INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILES

Introduction to Textiles 1.0 2.0 Introduction to important of textiles. Different types of textile material and their end users. Brief idea about conversion of fibre bto fabric. Basic ideas about spinning, weaving, knitting, non-wovwn and other fabric manufacturing processes.
3.0

Overview of textile chemical processing. Brief ideas about bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing. Overview of garment and fashion design and technology. Career planning and employment opportunities in textile / related fields. Issue related to various sectors of textile industry.

4.0 5.0 6.0

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INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILES

Definitions of some important Terms

Textile: The word textile comes from the Latin word, Textile, and the French word Texere which means pertaining to weaving of the woven fabrics, woven or capable of being woven; formed by weaving. Hence the textiles are the materials that can be converted into yarns and fabrics of any nature or character.
Fibre:

It is one of the delicate, hair-like portions of the tissues of a plant or animal. A fibre is characterised by having a length of at least hundred times its diameter. Textile Fibre: Textile fibres are those fibres which can be spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by interlacing or interlooping in a variety of machines including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, bonding, etc. Technically the textile fibres must have a spinnable length. Staple: It is the name given to the fibres of lemited length. Staple fibres can renge from about 1cm to many centimeters in length (but not so long enough to be classified as filament). To make a continuous length of yarn , staple fibres are twisted together. Filament: It is the name given to a fibre of continuous length, that is to say, it is long enough to be used in a without increasing its length by adding other fibres to it. Yarn: It is an assemblage of fibres twisted or laid together to form continuous strand suitable for use in knitting, etc. Yarn can consist of either staple fibres, filaments or combination of the two.

fabric

weaving,

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEXTILE FIBRE A textile fibre should have two important characteristics : i) Essential Properties and ii) Desirable Properties. Essential Properties: a) Length: Length is an important parameter which determines the usefulness of a textile fibre. The length of the fibre should not be less than 5mm. The most useful fibre should have length to breath ratio of more than 100:1. Cotton = 1400, Wool = 3000, Silk = 33x106
b) Strength: A fibre for textiles must be strong. Its inherent high strength enables it to withstand the rigourous of the spinning (yarn or thread making), and weaving processes and to provide the desired strength in the woven cloth.

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Normally strength of a textile fibre is measured in tension when the fibre is loaded along its long axis and is designed as tensile strength. The unit of tensile strength is expressed in terms grams per denier or grams per tex unit.
c) Cohesiveness: It is the property of an individual fibre by virtue of which the fibres hold on to one another when the fibres are spun into yarn. This action is usually brought about by the high degree of frictional resistance offered by the surface of the fibres to separate one from another. Cotton = irregular rough surface / convolution. Wool = scaler (saw-toothed) surface, Synthetic = introduction of crimp. d) Flexibility: The fibre should be sufficiently pliable. Flexibility permits the fibres to be duly spun and woven and gives to the textile fabric its unique folding and draping characteristics. If the fibre is stiffer and wiry, it is less adaptable for textile use for, exqmple, glass and metallic fibres.

Desirable Properties: a) Fineness: Fineness of a fibre is a relative measure of size, diameter, linear density or weight per unit length expressed in a variety of units. Fineness has much role to determine properties and characteristics of particular fibre. Natural fibre vary in fineness more widely than manmade fibres, because in case of man-made fibres the diameter can be controlled vry accurately during their manufacture. Fineness of cotton fibre is expressed in micrograms per inch or per centimeter.(1 microgram = 106 gms., 1 micron = 10-4 cm).
b) Resilience: Resilience is the springing back of recovery of a fibre when it is released from a deformation. The reistance to compression, flexing, or torsion varies from fibre to fibre. Some fibres have a natural tendency to return to their original condition when any of the above mentioned forces is applied, a property known as resilience. c) Uniformity: Uniformity means the evenness of the individual fibres in length and diameter. Textile fibres should possess uniformity in the thickness and length of fibre. A fibre possessing this property can produce reasonably even thread. This is also imortant in connection with the strength of the resulting yarn. The more uniform the yarn the stronger the yarn. d) Porosity: Porosity can be defined as the ratio of the volume of air contained within the boundaries of the material to the total volume of a solid plua air or void, expressed percentage. Porosity facilitates the absorption of moisture, liquid lubricants, dyes, oils and steams by the fibres so as to thoroughly permeate the fibre. Porosity in a fibre is important in wet processing. In general natural fibre have higher porosity than synthetic fibres. e) Lusture: Natural lusture enhances the value of textile fibre especially of natural fibres. For example, the natural lusture of the silk gave it for a long time distinct advantage over the other textile fibres, and experiments were constantly made to improve the lusture of those fibres which were naturally dull.

