FunctionsandTheirBasic Properties

FunctionsandtheirGraphs TangentsandAsymptotes InjectivityandSurjectivity IncreasingandDecreasingFunctions

Functions
A function is rule that assigns an element of a set, called the target domain of the function, to any element of the set in which the function is defined. This set is the domain of definition of the function. Target f Graphically Domain of definition Examples 1 2 The scale is a function. It assigns to every person stepping on it, the weight of the person. The thermometer is a function, it can be used to measure outside temperature at any moment. It measures the temperature of its location continuously. The domain of definition is a time interval, and the target domain is the set of temperatures within the reach of that particular thermometer. The length of a day is a function.
Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

LengthoftheDay
To understand how the length of the day varies, one can measure the length of the first day of each month. That data can be plotted. Joining the plotted points by straight or slightly curved lines yields a graph that allows one to understand how the length of the day varies. The length of the day is a function, and the graph, corresponding to the measurements, is the graph of this function. Helsinki 24 18 Miami

12

Hours

2 3 4

9 10 11 12

Month

Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

DefinitionofFunctions
Definition Given sets A and B. A function f : A B is a rule which assigns an element f(a) of the set B for every a in A. If the sets A and B are finite, then this rule can be expressed in terms of a table or a diagram. Usually the sets A and B are not finite. In such a case the rule in question is usually expressed in terms of an algebraic expression, involving possibly special functions, for f(a). Example f (x) = sin ( x ) x 1 is a function which is defined for x 1.

Alternatively the rule to compute f(a), for a given a, may be a program taking a as input and producing f(a) as its output. Let f : A B be a function. The set A is the domain of definition of the function f. The set B is the target domain of the function f. The set f(A) = { f(a) | aA } B is the range of the function f. Definition
Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

GraphsofFunctions
In calculus we are usually concerned with functions f: that assign a real number to a real number. Such functions are usually defined by an explicit expression for f(x). The product 2 = {(x,y)| x , y } is called the plane. It is usually pictured by drawing the x axis horizontally, and the y axis vertically. The graph of the function f: is the graph of the set {(x,f(x))| x } Examples Below are graphs of the functions f(x) = sin(x2), g(x) = x4 2x3 x2 + 2x and h(x) = 2sin(x). Which is which?

h(x) = 2sin(x)

f(x) = sin(x2)

g(x) = x4 2x3 x2 + 2x

Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

CurvesandGraphs
Problem Which of the following curves in the plane are graphs of functions?

Answer

The first two curves are not graphs of functions since they do not correspond to a rule which associates a unique y-value to any given x-value. Graphically this means that there are vertical lines which intersect the first two curves at more than 1 point.

Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

SecantandTangentLines
A line intersecting the graph of a function at two points is a secant line. If you modify a secant line by rotating it around the first intersection point so that the second intersection point approaches the first one, you get a tangent line at the limit. A secant line No tangent at this point It may happen that, at the limit, you do not get a uniquely defined line. In such cases, the graph of the function does not have a tangent. A tangent line

Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

Asymptotes
An asymptote of a curve is a straight line which the curve approaches arbitrarily close as one moves sufficiently far along the curve. 1 +x Here we see the graph of the function y = x 2 and its asymptotes, the line y = x, and the vertical asymptote x = 2.

A graph may intersect its asymptote infinitely often. Asymptotes give us information about the behavior of a graph as we move far along the graph. Tangent lines give us local information about how the graph behaves near the point of tangency.
Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

InjectiveFunctions
Definition A function f: A B is injective or one-to-one if two different elements of A have different images in B; i.e. if x1 x2 f(x1) f(x2). A one-to-one function associates at most one point in the set A to any given point in the set B; i.e. f(x1) = f(x2) x1 = x2 . Problem Which of the following graphs are graphs of one-toone functions?

Answer

None of the above graphs are graphs of one-to-one functions since they correspond to rules which associate several xvalues to some y-values. This follows since there are horizontal lines intersecting the graphs at several points.

Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

SurjectiveandBijectiveFunctions
Definition A function f: A B is surjective or onto if its range covers all of the target domain; i.e. if y B: x A such that f(x) = y.

A function f: A B is bijective if it is both surjective and injective; i.e. if y B: ! x A such that f(x) = y. The notation ! x A in the above means that there is a unique element in the set A having the given property.

Surjective . Not injective.

Bijective

(0,1).

Bijective

Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

IncreasingandDecreasingFunctions
A function, whose values grow as the value of the variable grows, is called increasing. If the values of the function decrease as the variable grows, the function is decreasing. Definition A function f is increasing a > b f(a) > f(b).

