PH 221-3A Fall 2009

Oscillations
Lectures 23-24
Chapter 15 (Halliday/Resnick/Walker, Fundamentals of Physics 8th edition)

Chapter 15
Oscillations

In this chapter we will cover the following topics: Displacement, velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator Examples of simple harmonic oscillators: spring-mass system, simple pendulum, physical pendulum, torsion pendulum Damped harmonic oscillator Forced oscillations/Resonance
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Oscillations
Periodic motion the motion of a particle or a system of particles is periodic, or cyclic, if it repeats again and again at regular intervals of time. Example: The orbital motion of a planet The uniform rotational motion of a phonograph turntable Back and forth motion of a piston in an automobile engine Vibrations of a guitar string Oscillation back and forth or swinging periodic motion is called an oscillation

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is a special kind of one dimensional p p p periodic motion The particle moves back and forth along a straight line, repeating the same motion again and again Simple harmonic motion the particles p p p position can be expressed as a cosine or a sine function of p time. Cosines and sines are called harmonic functions => we call motion of the particle harmonic.

When an object attached to a horizontal spring is moved from its equilibrium position and released, the restoring force F = -kx leads to simple harmonic motion Moving strip of paper at a steady rate Record position of the vibrating object vs. time pen A = amplitude the maximum displacement from equilibrium x = 0 is the equilibrium position of the object. object

Position as a function of time has the shape of trigonometric sine or cosine function

x(t ) = xm cos (t + )
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) Harmonic Motion (SHM) In fig.a we show snapshots of a simple oscillating system.

The motion is periodic i.e. it repeats in time. The time needed to complete one repetition is known as the period (symbol T , units: s ). The number of 1 repetitions per unit time is called the frequency (symbol f , unit hertz, Hz) f = T The displacement of the particle is given by the equation: x (t ) = xm cos (t + ) Fig.b is a plot of x (t ) versus t. The quantity xm is called the amplitude of the motion. It gives the maximum possible displacement of the oscillating object The quantity is called the angular frequency of the oscillator. It is given by oscillator 2 the equation: = 2 f = T

x(t ) = xm cos (t + )

The quantity is called the phase angle of the oscillator. The value of is determined from the displacement x(0) and the velocity v(0) at t = 0. In fig.a x(t ) is plotted versus t for = 0. x(t ) = xm cos t Velocity of SHM dx(t ) d = xm cos (t + ) = xm sin (t + ) v(t ) = dt dt The quantity xmis called the velocity amplitude vm It expresses the maximum possible value of v(t ) In fig b the velocity v(t ) is plotted versus t for = 0 fig.b plott 0. v(t ) = xm sin t

dv(t ) d = xm sin (t + ) = 2 xm cos t = 2 x dt dt The quantity 2 xmis called the acceleration amplitude a m .It expresses the maximum Acceleration of SHM: a (t ) = possible value of a(t ). In fig.c the acceleration a(t ) is plotted versus t for = 0. a (t ) = 2 xm cos t
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Problem : When an object of mass m1 is hung on a vertical spring and set into vertical simple harmonic motion, its frequency is 12.0 Hz. When another object of mass m2 is hung on the spring along with m1, the frequency of the motion is 4.00 Hz. Find the ratio m2/m1 of the masses.

Three springs with force constants k1 = 10.0 N/m, k2 = 12.5 N/m, and k3 = 15.0 N/m are connected in parallel to a mass of 0.500 kg. The mass is then pulled to the right and released. Find the period of the motion.

A mass of 0.300 kg is placed on a vertical spring and the spring stretches by 10.0 cm. It is then pulled down an additional 5.00 cm and then released. Find: a) K; b) ; c) frequency; d) T; e) max velocity; f) amax; g) Fmax ( ) (max restoring force); h) V f x = 2 00 cm; i f ) for 2.00 i) The equations for displacement, velocity and acceleration at any time

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The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion We saw that the acceleration of an object undergoing SHM is: a = 2 x If we apply Newton's second law we get: F = ma = m 2 x = ( m 2 ) x Simple harmonic motion occurs when the force acting on an object is proportional to the disaplacement but opposite in sign. The force can be written as: F = Cx sign written where C is a constant. If we compare the two expressions for F we have: m 2 = C and

T = 2

m C

Consider the motion of a mass m attached to a spring of srping constant k than moves on a frictionless f i t t th f i ti l horizontal floor as shown in the figure.
The net force F on m is given by Hooke s law: F = kx. If we compare this equation Hooke's with the expression F = Cx we identify the constant C with the sping constant k. We can then calculate the angular frequancy and the period T . C k = = m m m m and T = 2 = 2 C k

k = m

T = 2

m k

Problem 24

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Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion The mechanical energy E of a SHM is the sum of its potential and kinetic energies U and K .