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f) Durability: A textile fibre should withstand processing treatments and should not be easily susceptible to physical, chemical and bacteriological attack, which may result in damage and decomposition. The durability of clothing to average wear and tear depends somewhat more on the elasticity, flexibility and resistance of the fibre and fabric, rather than the absolute strength of either fibre or fabric. If a fabric possesses these three properties, its garment will absorb or counter more readily stresses and strains during wear. It will allow itself to be deformed with less resistance, thus reducing the chance of immediate tearing or twisting. g) Commercial Availability: All the essential and desirable propeties of a fibre put together will be much use only if the fibre is available in large quantities at fair price, when it is needed. The accurate estimate of the different type of fibres available for the consumption and the surce of availability makes the supply of commercial fibres to establish itself with reasonable assurance of exactness.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES Classsification of textile fibres can be done in many ways. Some of them are as follows: (a) According to their nature and origin. (b) According to botanical / zoological / chemical name. (c) According to the ability to attract water, i.e. moisture absorption. (d) According to their thermoplasticity. (e) According to their utility.

Classification according to their nature and origin

Advantages of Natural Fibres:

INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILES

They are abundantly available in nature. Only the man has to cultivate the plants or rear the animals. They possess some unique fibre properties which make them superior to manmade fibres in certain respects. Some of the natural fibres are very cheap and easy to dye. They readily absorb moisture and perspiration, provide great bodily comfort, generate no static charges during processing and produce no dermatological effect on human skin. Disadvantages of Natural Fibres: Production of natural fibres cannot be completely controlled by man. Natural fibres are not available in high tenacity (HT) and medium tenacity(MT). Natural fibres do not possess high degree of resiliency as compared to man made fibres. They possess less crease recovery.

Advantages of Manmade Fibres: Manmade fibres are produced in factories in which need not be too far from textile manufacturing areas. Specific qualities of fibres can be produced as required such as high degree of lustre or with reduced or completely dull lustre. Required staple length can be produced. Unlike natural fibres, the final product o0f man made fibres does not required cleaning. Most of the fibres are pure white or colourless when produced, but if necessary, colour can be incorporated. The control of quality and quantity that can be exercised in established manmade fibres tend to keep prices steady. Most of the synthetic fibres possess high resistance to moth mildew, insects, which simplifies storage problem. More durable, wrinkle resistance, better crease recovery, easy care problem. Disadvantages of Manmade Fibres: In some cases, fabrics made from a hundred percent manmade fibres are costlier than the hundred percent natural fibres as far as India is concerned. This is mainly because of the high cost of raw materials, chemicals, and intermediate, plus heavy excise burden levied at every stage. They contain chemicals which may harm our skin. In general, manmade fibres are hydrophobic in nature. This is necessarily a advantages when their products have to be worn next to skin. Seam do not hold tight as in natural fibre fabrics. Most of the man made fibre fabrics fail to provide warmth to the wearer.

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Importance of Textile: Textiles have such an important bearing on our daily lives that everyone needs to know something about them. People used textiles of various types for covering, warmth, personal adornment, and even to display personal wealth. We often only consider textiles to be the clothes we wear. Obviously, the clothing industry is where the majority of textiles are produced and used. However, textiles are also important in all aspects of our lives from birth to death. There are some important roles that textiles play in other industries are: (a) Food industry: Farmers wear protective clothing to spray their crops with pesticides. Textiles are used to cover plants and wrap trees for protection from weather and insects. Coffee filters and tea bags are made of a non-woven textile. (b) Building materials: Textiles are used in our homes to insulate them from heat and cold. Textiles are also used in furniture, roofing materials, wire coverings, wall coverings, blinds, air ducts and window screens. (c) Transportation: In roads, in tires, interiors of all types of transportation vehicles are covered with textiles. Textiles are also used in brake lining, gaskets, seals, seat belts, air bags and filter of vehicles. (d) Health industry (medical textile): Textiles are used as life saving devices in the healthcare industry. For example, artificial kidney, artificial heart(50% textile), artificial arteries, sutures, bandages and gloves etc. (e) Protective materials: Bulletproof dress, fire fighter and race car drivers dress, astronauts dress, sports players protective helmets and pads etc. (f) Recreational products: Sports equipment such as sailboats, hockey sticks. fishing rods, tennis rackets etc and also life jackets and artificial playing surfaces are made of textile fibres. (g) Miscellaneous textile products: Other products composed of textiles that are not usually thought of as textile products are as follows: toothbrushes, hair brushes, artificial flowers, book bindings, communication lines, circuit boards etc. So it is seen that everyone of us are an ultimate consumers. Hence, a study of textile is important as it will show Why certain fabrics are more durable ? Why certain fabrics are more serviceable for specific purposes? Why certain fabrics make cool or warm wearing apparel ? Therefore, a complete knowledge of textile will facilitate : an intelligent appraisal of standards and brand of merchandise and will develop the ability to distinguished quality in fabrics and, in turn, to appreciate the proper uses for the different qualities. As a result, both the consumer merchant and consumer customer, will know how to buy and what to buy, and sales, people will know how to render good service to those consumers who have not had the advantage of formal course in textiles. The importance of textiles also meets another need, which is employment. Today, the textile industry employs over 1.4 million people, more than any other industry.

COTTON
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Introduction: Natural Fibre, Vegetable Fibre Colour: American- white, Egyptian- light cream, Indian- light grey. Cellulosic Fibre (88-97%) Seed Fibre Mono-cellular Staple Fibre Botanical Name: Gossypium Cultivated in India, Pakistan, Mexico and Peru 5000 years ago. Indian Variety: Shankar-6, Shankar-4, DCH, J-34, F-414 etc Defined as white fibrous substance covering seeds harvested from cotton plant. Grown in about 80 countries. Properties: Physical : o Staple length: 1.5 5.0 cm and above. o Cellulose contain: 88-97%. o Tenacity: 3-5 g/denier (dry). o Breaking elongation: 5-7%. o Good moisture absorption qualities (7-8%). o Soft, comfortable to wear. o Easy to handle and sew. Chemical: o Effect of acids: Weakens and destroyed by acids. Acids hydrolyse the cotton polymer. o Effect of alkalies: Cotton fibres are resistant to alkalies and are unaffected by normal laundering. o Effect of mildew: Readily attack by moth and mildew. o Effect of Light: Prolonged exposure to sunlight weakens the cotton due to the formation of degradation products of cellulose. o Effect of heat: Can be heated upto 150C without any damage. It scorches at 245C and burns. Uses: Cotton is exclusively used in Apparel fabrics for men and women wears: shirts, blouses, dresses, childrens wear, swimwear, suits, jackets, skirts, pants, neckwear etc. Household fabrics: like bed sheets, towels, curtains, rugs and carpets. Industrial application: Tyre cords, bags, shoes and medical supply and equipments. Cotton is blended with other man-made fibres like polyester, viscose acrylic etc to be used for variety of purposes.

JUTE Introduction: Cellulosic fibre (55-63%, hemi-cellulose- 20-24%), vegetable type bast fibre Colour: varies from yellow to brown to dirty grey. 5-10 feet high Obtained from the inner bark of the jute plant Multi-cellular fibre

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Properties: Physical: Staple length- 0.1 inch Diameter- 12 micron Moisture regain- highly hygroscopic, 12-14% at standard condition Strength 3.5-7 gpd Chemical: Dilute organic acid has no reaction at cold. With strong acids at boil hydrocellulose is formed. Strong alkalis degrade strength. More resistance to microbiological attack than cotton. Very good insulator of heat and electricity. Uses: Widely used for transporting and storage of products Due to cheap, strong, durable, non-slip nature low breaking elongation jute is ideally suitable for racks and bales for packaging purpose In woven carpets, geo-textiles, and filter, mats used as warp , weft or pile. As cordage in domestic ropes, twines etc Jute waste is used as stiffer in seats In furnishing and curtain fabric. In bleached with wool to provide cheap woven apparel fabrics.

FLAX Introduction: Annual plant Maximum height of 100cm Bast fibre Linen fibre is obtained from the outer cover of the flax plant. Stiff in nature. Properties: Physical: Able to absorb and desorbs water (10-12% M.R) rapidly S.L = 6-40 inch Average dia.= 11-20 micron Yellowish to grey colour. Strength= 4.8 6.0 gpd (20% strength when wet than dry). Chemical: High resistance to biological attack. It is partly like jute and partly similar to cotton.

Uses: As table cloths, napkins, towels, sail cloth, fishing lines, tent fabric, sewing thread, pillow covers, sheets and decorative coverings. NKS, ATI, GHY Page 8

INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILES

Linen fibre thread is used for stitching aircraft and railway carriage, upholstery, carpet, suitcase, life belts, tarpaulins, footballs, and cricket balls. Waste flax fibre can be pulped and made into high grade high strength bank-note, cigarette and writing papers.

RAMIE Introduction: Vegetable origin bast fibre Multi-cellular fibre 4 6 feet height Grown chiefly in India, China and neighbouring country. Chinese variety often known as China grass Properties: Physical: Coarse, strongest and durable of all vegetable fibres. Cell length: 40-45 cm, diameter: 0.04-.06 mm Stiff with silky nature Strength- 5.33-7.4gpd, wet strength is 30-40% more than dry strength Chemical: Unshrinkable and highly resistant to biological attack. Cold and warm weak mineral acids have no effect on fibre whereas dilute hot alkali, there is little loss of fibre. Uses: Mainly used to make ropes, strings and fishing nets, sail cloths, sacks, and carpets and paper making. In China it is used for making grass cloth and white summer cloth.