A function f is decreasing A function f is monotonic everywhere decreasing. Theorem Proof

a > b f(a) < f(b). if it is everywhere increasing or

A monotonic function is one-to-one (injective). We have to show that, if x1 x2, then also f(x1) f(x2).

Assume that f is increasing. Since x1 x2, either x1 > x2 or x1 < x2. If x1 > x2 , f(x1) > f(x2), since f is increasing. If x1 < x2, f(x1) < f(x2). In both cases, f(x1) f(x2).
Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

Summary
Functions are rules that assign an element of the target domain to any element of the domain of definition of the function. x +2 . Functions are often defined by algebraic expressions like y = 2 x 1 In such a case the domain of definition is the set of numbers for which the given algebraic expression is defined. Tangent lines of the graph of a function give local information about the function near the point of tangency. Asymptotes give global information about the graph of a function. Functions are injective, or one-to-one, if they assign different elements of the target set to different elements of the domain of definition. Functions are bijective, if they are injective and if every element of the target set corresponds to some element of the domain of definition of the function. Monotonic functions are injective, and establish a bijection between the domain of definition of the function and the range of the function.
Functions/Elementary Functions/Functions and Their Basic Properties

Continuity Gently

Definition of Continuity Intermediate Value Theorem Rules of Continuous Functions Basic Continuous Functions Examples

Definition of Continuity
Simplest way to define the continuity of functions is to say that a function is continuous if one can draw its graph without having to lift the pen from the paper.

Continuous Function

Discontinuous Function

Characteristic to continuous functions is that they have limits everywhere and that the limit values agree with the values of the function. This is the real definition of continuity.
Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Definition of Continuity
Simplest way to define the continuity of functions is to say that a function is continuous if one can draw its graph without having to lift the pen from the paper.

Continuous Function

Discontinuous Function

Characteristic to continuous functions is that they have limits everywhere and that the limit values agree with the values of the function. This is the real definition of continuity.
Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Definition of Continuity
Denition
A function f is continuous at a number a if
xa

lim f (x) = f (a).

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Continuity

Definition of Continuity
Denition
A function f is continuous at a number a if
xa

lim f (x) = f (a).

In other words...
1 2 3

f (a) is dened; the limit, limxa f (x), exists; and, these two values coincide.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Continuity

Definition of Continuity
What is continuity?
Speaking loosely, a function is continuous if we can trace its graph without having to lift our pencil from the paper. In other words, the graph is connected. What is the mathematical denition of continuity? How do we express the connectedness of a graph? It is easier to look at some discontinuous examples to see what can go wrong.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Continuity

Examples

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Continuity

Examples

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Continuity

Examples

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Continuity

Examples

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Continuity

Examples of Continuous Functions

1 2 3 f(x) = x3 x is continuous everywhere. Continuous for x 0, and discontinuous at x = 0. h(x) = sin(x)/x is defined and continuous for x 0. Setting h(0) = 1 extends the function h to a continuous function defined for all x.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Rules of Continuous Functions

Assume that both functions f and g are continuous at x = x0. Let c R. Theorem 1 3 Proof The following functions are continuous at x = x0. f(x) + g(x) f(x) g(x) 2 4 cf(x) f(x)/g(x) assuming that g(x0) 0

The result follows immediately from the corresponding properties of limits of functions. Statement of the properties of limits. Rigorous proof of the properties of limits.

We will use the following without proof. Theorem If f is continuous at x = a, and g continuous at f(a), then the composed function g f is continuous at x = a.
Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Basic Continuous Functions

Since clearly the function f(x) = x is continuous, the Rules of Continuous Functions implies that:
1. All polynomials are continuous functions. 2. All rational functions, i.e., all quotients R = P/Q of two polynomial P and Q are continuous at all points x = x0 for which Q(x0) 0. One can show further that: 1. All power functions xr, r Real, are continuous whenever defined. 2. All functions f(x) = ax, a > 0, are continuous. the Exponential Function ex is continuous.

In particular,

3. All trigonometric functions are continuous where defined. 4. All inverse trigonometric functions are continuous where defined. The logarithm is continuous where defined.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
1 Where the function tan x is continuous?