1 2 1 2 kx k = k m cos 2 (t + ) kx 2 2 1 1 1 k 2 2 Kinetic energy K = mv 2 = m 2 xm sin 2 (t + ) = m xm sin 2 (t + ) 2 2 2 m 1 2 1 2 cos 2 (t + ) + sin 2 (t + ) = kxm Mechanical energy E = U + K = kxm 2 2 In h fi I the figure we plot the potential energy U ( l h i l (green li ) the kinetic energy K line), h ki i Potential energy U = P i l (red line) and the mechanical energy E (black line) versus time t. While U and K vary with time, the energy E is a constant. The energy of the oscillating object y , gy gy g j transfers back and forth between potential and kinetic energy, while the sum of the two remains constant
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Problem 35. A block of mass M =5.4 kg, at rest on a horizontal frictionless table, is attached to a rigid support by a string of constant k=6000 N /m. A bullet of mass m=9.5 g and velocity r v of magnit yde 630 m /s strikes and is em bedded in the block. A ssum ing the compression of block the spring is negligible untill the bullet is embedded, determine (a) the speed of the block immidiately after the collison, and (b) the amplitude of the resulting simple harmonic motion

The problem consists of two distinct parts: the completely inelastic collision (which is p p p y ( assumed to occur instantaneously, the bullet embedding itself in the block before the block moves through significant distance) followed by simple harmonic motion (of mass m + M attached to a spring of spring constant k). (a) Momentum conservation readily yields v = mv/(m + M). With m = 9.5 g, M = 5.4 kg and v = 630 m/s, we obtain v ' = 1.1 m/s. ( ) (b) Since v occurs at the equilibrium position, then v = vm for the simple harmonic q p , p motion. The relation vm = xm can be used to solve for xm, or we can pursue the alternate (though related) approach of energy conservation. Here we choose the latter:
1 1 2 1 m2v 2 1 2 2 = kxm ( m + M )( v ') = kxm ( m + M ) 2 2 2 2 (m + M ) 2

which simplifies to

xm =

mv k (m + M )

(9.5 103 kg)(630 m/s) (6000 N/m)(9.5 103kg + 5.4kg)

= 3.3102 m.
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An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator; Torsion Pendulum In the figure we show another type of oscillating system It consists of a disc of rotational inertia I suspended from a wire that twists as m rotates by an angle . The wire exerts on the disc a restoring torque = This is the angular form of Hooke's law. The constant

is called the torsion constant of the wire.

If we compare the expression = for the torque with the force equation p p q q F = Cx we realize that we identify the constant C with the torsion constant . We can thus readily determine the angular frequency and the period T of the oscillation. C I I T = 2 = = 2 I I C We note that I is the rotational inertia of the disc about an axis that coincides with with

the wire. The angle is given by the equation:

(t ) = m cos (t + )

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The Simple Pendulum A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m suspended by a string of length L from a pivot point. If the mass is point disturbed from its equilibrium position the net force acting on it is such that the system exectutes simple harmonic motion. There are two forces acting on m : The gravitational force and the tension from the string. The net torque of these forces is:

= r Fg = Lmg sin i

Here i the angle that the thread H is th l th t th th d 1 (say less than 5 ) then we can

makes with the vertical. If

g pp make the following approximation: sin where is expressed in radians. With this approximation the torque is:

( Lmg ) If we compare the expression for

with the force equation F = Cx we realize that we identify the constant C with the term Lmg. We can thus readily determine the angular frequency and the period T of the oscillation. = C mgL I I = ; T = 2 = 2 I I C mgL

In the small angle approximation we assumed that << 1 and used the approximation: sin We are now going to decide what is a small pp g g angle i.e. up to what angle is the approximation reasonably accurate?