SILK Introduction: Discovered in ancient Chineese. Queen of the fibres Chief producing countries: China, India, USSR, Japan, Italy and France etc. Two major varieties of silk: cultivated (mulberry silk) and wild silk(Tussar, Muga, Eri). It is the only natural filament fibre. A cocoon contain about 2700-4500mts of continuous filament, only approximately 900mts suitable for filament silk. Fibroin is the main composition and sericine is the gummy substance present in silk. Properties: Physical: Consists of double fibre strand. Thickness is about 0.00054 - 0.0018 inch. Colour and lustre: yellowish in colour and having bright lustre. Strength: exceptionally strong having tensile strength of 2.5 -5.0 gpd. NKS, ATI, GHY Page 9

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Moisture regain 11%. Elongation 10-25%. Chemical: Effect of light: gets weakened. Effect of heat: begins to yellow. Above 330 F disintegrates. Effect of water: temporarily loss of strength upto 10-25%. Effect of acids: Light mineral acids(sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid) do not injure even at boil, but concentrated acids destroy the silk. Effect of alkalis: alkalies weaken silk, strong alkalies gets damaged. Effect of mildew: slightly attacked by moth and mildew. Uses: Strong, an elastic and resilient properties together with fineness, high degree of lustre, softness and superb drape enables silk to be convert into many beautiful types of fabrics: Apparel : dresses, blouses, skirts, jackets, sarees, scarves, ties etc. Home fashion: curtains, draperies, upholstery (voil, chiffon, georgette, brocade, velvet etc.).

WOOL INTRODUCTION: Mesopotamia is the birth place of the wool. Australia produces fine wool(marino) + Newzealand 40%, USSR -18%, Argentina -7%. Main protein- keratin(protein):33% (a giant molecule composed of a number of -amino acids). Wool is the only fibre containing sulphur, its chemical composition C,N,O & S.

Properties: Physical: Average length: 1-3 inches in woollen, 3-8 inches in worsted.(Shorter fibres are used chiefly in woollens and the longer ones are used primarily in worsted) Dia.- 0.001-0.003 cm in fine; 0.001-0.007cm in carpet wool. Colour: white or light cream, but some breeds may have brown and black colour. Tenacity: 1-1.8gpd. It has a natural crimp Naturally elastic and resilience Many unique properties: rapid wrinkle recovery, durability, bulk, loft, warmth and resistance to abrasion. It has felting property. Chemical: Easily absorb up to 30% of its weight without feeling damp or clammy. It resists flame without chemical treatment Effect of heat: heating in water or steam for some time would make wool lose its strength. Effect of acids: decompose completely in hot concentrated sulphuric acid. Effect of alkalis: strong alkalis attack wool and dissolve it very rapidly. Effect of insect and microorganism: insects cause an immense damage to wool and woollen products. NKS, ATI, GHY Page 10

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Uses: Wool fibre can be processed both on woollen system and worsted system. So depending on the types of yarn its uses can be differed. Resilience, bulk and ease in handling make it the most appropriate in knitting goods. Mens and womens suitings, overcoat, sweater, upholstery fabric and blankets.

COIR Introduction: Natural, cellulosic base, vegetable origin, fruit fibre. Obtained from the shell of the coconut. Properties: Fibre length: 3-25cm Tenacity: 1.2-1.4gpd. Extension at break: 22-35% Uses:

For upholstery, cordage, brushes, mats, carpets, ropes, packing material for thermal insulation, stiffing for cushions, and mattresses which provide more comfort on being rubberised.

POLYESTER Introduction: PET- PolyEthylene Tere-phthalate Raw Material: DMT (Dimethyl Terephthalate) / Terephthalic Acid Discovered In : 1941, by J.R Whinfield and J.J. Dickson of USA Commercial Production in 1950 Trade Name: Terene/Futura(India), Terylene(UK), Dacron(USA), Properties: Physical: Tenacity: 2.56 gpd (normal), 7-9 (High tenacity), Moisture Regain: 0.4% Elongation at Break: Normal- 15-20%, High Tenacity- 7-12% Elastic Recovery: 97 at 2% elongation, 80 at 8% elongation. Hot Air Shrinkage: 3% at 100 C while shrinkage in boiling water is 6%. Static and pilling problem Abrasion Resistance: High but less compared to Nylon Chemical: Strong acids and alkalies attack PET fibres and weaken them by hydrolysis PET is resistant to normal laundering chemicals and is highly resistant to pest and microorganism attack. Excellent heat setting properties.

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Uses: Polyester fibres are extensively used as a filament or as a staple fibre or in blends with cellulosic fibres, wool or other fibres for apparel of all types like dresses, sportswear, suits, shirts, childrens wear, pants etc. The fibre is also used in home furnishing: curtains, draperies, floor coverings etc, and in industrial fabrics like tyre-cord, ropes, threads, conveyor belts, fire fighting hose etc.