Solution By the previous remarks, tan x is continuous everywhere where it is defined. The function tan x = sin(x)/cos(x) is defined for all values x for which cos x 0. We conclude that the function tan x is continuous for all x /2 + n, n Z. Observe that for x = /2 + n, n Z, the function tan x is not defined.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
2 Where the function f(x) = x + x is continuous? Recall that x = largest integer x.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
2 Where the function f(x) = x + x is continuous? Recall that x = largest integer x. Solution Observe that if n 1 < x < n for some integer n, then x = n 1 and x =n. Hence, if x is not an integer, then f(x) = 1. Therefore the limit of the function f is everywhere 1.

On the other hand, if x is an integer, then x = x, and x = x. Hence, if x is an integer, f(x) = 0. We conclude that f is continuous at all non-integer values of the variable, and discontinuous at integer values.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
3 Where the function is continuous? Solution Observe that the numerator is defined and continuous for x > 0. The denominator ln x 1 is also defined for all x, x > 0. The denominator takes the value 0 if x = e. At this point the function is undefined, and hence not continuous. e
Graph of the function g. The blue vertical line x = e is an asymptote of the graph of g.

Answer The function g is continuous for x > 0, x e.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
4 Study the continuity of the function Solution 1 2 Since x2 and the Sine function are both continuous, the composed function sin( x2 ) is continuous. Since 1 + sin(x2) 0 for all x, also continuous for all x. is defined and

The numerator is defined and continuous for all x. The denominator x2 is continuous, and takes the value 0 for x = 0. The function f is defined and continuous for x 0.

Answer

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
5 The function is defined for x 0. Is it possible to define f(0) so that the function f is continuous at x = 0? Solution Since We need to find out whether f has a limit at x = 0.
Multiply and divide by the conjugate of the numerator to get rid of the problem with the square root.

1 ( + sin (x )) 1
2

x 1 + sin x 2 + 1
2

( )

x
2

( ) 1 2 1 + sin ( )+ 1 x
sin x 2
2 x0

lim
t 0

sin t t

( )= 1

setting f(0) = makes the function f continuous at x = 0.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Examples
5 The function is defined for x 0. Is it possible to define f(0) so that the function f is continuous at x = 0? Solution (contd) We have concluded that, if we set f(0) = , function f is continuous at x = 0. the

Problems of this type can usually be solved by computing the limit (if one exists) of the function in question at the point where the function is not defined.

Graph of the function f.

Functions/Continuous Functions/Continuity Gently

Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative

Tangents as Limits of Secant Lines Tangent Lines Linear Approximations of Functions Velocity Rates of Change

Tangents as Limits of Secant Lines

The basic problem that leads to differentiation is to compute the slope of a tangent line of the graph of a given function f at a given point x0. The key observation, which allows one to compute slopes of tangent lines is that the tangent is a certain limit of secant lines as illustrated in the picture below. A secant line intersects the graph of a function f at two or more points. The figure on the left shows secant lines intersecting the graph at the points corresponding to x=x0 and x=x0 + h. As h approaches 0, the secant line in question approaches the tangent line at the point (x0,f(x0)). x0 x0+h

Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative

Slopes of Secant Lines

The slope of a secant line intersecting the graph of a function f at points corresponding to x=x0 and x=x0 + h can readily be computed using the notations defined in the picture below.

f(x0+h) f f(x0) f(x0+h)- f(x0) As h approaches 0 (through positive numbers), the secant in the pictures approaches the tangent to the graph of f at the point (x0,f(x0)).

x0

x0+h

Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative

Tangent Lines (1)

Definition The tangent line of the graph of the function f at the point (x0,f(x0)) is the line passing through this point and having the slope f x0 + h f x0 lim h0 h

) ( )

provided that the limit exists and is finite. Compute the slope of the tangent line, at the point (1,1), of the graph of the function x2.

Example

1 1

Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative

Tangent Lines (2)

Example Compute the slope of the tangent line, at the point (1,1), of the graph of the function x2. By the definition, the slope is the limit 2 f x0 + h f x0 1 + h 12 = lim . lim h0 h0 h h 1 1 Conclusion Equation of the tangent line is y-1=2(x-1), i.e., y=2x-1.

Solution

) ( )

This can readily be computed by expanding the brackets:

lim

1+ h

12

h0

2 2 2 = lim 1 + 2h + h 1 h0 h 2 = lim 2h + h = lim 2 + h = 2. h0 h0 h

Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative

Linear Approximations of Functions

The following pictures show, in different scales, the graph of the function x2 and that of its tangent line at the point (1,1).

-1<x< 2 Conclusion

0.5<x<1.5

0.77<x<1.27

0.9<x<1.1

Near the point of tangency, the tangent line approximates well the graph of the function. The closer we are the point of tangency, the better the approximation is.

Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative