, should
take place on deck, and the men should be lightly
clothed, weather permitting. Short rest pauses
were scheduled at frequent intervals so that the
mcn would be engaged in vigorous activity but,
so far as possibl.c, without stimulating the sweat
glands into activity. Alfa com]jany was permitted
to usc a vacant hold in the afterpart of the ship.
‘i’hc ventilating equipment was shut off and
hatches and doors were kept closed during the
exercise period in order to raise the internal
temperature as much as possible. Under these
conditions the mcn could not tolerate an exercise
program as vigorous as tl~at used by the mcn on
deck. It was found necessary LO start thcm at a
somewhat lower level of exertion and to continue
exercsing for only 30 minutes if a number of sub-
jects were not to become incapacitate by nausea
and dizziness. This effect was probably augmented
by the ncjrrnal movement of a VCXSC1at sea. Ac-
cordingly, it was ncccssary Ior 13ravo company
to reduce its work stress and time to agree with
that of Alfa. As the latter becarnc able to tolerate
longer and more vigorous activity, the stress on
both companies was increased simultaneously.
Within a fcw days both were exercising vigorously
for 45 minutes.

470
 Alfa company wore sweat shirts and sweat
pants. Ilalf of them exercised 8 to 10 minutes.
They then sat down and removed their sweat shirts
to permit their bodies to cool while the other
half of the company exercised. This afforded an
opportunity for repeated stimulation of the sweat
glands, rather than bringing them to the point of
sweating and keeping them there. There is some
evidence that after a long period of perspiring,
sweat gland fatigue results. On the basis of this
analogy, it was reasoned that the most effective
way to improve the functional performance of the
sweat glands might be use of methods similar to
those which weight trainers employ to improve
the functional performance of muscles; that is,
periods of vigorous activity separated by rest
pauses.
On 30 “May 1966 the ship arrived at Danang
and on the following clay the men made a joint
forced march. .l”hc two companies walked in file,
onc on each side of the road in urdcr to provide
comparable conditions of terrain, breeze, sun-
shine, etc. The surface was graded dirt and rea-
sonably smooth, but with occasional grades and
heavy dust. There were no trees or other shade
anywhere along the route. Atmospheric temper-
atures were recorded at intervals by means of a
sling psychrometer. Extra water was carried and
made available at the rest stops; there were no”
restrictions on tl]e amount consumed. Salt tablets
were available and were issued prior to the start
of the march. During the march, the troops

471
carried arms, cartridge belts with two canteens,
and light marching packs, and wore helmets and
utilities.
Heat casualties in Alfa company amounted to
7.5 percent, while those in Bravo company
reached 25.3 percent. Statistically, there is less
than onc chance in a hundred that a difference of
this magnitude could be due to chance.
The results strongly support the theory that
men designated for duty in a hot-humid climate
can bc preacclimatized by the use of clothing
and exercise programs which enable each man
to create his own hot-wet climate for about an
hour a day. It must be appreciated that men
engaged in such a training program can suffer
heat trauma. Troops engaged in such condition-
ing programs should be under the close obser-
vation of a medical officer or an experienced
physical fitness instructor.

472
3. HEAT CASUALTIES
Most Marines are familiar with the effects of
strenuous physical activity under conditions of
high temperature and humidity. Three kinds of
heat injuries can result; cramps, exhaustion
(prostration), and heat (sun) stroke. Several
factors influence the susceptibility of individuals
to heat injury. The person who is overweight is
particularly susceptible. The length of exposure
and the degree of physical activity play impor.
tant parts. Acclimatization time varies with each
individual, but 1 month is the accepted period to
become adequately acclimatized.

473
 SummarMcd below are the prinei]ml symptoms,
prcvcntivc measures, and treatment for heat
injuries:
w~ E20LAUST ION

Patient Mildto Severe Exhaust ion, Feelinq.of extrane

notIces pain . faintness. heat, weakness, no
!:wcalinq, confusion,
possl MC unc.3l1-
sclousncns.

others 1. Spawns, rigid- 1. Pro fu:,c 1. not, dry skin .

notice ity of muscles. sweat ing. 2. Elevated tanp
2. Normal temp. 2. Normal t.mp f102’3-11XV.
or slightly 3. Flushed skin;
elevated. strong. rapid pulse.
3. Unconscious- If akin becomes
ness on rare pale and grey with
occasions. weak pulse, critical
condition exists.
4. Possible uncon-
scica”sncssand
Convul Sions.

!,1
<.V*.,,1$!] I. :;.,11 or :;:,11 1. 1,4.:::; ,. X,., ]. Avoid I V,*Dnvcr-
t ly I ,,1,1,.1
!; ,,,1,1!.1 1 1*11,0,, 1“>1 ,.”0, I In” m, Ilt-11 (3, ”!,.
Lo Wi,t<:t . d:, y!, . 2. U: It! 01 ::lmlk,
2. U:*V or ::tua d-, m 11 fmd wal w.
,:,11
t nnd w:,
t.,0.

L.atmt.nt 1. (;LV,S salted

,TI 1. Rest on I,aek 1. Ideally. sub-
waLcr and/or in shade. mcrqe patient in
:;a]tIal,l<. ts. 2. Loosen cln(hinq cool water to
2. M,-IS.;.,(W 3. <hoi w<tlcr lower body tcinpto
mu:x-1 t.:. . ‘xx,,,>,
0,,
s.-!:
I0 100Q: when t cm,) is
f >.:4?. normal (chock t.vel y
4. salt 1.ll>l
(.(c, 10 mlns) start sallnc
:;olut. inn hy vcln. or
2.. Flap alcohol
ml St?-11.4nl,vl-t
R Ovt’t
n.tkcwl
Imnly.

###ii Af

474
 ‘,

4. MEDICAL PRC)13LEMS IN T1lE MONSOON

SEASON
IJast Cxpcrlcnccs have slmwn that certain
medical problems are presented by the monsoon
season. Items deserving special consideration are:
+ Immersion Foot, Considerable research has
been directed toward the use of a silicone foot
protective ointment as a preventive for immersion --
foot. To date, the results have been promising.
The cooperation of all hands in using the foot
protective ointment, as directed by competent
authority, and complying with other instructions
related to foot care will result in healthier feet
and fewer casualties due to immersion foot.

475
+ Care of Nlcdical Gear.—in Small Units. One
of the major problems encountered during the
monsoon season is keeping medical gear dry.
The extent to which we may control this situation
varies directly in proportion to the dry housing
area available. The proper care of medical gear
during the wet season entails medical personnel
using their own ingenuity in planning and schedul-
ing routine work, in devising protective covers
for the various medical items, and paying special
attention to see that all protective covers are
used properly. In addition, it should be re-
membered that one must always take advantage
of a dry period, however short, in which to air
and dry out medical gear to the extent possible.
+ Evacuation of Patients. J)uring bad weather,
additional precautions will be required to ensure
patient safety and comfort. In a combat environ-
ment, limitations are necessarily imposed by
the tactical situation. However, proper planning
for evacuation of patients can ensure that the
patient is moved in reasonable comfort, regard-
less of the weather. Such things as adequate
clothing, properly prepared litters, and a trans-
portation schedule to preclude undue waiting in
an uncovered area will help eliminate many
problems.

#il ###

476
477
5. TI1°S FROM THE CORPSMEN
Patients SI1OUMbc loaded on helicopters head
first and not feet first. Occasionally, in haste or
under fire, stretchers are dropped. This can
result in further injuries to the already wounded
Marine. Loading the patient head first,will tend
to minimize any injury to the patient caused by
dropping the stretcher. Stretcher bearers should,
if possible, stand by until an evacuation helicopter
arrives so they can be of assistance in loading
the patient aboard. There have been instances in
which one corpsman was left alone to load litter

478
patients into a helicopter. This requires a crew-
mcmher to leave his position aboard the heli-
copter and assist in loading the patient.

/#####

6. NIGHT MEDICAL EVACUATION

Medical evacuation during the hours of dark-
ness can be very difficult and hazardous. Ade-
quate landing zones are extremely scarce. Land-
ing zones are frecluently masked by either hilly
terrain or jungle canopy, making identification
and approaches extremely difficult and time con-
suming.
13ach patrol or unit operating independently
should carry a minimum of five flashlights and
three hand illumination grenades. The flashlights
should be placed at the perimeter of the LZ to
form a square. ‘L’he hand illumination should be
used to orient the’ helo pilot and silhouette the
surrounding terrain and canopy. Hand illumina-
tion grenades should not be used when the air-
craft is within 300 meters of the LZ unless
specifically recluestcd by the pilot. The other
flashlight should be used to identify the location,
of personnel adjacent to or on the LZ. To be most
effective, the perimeter marking lights should be
vertical. This can easily be accomplished by
tying the marking lights to the handle of a K-bar/
bayonet and driving the blade into the ground.