(degrees)
5 10 15 20

(radians)
0.087 0.174 0.262 0.349

sin
0.087 0.174 0.259 (1% off) 0.342 (2% off)

Conclusion: If we keep < 10 we make less that 1 % error

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The rotational inertia I about the pivot point is equal to mL2 I mL2 = 2 Thus T = 2 mgL mgL Physical Pendulum A physical pendulum is an extened rigid body that is suspended from a fixed point O and oscillates under the influence of gravity The net torque = mgh sin Here h is the distance between point O and the center of mass C of the suspended body. If we make the small angle approximation 1, we have:

T = 2

L g

( mgh ) . If we compare the torques with the

force equation F = Cx we realize that we identify the constant C with the term hmg . We can thus readily determine period T of the oscillation. T = 2 I I = 2 g C mgh Here I is the rotational

I T = 2 mgh

inertia about an axis through O.

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Example 1: The pendulum can be used as a very simple device to measure the acceleration of gravity at a particular location. measure the length l of the pendulum and then set the pendulum into motion measure T by a clock

For a uniform rod of length L g 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 I = I com + mh = mL + m( L) = mL 12 2 3 I I 1/ 3mL2 L2 2L T = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 mgh C mgh 3g ( L / 2) 3g 8 2 L g= 3T 2

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Example : The Length of a Pendulum. A student is in an empty room. He has a piece of rope, a small bob, and a clock. Find the volume of the room.

1. 2. 3. 4.

From the piece of rope and a bob we make a simple pendulum We set pendulum into motion We measure period T by a clock We calculate the length of the pendulum (rope)

5. With a help of the rope of the known length we measure the ih h l f h f h k l h h dimensions of the room a x b x h and its volume V = a x b x h

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Pr oblem 44. A physical pendulum consists of a meter stick that is pivoted at a small hole drilled through the stick a distance d from the 50 cm mark. The period of oscillation is 2.5 s. Find Fi d d?

I T = 2 mgd
We use Eq. 15-29 and the parallel-axis theorem I = Icm + mh2 where h = d, the unknown. For a meter stick of mass m, the rotational inertia about its center of mass is Icm = mL2/12 where L = 1.0 m. Thus, for T = 2.5 s, we obtain
mL2 / 12 + md 2 L2 d T = 2 = 2 + . mgd 12 gd g

Squaring both sides and solving for d leads to the quadratic formula:
g T / 2 d 2 T / 2 L2 / 3 d= . 2
2 4

Choosing the plus sign leads to an impossible value for d (d = 1.5 > L). If we choose the minus sign, we obtain a physically meaningful result: d = 0.056 m.

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Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion Consider an object moving on a circular path of radius xm with a uniform speed v. If we project the position of the moving particle at point P on the x-axis we get point P. The coordinate of P is: x (t ) = xm cos (t + ) . While point P executes unifrom circular motion its projection P moves along the x-axis with simple harmonic motion. h i ti The speed v of point P is equal to xm . The direction of the velocity vector is along the tangent r to the circular path. If we project the velocity v on the x-axis we get: v (t ) = xmsin (t + ) r The Th acceleration a points along th center O. If we project l ti i t l the t O j t r a along the x-axis we get: a(t ) = 2 xm cos (t + ) Conclusion: Whether we look at the displacement ,the velocity, or the acceleration , the projection of uniform circular motion on the x-axis is SHM
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Damped Simple Harmonic Motion When the amplitude of an oscillating object is reduced due to the presence of an external force the motion is said to be damped. An example is given in the figure. A mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k oscillates vertically. vertically The oscillating mass is attached to a vane submerged in a r liquid. The liquid exerts a damping force Fd whose magnitude is given by the equation: Fd = bv
r The negative sign indicates that Fd opposes the motion of the oscillating mass. g g pp g The parmeter b is called the damping constant. The net force on m is: Fnet = kx bv From Newton's second law we have: dx d 2x kx bv = ma We substitute v with and a with 2 and get dt dt d 2x dx the following differential equation: m 2 + b + kx = 0 dt dt
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Newton's second law for the damped harmonic oscillator: d 2x dx m 2 + b + kx = 0 dt dt The solution has the form:

x(t ) = xm e bt / 2 m cos ( t + )