POLYAMIDE Introduction: First manmade organic textile fibre wholly from raw materials from the mineral kingdom (coal, air, and water) Nylon contains atoms of C, H, O, and N. Different nylons are depending on the number of carbon atoms present in the molecule of starting materials. Ex.- Nylon 6.6 ( Hexamethylene diamine : 6 carbon atom per molecule- H2N(CH2)6NH2 + Adipic acid: : 6 carbon atom per molecule- HOOC(CH2)4COOH Nylon 6 (caprolactum) Properties:

Light weight Easy to wash Good drapeability Good abrasion resistant High strength and modulus(indicate great extensibility and vice versa) Fast drying, low moisture absorbency Good wear resistance Low density Resistance to damage from oil, dilute acid (mineral) and alkalis Excellent resistant to most organic solvents

Disadvantages: Static and pilling can be a problem Poor resistance to continuous sunlight.

Major End-uses: Apparel: Swimwear, sportswear, foundation garments, blouses, pants, jackets, skirts, childrens wear etc. Home Fashions: Carpets, rugs curtains, upholstery, draperies, bedspreads etc. Industrial :

Tyre cords, life vests, umbrellas, tents, sleeping bags, tooth brushes, gloves, fishing nets etc. Automotive furniture and others:
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Bearings, slides, door handles, locks, hangers, chairs, combs, film sheet and many defence related applications.

ACRYLIC Introduction: First produced in 1948 Trade name: Orlon, Darlon, Acrylon, Indacryl, Suprecryl Acrian, Creslon, Zefran etc. Polyvinyl derivatives Vinyl fibres Acrylonitrile is the main raw materials(at least 85% plus no more than 15% copolymer) Acrylic fibre manufactured by different producers i.e. vary over a wide range. Properties: Physical:

Moisture regain: 15% Elongation at break: 20-50% Elastic recovery: 90-95% at 1% elongation, 50% at 10% elongation Light weight, soft, warm with a wool like. Dyes to bright colour with excellent fastness Good resiliency, retains shape, resist shrinkage & wrinkles.

Chemical: Stable in dilute acid & alkali but attacked by concentrated acid / alkali. Resistant to attack by moth, insects and micro-organism. Superior resistance to sunlight degradation. Disadvantages: Static and pilling can be a problem. Uses: Acrylic fibres have replaced wool in many major applications, especially in hand knitting and hosiery garments. For making knitwears, sportswear, blankets, flocked velvets and simulated fur fabrics, dress materials and suitings, wigs, childrens wear, swim-suits, pullovers, draperies, furnishings and industrial fabrics. In carpets it is widely used for providing a heavy and durable fabrics as it gives good photostability, good texture retention, resistance to staining, good elastic recovery and even more easy cleaning.

Some Facts: A single wool fibre can sustain a dead weight of 15-30 grams ( silk- 5-20 gms) Strength Rank: Nylon: 1st Rank Silk: 2nd Wool: 3rd For Major Textile fibres Only Rayon: 4th Cotton: 5th NKS, ATI, GHY Page 13

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BASIC IDEAS OF SPINNING Yarn Manufacturing Process STAPLE YARN Ring Spinning (conventional) Open end spinning Friction spinning (DREF_II) Self twist spinning (wool and wool like fabric) Electrostatic spinning Vortex spinning Airjet spinning Twistless spinning FILAMENT SPINNING Wet Spinning Dry Spinning Melt Spinning NEW SPINNING Aerodynamic Spinning Untwisted multifilament cores covered with twisted and entangled staple fibre.

Ring Spinning ( for cotton fibre)

Blow room(Lap)

Carding (Sliver) Combing (Sliver)

Draw Frame (Sliver)

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Speed Frame (Roving)

Ring Frame (Yarn)

BLOW ROOM Functions of Blow Room: Opening: To reduce the hard pressed bales of cotton to the smallest possible tuft size. Cleaning: To remove the maximum possible trash and foreign matters with least possible amount of lint loss and damage to fibres. Blending: To blend the different cottons in the mix thoroughly in order to get consistently uniform yarn quality. Lap formation: To produce even, uniform and compact laps suitable for carding. These functions are accomplished through a series of continuous series of stages. The type and no of machines in a blow room and their sequence depend upon the kind of cotton or fibre which is to be processed. Opening M/Cs: Hoper Bale Breaker, Hoper Feeder, Vertical Opener, Porcupine Opener, 3-Bladed Beater, Krishner Beater, SRRL Opener, Shirley Opener, ERM Cleaner. For Medium Grade Cotton: Sequence of Machineries in blow room

Bale Opener Blender Hopper Feeder Porcupine Opener Crighton Opener Hoper Feeder Porcupine Hopper Feeder with reserve feed and delivery Opener Krishner Beater Hopper Feeder with reserve feed and delivery Scutcher & Lap former

CARDING The initial process of arranging the fibres in a parallel fashion is known as carding. Hence, the objects of the carding machines are as follows: To open and loosen the fibres more completely, even to individual fibres. To clean the cotton further by removing dirt, sand, leaf, neps, short fibres, left in cotton by the blow room machinery. To convert the lap into a round strand of loose, soft cotton known as the sliver.

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COMBING When the fibres is intended for fine yarns , the card sliver is put through an additional straightening called combing. That means the process of combing is introduced for reducing the short fibre content in the material and for improving the fibre configuration (alignment to the sliver axis). Above 36s count generally combing operation is included. Sequence of machines for Comber Lap preparation: a) Sliver lap machine Ribbon lap machine b) Draw Frame Super Lap Machine c) Draw Frame Lap Former d) Three Draw Frame Lap Former

( Lap Size: 18 x 20 cm )

DRAW FRAME Functions of Draw Frame: i. To improve the uniformity or evenness of the slivers fed and ii. To make the fibres parallel to each other and to the axis of the sliver. The uniformity is achieved by doubling and parallelisation by drafting. Doubling: feeding several fibres together into drafting zone for each end delivered. Drafting: it is the process of attenuation or decreasing the weight/unit length of sliver, by passing the sliver through a pairs of rollers (in increasing speeds) where one pair has a higher surface speed than the other.

V1

V2

V1 & V2 Surface speed of Bottom Roller V1 < V2

SPEED FRAME Functions of Speed Frame: Drawing: to reduce the size of the strand. Twisting: to give necessary strength for further handling, without stretching. Winding & Building: to build a suitable package for spinning. RING FRAME: Functions of Ring Frame: Drafting: to draft the roving to the desired degree of fineness or count of final yarn. Twisting: to impart the requisite strength to the yarn appropriately inserting the required amount of twist. Winding: to wind the twisted yarn in a suitable package.

SPINNING OF WOOLLEN FIBRES Sorting Wool Scouring Carbonizing Oiling & Soaping Blending (mixing) Wool Willow Carding(roller & Clearer) Spinning (by Mule or Flyer). NKS, ATI, GHY Page 16

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Additional process of combing and drawing for drawing purposes).

FABRIC STRUCTURE There are 2-types of fabric structures, namely1. Fabrics made with yarns 2. Fabrics made without yarns.

Fabrics made with yarns Method a) Interlacing b) Interloping c) Inter-twisting Fabrics made without yarns a) Felting b) Bonding c) Resin Compound / Laminating

Process Weaving Knitting Twisting /Knotting

Product Woven Fabrics Knitted Fabrics Nets/Laces / Braided /Crotchet etc

Fulling Adhesion or entangling Calendaring

Felt fabrics Non-woven fabrics Plastic sheets and films

Different Techniques for Fabric Production: Weaving Knitting Braiding Crocheting Laminated Knotting (or netting)

WEAVING Weaving is the process of interlacing the two series of threads known as warp and weft the series of threads run from the back to the front of the loom i.e lengthwise of the fabric are called the warp. The crosswise yarns are called weft or pilling. Fabrics are woven on a loom: In a loom there are three types of motion: i) Primary or Fundamental - Shedding, Picking and Beating-up. ii) Secondary or Subsidiary: Let-off, Take-up. iii) Auxiliary motion: Warp stop motion, Weft stop, Temple, Warp Protector, Drop Box etc. (NB : Elaborate) Types of Loom: HANDLOOM Through shuttle NKS, ATI, GHY Page 17

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Fly-shuttle Frame loom Pit loom Loin loom POWERLOOM SHUTTLE LOOM Plain Powerloom Semi-automatic Automatic SHUTTLELESS LOOM Airjet Waterjet Projectile, Rapier/Gripper Multiphase Loom

Weaving process involves the following steps: Yarn Preparation

Warp Preparation Sizing Winding Warping & Beaming Drafting & Denting Gaiting up & looming Weaving (Fabric) Fig.: Steps in woven fabric production

Weft Preparation

Pirn Winding

Warp Preparation: The object of warp preparation is to transfer yarn from the spinners package to a weavers beam which can be placed behind a loom ready for weaving. Weft Preparation: The object of weft preparation is to prepare the weft which is suitable for weft insertion. Sizing: To improve the weavability of yarn through reduction of end breaks. To make the yarn strengthen. To improve the abrasion resistance of the yarn. To add the extra weight to the cloth if necessary.

Winding (warp): To transfer the yarn from any form of package i.e. ring bobbin, mule cops, hanks to a suitable form of good package that contain long length of yarn and unwind well during warping. To remove objectionable yarn faults such as slubs, neps, thick and thin place, snarls, foreign materials etc and wound under uniform tension producing a compact yarn. Winding (weft): To wind yarn into a compact packages called pirn, suitable for the loom shuttle. NKS, ATI, GHY Page 18

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To get a longer length of yarn compared to spinners package and at the same time wound under even tension. To wind yarn which is free from defects such as thick and thin places, slubs, neps etc. Warping: The object of warping is to convert a predetermined number of ends, into a sheet of yarn of specified length and width. Two basic systems: (i) Direct System and (ii) Indirect System

KNITTING Knitting is a process of manufacturing a fabric by the intermeshing of loops of yarns. When one loop is drawn through another loop, a stitch is formed in a horizontal or in a vertical direction. Two types of knitted fabric: i) Warp Knitted and ii) Weft Knitted. Weft knitted fabric is formed from a single yarn which makes a horizontal row of loops, one row of which is drawn into the next until a coherent fabric is formed. Warp knitted fabric is formed from a series of loops produced lengthwise in chain formation with one yarn for each chain. Hence warp knitting requires a number of yarns , one for each vertical row of loops.

BRAIDING ~ is a simple form of narrow fabric construction. Strands are parallel together by criss-crossing them diagonally and lengthwise. In braiding technique three or more yarns are interlocked so that each yarn passes over and under one or more of the others. Braided are divided into two types:i) Flat braided and ii) Round Braided Uses: Ribbon, tapes, cables, parachute, functional, industrial etc.

LACE FABRIC ~ are formed by twisting two sets of threads together at intervals; both set of threads are warp threads, there being no weft in lace constructions. The warp threads are divided into two groups for lace making, namely warps and bobbin warps. The former are wound on beams whereas latter are wound on small bobbins(120 yds). NKS, ATI, GHY Page 19

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CROCHETING: ~ is a construction made with just one hook or needle. A chain of loops is formed from a single yarn. Eg. Like flower in window curtain.

KNOTTING (OR NETTING) ~ is a process of forming an open work fabric or net by tying yarns together where they cross one another. Tatting is a form of knotted lace that is made with a shuttle fitted with yarns.

BONDING ~ is a process of joining two or more layers of cloth together with a layer adhesive, or pressing fibres into thin webs or mats that are held together by adhesive, plastic or self bonding agents. FELT ~ fabric consists of an entangled mass of animal hairs entwined and interlocked into a compact mass in a irregular manner, under the action of moisture, heat and intermittent pressure. Felts are generally thick and weighty, but they lack porosity. Felts do not require the use of yarns in their manufacture but may be made directly from certain animal hairs which possess a scale structure. NON WOVEN ~ are products made of parallel laid, cross laid or random laid fibre webs bonded with applied adhesive or thermoplastic fibres under application of heat and pressure. In 1942, in USA : Commercial production Types : Mechanically bonded non-woven, Adhesive bonded, Laminated fabric.

Difference between Knitted and Woven fabrics Knitted 1 2 3 4 Produced by interloping technique Soft or limp Highly extensible (specially weft knitted), warp knitted fabrics are similar to woven fabric with little more extensible than woven fabric Knitted fabrics are more air permeable Woven Fabrics Produced by interlacing technique Rigid and stiffer Less extensible Less air permeable

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PROCRSSING DEPARTMENT The success of a processing department i.e. wet processing of textile fibre is depend upon the kinds of flow of materials through the departments and their satisfactory completion in each treatment.

The Wet processing sequence (for cotton) most generally followed is:

SHEARING & CROPING To remove the long lose ends of yarn and cutting the small end of yarn by brush and cutters. SINGEING ~ is the process of removing the protruding cotton fibres for getting the clean cloth. Types of Singeing : Plate singeing, Roller singeing, Gas singeing) DESIZING The purpose of desizing is to remove the sizing materials deposited on the yarn. The sizing materials are removed either by the action of chemicals or by certain enzymatic preparation. SCOURING ~ is to remove the natural and other impurities associated with the cotton fibre. Main chemical used: Caustic Soda + Supported alkaline substance Soda ash, Sodium silicate, Trisodium phosphate. BLEACHING ~ is whitening the textile material by the destruction of the residual colouring impurities present in the fabric. Chemical Used: Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl), Bleaching Powder, Hydrogen Peroxide(universal Blg. agent) NKS, ATI, GHY Page 21

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DYEING The main object of dyeing is the uniform colouration of the entire fabric with a primary, secondary or tertiary colour. Dyes: Synthetic and Natural Dyes Natural Dyes: Blue Indigo Red Lac-dye(coccus laccae), cochineal, kermes. Yellow Black oak, turmeric.

Fig. Classification of Synthetic Dyes

Direct: Acid: Soluble in water Apply on wool, silk, nylon etc. Basic: Reactive: Vat: Most brilliant dye Poor light fastness No affinity for cellulosic fibre Water soluble Chemically react the dye with fibre. Insoluble in water Most important dye for cotton and other cellulosic fibre. Good fastness property Water soluble Having affinity for cellulosic fibres like cotton, viscose etc. These are sodium salts of aromatic sulphonic acid. Poor washing fastness and poor light fastness.

PRINTING ~ is applying colour(s) in definite, repeated pattern to fabric, yarn or fibre by any one of a number of printing methods.

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Difference between dyeing & printing Dyeing Uniform dyeing with solid colour Whole of the cloth is immersed in an aqueous solution of dyestuff Single colour in even and uniform throughout the lot Dilute dyestuff solution used Fairly long distance travelled by the dye molecules Printing Localised dyeing in definite, repeated pattern Thickened colours or moderate are applied locally Attractive design & effect in single or multi-colour can be produced Fairly concentrated thickener film is used Dye molecules travel a very short distance before they are absorbed by fibre surface

FINISHING ~ the object of finishing is to improve the appearance and / or serviceability of the fabric. Types of finishing: i) Temporary finish: A finish which is not stable and goes off during subsequent washing and usage, then it is called temporary finish. For example: Mechanical Calendaring, embossing etc. Chemical Starching(for stiff), softening

ii) Permanent finishing: If the finishing effect in the fabric does not disappear and remains unaffected through all the conditions of wear and washing treatments, then the finish is said to be a permanent finish. For example:Mechanical: Sanforising, milling etc, Chemical : Water-proof, flame-proof, crease recovery, crease resistance. iii) Semi-permanent: A finishing on the fabric is said to be semi-permanent fabric, if it is stable to more than 5 10 washes and not afterwards. For example: Schreiners Calendering( beautiful silk like lustre), buckram finish (collar cloth high stiff).

COLOUR FASTNESS PROPERTY Washing fastness: Loss of colour during laundering. Light fastness: Fading in sunlight Perspiration fastness: loss of colour in oil, fat, saline etc Fastness to other agents: dry cleaning fastness sea water chlorinated water (swimming pool) rubbing pressing burnt gas fumes to certain chemical compounds.

FASHION DESIGN Fashion design is the applied art dedicated to the design of clothing and lifestyle accessories created within the cultural and social influences of a specific time. Fashion designers may work under their own name, or for another designer name or brand. NKS, ATI, GHY Page 23

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Fashion designers develop new styles and products for clothing apparel and accessories by creating original designs or by adopting fashions to suit local conditions, trends and buyers. The designer begins the designing process only after through market research i.e. understanding the need of the client / market in terms of changing trends, budgets etc. Some important types of fashion: Houte Couture: Predominated until the 1950s was made to-wear. A couture garment is made for and individual customer. Mass Market: It is for a wide range of customers, producing ready to-wear clothes in large quantities and standard sizes. Cheap material, creatively used, produce affordable fashion. Ready-to-wear: Ready-to-wear clothes are a cross between couture and mass market. They are not made for individual customer, but great care is taken in the choice and cut of the fabric. Clothes are made in small quantities to guarantee exclusive. So, they are rather costly.

Designing a Collection:

1. Planning a Collection: Every collection is very carefully researched and planned so that all the items in it complement each other, and have the particular fashion look which the company is known for. 2. Predicting Trend: One of the hardest skills a fashion designer has to master in predicting future trends. To do this, they look at what the fashion directions have been in previous seasons, keep an eye on what others in the fashion business are doing and read fashion forecasting magazines. 3. Choosing a Theme: The theme of a collection can be a period in history, a foreign place, a range of colours, a type of fabric anything which has a strong visual impact.

GARMENT DESIGN

1. The Design: Different designers work in different ways. Some sketch their ideas on paper, others drape fabric on a dress stand, pinning, folding and tucking it until the idea for a garment emerges. A third method is to adopt their own patterns from previous seasons. 2. Making a Toil: After making a rough paper pattern, or life-size 2-D plan, of the garment, a sample machinist then makes a trial version of the garment from plain coloured calico. The toil is put on to a dress stand (or a modal) to see how it fits and whether it hangs property. 3. Making a Card Pattern: When the designer is completely satisfied with the fit of the toile, they show it to a professional pattern maker who then makes the finished, working version of the pattern out of card. 4. The Finished Dress: Finally, a sample garment is made up in the proper fabric.

CAREERS IN FASHION The fashion industry as we know it today began Charles Frederick Worth, the Father of Haute Couture, who established the first fashion house in 1858. Fashion is in the sky, in the street, fashion has to do with ideas, the way we live, what is happening, said Coco Chanel, legendary fashionist. Fashion careers of are essentially of two typesi) those in Fashion Design and ii) those in the Sales and marketing side of the industry. NKS, ATI, GHY Page 24

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The skills necessary for fashion design and fashion merchandising are quite different, although to master one requires a good understanding of the other. Fashion design is the most important area of work in fashion industry, designing involves in the various fields of specialisation like garments, footwear, jewellery and even language. It is a challenging field as it requires the coordination of various jobs, in small concerns it is usually a one man show but in big organisation the jobs are specialised and allotted to different personnel. Manufacturing involves purchasing textile and fabric required for the design and making the garment according to master pattern. The various placement may be in garment, leather and jewellery industry or merchandising executives, fashion designer, illustrator, fashion co-ordinators etc. Some prominent Institute in Fashion Technology are National Institute of Fashion technology (NIFT) National Institute of Design (NID) International Institute of fashion Technology (IIFT), New Delhi IEC School of Art and Fashion, New Delhi Indian Institute of Art and Fashion Technology (IIAFT), Mumbai Pearl Academy of Fashion , New Delhi Etc.

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