479
7. MALARIA 1’REVENTIVE ‘~l{EATMEN’I’
Modern science has dcvcloImd varluus medi-
cations to help prevent malaria. The one which
most Marines are familiar with is the Chloro-
quine-Prinlaquine tablet. On occasion, some per-
sons may experience a case of upset stomach
due to the side effects from this tablet. If this
should happen, the unit medical officer can de-
termine the cause and a substitute preventive
medicine may be prescribed.
By all means, if you are supposed to take
these pills periodically, don’t neglect it. An upset
stomach and a trip to the local dispensary for a
substitute medicine is far better than the serious
effects of malaria.

80 I_J{EC1l D[’1’llS

There are times and circumstances when

Marines in the field cannot stop to have leeches
removed by corpsmen. Several hasty removal
methods can be used:
+ A lighted cigarcttc appliml to the lbcc.1] will
cause it to release.

+ Salt from a C-ration packet sprinkled on

the leech near its attac!~ment to the skin will
cause its release.
+ Spraying insect repellant on the leech is
the most successful method.

#####

480
9. PLASMA EXPANDER
Reports frotn infantry battalion medical of-
ficers cite the value of Dextran as a plasma ex-
pander in the treatment of battle injuries. Dextran
expands the blood volume three times and the
solution has an osmotic effect. Plastic catheters
have advantages not realized by the use of
straight needles. They are self-contained and
easy to use with a minimum of instruction.
Dextran and threadable plastic catheter intracaths
should be part of the unit’s medical supplies:
Two bottles of Dextran, plus the regular amount
of serum albumin and an assortment of large
and medium intracaths, should be carried by the
battalion aid station for use in treating battle
injuries.

/# # // // #

10. FIELD AMBULANCE SUI’PORT

The casualty evacuation system in Vietnam
is being supplemented in some Marine units by
the use of M-43 Field Ambulances. Assigning this
vchiclc to a regimental aid station on a tem-
porary basis greatly assists in evacuating men
who have minor wounds or who are ill and re-
quire treatment. The unit’s organic jeep ambu-
lance is then used for local emergencies, and
the medical evacuation helicopters can concen-
trate on emergency missions. Field ambulances
have also been used effectively in resupply convoy

481
operations to carry persons who are incapacitated
but may not require emergency evacuation.

11. MOBILE MEDCAP

A new concept, termed h~obile MEl)CAP, is
being used to provide meclical treatment to Viet-
namese villages. ‘f’raveling medical teams visit
the villages within their area to provide treat-
ment. The most notable feature of the Mobile
M13DCAP is the specially configured and ecluipped
vehicle trailer. The concept makes limited medi-
cal facilities and treatment available to those
who are unable to travel to a fixed location;
enables a medical team to be seen throughout a
wider area while engaged in humanitarian as well
as military missions; and increases the aware-
ness of villagers to the presence of medical as-
sistance.
Some villagers who live within 500 meters
of the regular MEDCAP and did not know of its
existence, are now being treated by the mobile
unit. Other villagers who had been bedridden are
now receiving attention. In one area, the hostile
attitude of the people toward the h4arines notably
improved when the Mobile MEDCAP efforts
showed the villagers that the Marines and medical
personnel were genuinely interested in their wel-
fare.

It // // if //

482
12. INTRAVENOUS-INJECTION SUPPLY CHEST
81mnl mortar boxes are ideal for use as
portable containers for the resupply of intrave-
nous solutions. With minor modifications these
boxes can be used to carry four intravenous-
solution bottles, four intravenous-injection sets,
two cans of human-serum albumin and needles
or accessories. These boxes, which are readily
available, are particularly useful when sturdy
containers are needed.

13. 130RTADI.13 STAND FOR INTRAVENOUS

SOLUTIONS
Portable stands to hold bottles while admin-
istering intravenous solutions can be easily con-
structed from the end sections and metal rod of
a 105mm howitzer box. The end section with the
rod still inserted is utilized by nailing a short
piece of lumber crosswise to keep the rod from
falling out. TMs also acts to steady the stand
and prevent it from collapsing. A piece of heavy
wire is bent over the top of the rod and taped.
The free end of the wire is then bent to form a
durable hook from which the solution bottles can
be suspended.