In the picture above we plot x(t ) versus t. We can regard the above solution as a cosine function with a time dependent amplitude xm e bt / 2 m . The angular time-dependent frequency of the damped harmonic oscillator is given by the equation: k b2 1 2 = For an undamped harmonic oscillator the energy E = kxm 2 m 4m 2 If the oscillator is damped its energy is not constant but decreases with time. p g p y g If the damping is small we can replace xm with xm e bt / 2 m By doing so we find that: E (t ) 1 2 bt / m kxm e The mechanical energy decreases exponentially with time 2
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Problem 59. The amplitude of a lightly damped oscillator decreases by 3.0% during each cycle. What percentage of the mechanical energy of the oscillator is lost in each cycle?

E =U + K =

1 2 kxm 2

Since the energy is proportional to the amplitude squared (see Eq. 15-21), we find the fractional change (assumed small) is
2 E E dE dx m 2 x m dx m dx = 2 = =2 m. 2 E E xm xm xm

Thus, if we approximate the fractional change in xm as dxm/xm, then the above calculation shows that multiplying this by 2 should give the fractional energy change. Therefore, if xm decreases by 3% then E must decrease by 6.0 %. 3%, 60%

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Moving support

Forced Oscillations and Resonance If an oscillating system is disturbed and then allowed to oscillate freely the corresponding angular frequency is called the natural frequency. The same system can also be driven as shown in the figure by a moving support that oscillates at an arbitrary angular frequency d . Such a forced oscillator oscillates at the angular frequency d of the driving force. The displacement is given by: x (t ) = xm cos ( t + ) The oscillation amplitude xm varies with the driving frequency as shown in the l ih h di i f h i h lower figure. fi The amplitude is approximatetly greatest when d = This condition is called resonance. All mechanical structures have one or more natural frequencies and if a structure is subjected to a strong external driving force whose frequency matches one of the natural frequencies, the resulting oscillations may damage the structure
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Problem 63. A 100 kg car carrying four 82 kg people travels over a "washboard" dirt road with corrugations 4.0 m apart. The car bounces with maximum amplitude when its speed is 16 km/h When the car stops, and the people get out how much does the car body rise km/h. stops out, on its suspension? k

With M = 1000 k and m = 82 kg, we adapt Eq. 15-12 to this situation by writing kg d k d t E 15 12 t thi it ti b iti

2 k = . T M + 4m

If d = 4.0 m is the distance traveled (at constant car speed v) between impulses, then we may write T = v/d, in which case the above equation may be solved for the spring constant:
2 v k 2 v = k = ( M + 4m ) . d M + 4m d
2

Before the people got out the equilibrium compression is xi = (M + 4m)g/k, and afterward out, 4m)g/k it is xf = Mg/k. Therefore, with v = 16000/3600 = 4.44 m/s, we find the rise of the car body on its suspension is 2 4 mg 4 mg d xi x f = = = 0.050 m. k M + 4 m 2 v

F I H K

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Problem 26. Two springs are joined in series and connected to a block of mass 0.245 kg that is set oscillating over a frictionless floor. The springs each have spring constant k=6430 N/m. What is the frequency of oscillations?

We wish to find the effective spring constant for the combination of springs shown in the figure. We do this by finding the magnitude F of the force exerted on the mass when the total elongation of the springs is x. Then keff = F/x. Suppose the left-hand spring is elongated by xl and the right-hand spring is elongated by xr. The left-hand spring exerts a force of magnitude kx l on the right-hand spring and the right-hand spring exerts a force of magnitude kxr on the left-hand spring. By Newtons third law these must be equal, so xl = xr . The two elongations must be the same and the total elongation is twice the elongation of either spring: x = 2 x l . The left-hand spring exerts a force on left hand the block and its magnitude is F = kx l . Thus keff = kxl / 2 xr = k / 2 . The block behaves as if it were subject to the force of a single spring, with spring constant k/2. To find the frequency of its motion replace keff in f = 1 / 2 keff / m with k/2 to obtain

f=

1 k . 2 2m

With m = 0.245 kg and k = 6430 N/m, the frequency is f = 18.2 Hz.

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