All materials used are readily available in

the field, and the stands may be utilized in the
sickbay, operating room, or while patients are
awaiting transportation for further treatment.

483
14. POISONOUS SNAKES OF VIETNAM
“Yes, those green bamboo snakes are the
worst, ” says the oldtimer to the newly arrived
Marine. “The natives call them the ‘five-step
snake,’ you know. That’s because you only live
long enough to take five steps after it bites you:”

This kind of information (or misinformation)

is common in Vietnam these days, and unfortu-
nately much of it is believed.
The “oldtimcr” relating the tale probably
!Ias been in the country for less than 2 months
himself; and, most likely, he has yet to see his
first snake of any kind. Snakes arc not highly
visible in any tropical country. Yet, lurid tales
are the usual cover for ignorance and, so far,
there is still no “Field Guide to the Snakes of
Vietnam” available at the local bookstore or Post
Exchange.
It is still a considerable struggle to try to
determine what snakes are found in Vietnam, and
their geographic distribution within the country
is almost unknown. A list of the land snakes that
has been compiled from various sources totals
115 species-- about the same number as are
found in the United States. Seventeen are venomous
and some of these are extremely dangerous. Be-
sides the land snakes there are 15 or more kinds
of sea snakes that are found in the South China
Sea and the Gulf of Tonkin just offshore, and all
of these have highly toxic venom. A list of more
than 30 venomous snakes for an area as small as

484
Vietnam is rather impressive and it is difficult
in the face of this to convince a newly arrived
Marine that he is not in imminent danger of
becoming a snakebite casualty. Yet death from
snakeb’it is a rare occurrence in Vietnam. How
can this be?

a. Seasonal Occurrence

For one thing, snakes are not equally

abundant in all seasons. If the situaton in neigh-
boring Thailand (which is better known) can be
taken as a guide, you can expect the snakes in
the Saigon region to disappear underground during
the “summer” months of March to May and to
be rare during the dry season, “winter” months
of December to February. The young snakes are
born or hatched in February and may make a
brief appearance before the beginning of the hot
summer.
Snakes would be expected to appear in some
numbers with the onset of the rainy season in
June and would build up in numbers during the
season to give a maximum snakebit danger in
September or October. They become less active,
and thus less a menace, at the end of the rainy
season in November.
The seasons are not all in identical months
in the various regions of Vietnam, but the cor-
relations of snake abundance with season would
be expected to hold throughout. Thus for about half
the year the danger of snakebite is minimal.

485
 b. The Geographic Base

Vietnam is often thought of as a small

country. This is true when compared with the
rest of Asia, and it is relatively small in area.
However, it is as far from the southern tip of
Vietnam to the Chinese border as it is from Key
West to New York. It is a long and mountainous
country and, except for the huge Mekong and Red
River deltas near Saigon and Hanoi, it has a very
narrow coastal plain. Most of the countryside is
made up of high mountains (many over 8,000 feet),
upland plateaus and narrow river valleys.
Due to its elongated shape and the nature
of the terrain, few kinds of snakes are found
throughout the country. Just as in the United
States, a species is likely to be restricted to
the north or to the south, to the uplands or to
the lowlands. The change in reptile fauna, due
to the number of species invo]vcd, is much more
impressive than the differences that occur along
the eastern seaboard of the United States.

c. The Problem of Identification

The countries of Southeast Asia have a
greater variety of snakes than any region in
the world, and many of them appear strange,
even bizarre, to the eyes of an American.
There are tree snakes with projecting snouts,
water snakes with flaplike “tentacles” on their
noses, sea snakes with a flat, oarlike tail, and
of course cobras with a hood. The whole idea of

486
snakes (some of them venomous) living in trees
is foreign; the cold winters discourage such habits
in temperate regions. And how about that 15-foot
snake in the path? Is it a python (nonvenomous)
or king cobra?
None of the venomous snakes of Vietnam
wears the “rattle” that characterizes 14 of the
19 venomous snakes in the United States. About
half of the venomous land snakes are pit vipers,
with the broad, distinct head, “cat-eyes” and deep
pit in the side of the face that characterize these”
snakes. However, many of the nonvenomous snakes
have some of the same features. Pythons, for
example, have eyes with elliptical pupils and there
appear to be whole groups of harmless snakes
that “mimic” the venomous species--some looking
like cobras (even like king cobras) and others
like vipers. The identification of such snakes may
be puzzling even to the expert.
Furthermore, the cobras, kraits, and
Asian coral snakes which make up the other half
of the venomous snake fauna have no such
distinctive features. They possess relatively in-
distinct, narrow heads, round-pupilled eyes, and
have i~othhg like a loreal pit. As distinctive
looking a snake as a cobra looks pretty much
like any other snake when it is minding its own
business; the hood is spread only if the cobra
is threatened or thinks it is.
Fortunately, it is not necessary to dis-
tinguish all the venomous snakes from all the

487
nonvenomous kinds. There are relatively few
venomous kinds in any one region and they are
easy to distinguish as individual species.
d. T!~e Southern Vipers
There are only three kinds of vipers
known in South Vietnam and none of these are
particularly dangerous.
(1) White-Lipped Bamboo Viper

In the Mekong River Delta region

around Saigon and along the narrow coastal plain
to the norlh, the most coiIIinonly cncountcrml
venomous snake is the white-lipped bamboo viper,
the “green bamboo snake” of the “oldtimer’s”
tale. This small pit viper (adults average about
2 feet) is active mainly at night, when it crawls
about on the ground and in the trees in search of
the lizards and mice that make up its diet. Dur-
ing the day it remains coiled about smnc low-
hanging branch or bush, from which it is reluctant
to be dislodged. Rather than retreating in the
face of disturbance, it is likely to stay put and
to strike out at an aggressor--even if the “ag-
gressor” is just some Vietnamese or M’arine who
is trying to make his way through the thick
brush.
This sedentary but militantly defen-
sive habit has made the green bamboo vipers the
main source of snakebite accidents in such well-
studied areas as Hong Kong and Taiwan (Formosa).
Fortunately, their venom is but weakly toxic to
man and bites by these snakes seldo]n’ result in

488
more than a sore and swollen area at the site of
the bite. Death from the bite of green bamboo
viper is, in contrast to the “old-timer’s” story,
almost unknown.
(2) Malayan Pit Viper
A somewhat more dangerous snake that
inhabits the same southern lowlands is the
Malayan pit viper. It apparently does not range as
far north as Hanoi. It is a gound-dwelling snake
somewhat like the American copperhead in habits.
With its irregularly patterned, brown
c.oloralion, it is difficult to sce on the forest
floor, and the Malayan pit viper is the main
source of snakebite accidents in Malaya. Like
the bites of the bamboo vipers, that of the
Malayan pit viper is seldom fatal. However, it
may result in the destruction of considerable
tissue in the affected area and sometimes causes
serious damage to other parts of the body.
(3) Mountain Viper
The white-lipped bamboo viper and the
Malayan pit viper are absent from the Annam
Mountain Range that makes up the western
border of central Vietnam. Their place is taken
by the dark, brown-blotched mountain viper. This
is another of the militantly defensive vipers. It is
likely to stand its ground and strike out rather
than retreat. Fortunately, it is a relatively small
snake, which averages less than 2 feet in length,

489
and its Mlc M pninful ralhc’r IllmI lethal. It ap-
parently does not bite enough people to proviclc
a statis~ical record of the effect of the bite.
All three of the pit vipers that occur in
the south are small and relatively innocuous.
The vipers of North Vietnam are another story.
13esides tl]ose of the south, there are several
larger and more dangerous vipers in the region
north of Hanoi.
e. Northern ViDers
There is a rare horned tree viper that
is known from the Fan Si Pan Mountains near
the Chinese border and from nowhere else.
Another very rare viper, Feats viper, is known
only from a few mountain localities in north-
eastern Vietnam and adjacent China.
(1) Sharp-Nosed Pit. Viper
There, however, are some dangerous
vipers that range over the northern and eastern
borders into Vietnam. Undoubtedly the most
dangcruus is the sharp-nosed pi[ viper, another
relative of lllC copperhead and cottonmouth of the
United States. It is known as the “five-pace
snake” or dlc “hundred-pace sllakc” in Taiwan,
and it much more nearly deserves the name than
does the relatively innocuous bamboo viper. The
sharp-nosed pit viper attains a length of about 5
feet and it has long fangs with which to inject its
ample supply of toxic venom. It is considered a
dangerous snake wherever it occurs.

490
 (2) Ilal)us
“lhe two other large northern vipers
belong to the same group as the habus of Okinawa
and Taiwan. They are large snakes, attaining
lengths of nearly 6 feet, and have long fangs.
However, their venom does not appear to be
highly toxic to man. One, the Chinese habu, is
found through the hills and lowlands of north-
eastern North Vietnam. The other, Jerdon’s
viper, is found in the high mountain regions of
the northwest. The Chinese habu is responsible
for a number of snakebite cases and some deaths
in Taiwan and Jerdon’s viper holds a similar
record in Burma and northern India.
Fortunately, none of these large vipers
appear to be common enough to be a major con-
cern. The Chinese bamboo viper, which is so
similar to the white-lipped viper that it takes
an expert to distinguish thcm, has also been
reported in the northern highlands. It, like its
southern relative, is responsible for many bites
but no adult deaths.
‘l%us, the common vipers appear to of-
fer little danger and the dangerous vipers are
restricted to the far north and are relatively
uncommon. This is not true of the other group
of dangerous snakes, the elapids. They are
widely distributed in both North and South Vietnam,
and some of the most dangerous kinds have the
broadest distribution.

491
 f. Elapid Snakes
The elapid snakes of V iclnam are rep-
resented by cobras, kraits, coral snakes and sea
snakes.
(1) Asian Cobra
The Asian cobra probably provides the
greatest danger of any snake in Vicmam. It is a
snake of only moderate size, with an adult length
that averages less than 5 feet. Yet the venom
glands of such an average individual may con-
tain sufficient venom to kill three or four men. In
Vietnam the cobras appear to be restricted to
the heavily populated deltas and coastal plain.
Through the centuries cobras have
adapted to life with dense populations of
men so that they may be found commonly at
the very edges of villages, or perhaps even
under a house in the village. Though they are
normally active during the day, in such heavily
populated regions they tend to emerge at dusk
to search for mice and rats. The combination of
abundance, proximity to large h... nan populations,
and their habit of hunting at dusk make them a
prime cause of snakebite throughout Asia and
the major reported cause of serious snakebite
cases in Vietnam during the French administra-
tion of that country. The three deaths that were
reported (all from Asian cobras) for the period
1948 FO 1952 makes one wonder how good the
reporting systcm was, however.

492
 Cobras almost always raise their head
and spread tic I]ood when disturbed, making them
easy to identify. Also, their short (quarter to
half-inch) fangs make them less dangerous to
people in western clothing than they are to the
barelegged native population. It is also com-
forting to know that the cobra’s strike is not
the short speedy thrust of n viper but a long,
sweeping arc from the raised position ,of the
head, forward and down. It is, therefore, a much
easier strike to avoid than that of the rattle-
snake or copperhead. Asian snake charmers
have learned to guage the distance and path of a
cobra’s strike to within fractions of an inch and
manage to remain just outside of effective range.
This is not recommended for the amateur.
(2) King Cobra
The most impressive venomous snake
in Vietnam, and probably the most impressive
of all dangerous snakes, is the king cobra. At-
taining a reported length of more than 18 feet,
and with an average adult Icngth of 12 to 14 feet,
it has a very large supply of toxic venom--enough,
reportedly, to kill an adult elephant. Without
question the king cobra is potentially one of the
most dangerous snakes in the world.
It is a snake-eating snake that is not
drawn to the mouse-and-rat-infested towns and it
is generally found far from civilization. Nowhere
is it common and nowhere does it constitute an
important source of snakel)ite accidents. The
“king cobras” pointed out by native guides often

493
are harmless Asian rat snakes that also attain
lengths in excess of 12 feet. 130th of these snakes
have daylight habits, are brown and Mg. Like
other cobras the king cobra raises its head and
spreads a hood when distrubed; perhaps its con-
spicuous appearance keeps it from being a serious
threat. There appear to be no records of a
snakebite by this species in Vietnam. IIowever,
it should be pointed out that elsewhere few of the
king cobra’s victims have survived for more than
half an hour.
(3) Kraits
The banded krait is found throughout
Vietnam. It grows to a length of more than 6
feet and has an exceedingly toxic venom. But it is
so sluggish during the day that many native
people believe it to be a harmless snake. It is
far from aggressive during its nighttime ac-
tivities, too, and would appear to be a danger only
to persons who step on it or pick it up.
Such cannot be said for the Malayan
krait of the southern coastal plain or its close
relative the many-banded krait of ~the north.
Although they are active mainly at night and re-
latively sluggish during the day, occasional in-
dividuals will strike out unexpectedly with little
provocation. They have short fangs (about one-
quarter inch) so that western clothing offers
considerable protection. I iowever, an effective
bite by either of these kraits is almost invariably
fatal without prompt treatment.

494
 (4) Asian Coral Snakes

One kind of coral snake or another

occurs in every part of Vietnam. There is one
species in the mountains, another in the southern
lowlands and still another in the northern low-
lands. These are all brightly colored, slender,
semiburrowing snakes that give little indication
of their venomous nature except in their red
“warning color. ” They, like their American re-
latives, are seldom seen except when they are
exposed by removal of the rock or log under
which they are hiding. They would appear to offer
no danger except to persons that pick them up in
the belief that they are harmless. Like the
American coral snakes and their cobra rela-
tives the Asian coral snakes have a highly toxic
venom.
(5) Sea Snakes
A special word should be said about
sea snakes, which are unknown to most Ameri-
cans. They, too, are cobra relatives, or better,
krait relatives that have become adapted for
aquatic life. With their flattened, oarlike tail and
valvular nostrils, they are a characteristic part
of the Western Pacific fauna. About 15 species
are found in the waters off Vietnam. In any one
area, however, there is usually one common
species with several others making up the re-
mainder.

495
 In the Saigon region and southward,
I-Iardwick’s sea snake, one of the more dangerous
species, makes up 75 percent of the sea snake
fauna. This would suggest care in swimming off
the beaches of this area. North of Nha Trang, the
banded smallheaded sea snake makes up the main
population. This sea snake is specialized for
feeding on small or elongated fishbs and, as its
name suggests, has a very small head. It is not
considered a danger in other parts of its range.
No sea snake of any kind appears to have been
explicitly reported in North Vietnam, but some
kinds are found in nearby Hainan and probably
also off the Vietnam coast.
During the rainy season between July
and November sea snakes invade the river
mouths and estuaries along the coast, perhaps to
feed on the fishes that are concentrated there at
that time. They are practically helpless on land
and never leave the water voluntarily, but during
the wet season may be found far frcm their usual
coastal habitat.
‘1’here are conflicting reports on the
danger of sea snakes to people in the water. On
the one hand native fishermen pull them out of
their nets with little thought of danger, while on
the other there are reports of swimmers being
bitten and killed. A part of the reasons for the
different stories is the different species of sea
snakes, which vary in temperament and in the ef-
fectiveness with which they can deliver a bite.
Thus, both the Beaked and Hardwick’s sea snakes

496
are large and largeheaded species that may lash
out unexpectedly. These are the two kinds that
cause the majority of bites throughout Southeast
Asia. The other smallheaded kinds “seem to have
more gentle dispositions and with their small
mouths might have difficulty in biting an arm or
leg if they tried.
In any case, only two incidents of
swimmers being attacked by sea snakes (in
Malaya) have been reported recently.’ Most sea
snake bites are inflicted on the fishermen that
handle them often. Nowhere in the area that sea
snakes are commonly found--from the Persian
Gulf to Japan and Australia-- are they considered
a major hazard.
g. Summary. Bites by bamboo vipers, the
mountain viper and the Malayan pit viper are
likely to be more painful than serious, though
large individuals of the latter two are capable of
causing dangerous bites. Only the Asian cobra
and the Malayan and many-banded kraits appear to
be sufficiently common, sufficiently venomous and
sufficiently aggressive to provide a snakebite
hazard. Even so, the few statistics available sug-
gest that death from snakebite was a rarity in
prewar Vietnam and that a man who has the op-
portunity to watch where he puts his hands and
feet is most unlikely to be bitten.
Vietnam has a large snake fauna, about
115 species of land snakes, of which 17 are

497
 \

venomous. l%e United States also has about 115

species of snakes-- of which 19 are venomous.
The danger of snakebite in most areas of Vietnam
does not appear to be appreciably greater than
it is in our own southern states, but a reasonable
amount of care is desirable in both places.

// # # # #
. ,

498 *U.S. GOVERNMENT OFFICE: 1991--298–053/40621

PRINTING